BUDDHISM: A NEW FRONTIER IN THE CHINA-INDIA RIVALRY
J AYA D E VA R A N A D E
For both China and India, Buddhism is a useful enhancer of cultural soft power. The religion has, over the
past decade, increased in importance for India as New Delhi tries to re-energize the religious tradition
and integrate it into the country’s cultural strength; for China, meanwhile, Buddhism is an important
means of soothing domestic discontent and staving off risks to its territorial integrity. Buddhism, which
China has begun describing as an “ancient Chinese religion” and allowing its citizens freedom to practice,
is especially significant for China in preserving domestic social stability and diffusing restiveness in the
Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) and Tibetan areas elsewhere in China. China is also using Buddhism
to increase its influence in nearby regions by acquiring predominant access to powerful Buddhist
organizations. Meanwhile India, which has been home to Buddhism since its birth, sees Buddhism as a way
of strengthening its relationship with Southeast Asian nations and as a means of preserving the religious
and cultural practices of the Tibetan Buddhist people who have sought refuge in India.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DALAI LAMA The Dalai Lama’s status in relation to China has remained
unsettled for centuries, as successive Dalai Lamas have
Central to these matters is the fourteenth Dalai Lama, who
contested China’s sovereignty over Tibet. For their part,
is recognized as the reincarnated traditional leader of Tibetan
Chinese emperors historically considered Tibet a part of
Buddhism and who remains the most prominent figure in the
China. The seventh-century marriage of Chinese Princess
religious tradition today. The present Dalai Lama’s advancing
Wencheng, niece of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty,
age underscores the increasingly crucial and time-sensitive
to Songtsän Gampo, who is credited with bringing Buddhism
issue of who will identify his reincarnation. Communist
to Tibet, is portrayed by the Chinese Communist leadership
China sees this as an opportunity to finally resolve the
as an attempt to civilize and project influence over Tibet.
nettlesome issue of the Dalai Lama’s status vis-à-vis Beijing
so as to enhance its political control over Tibet. Chinese Centuries later, China occupied Tibet in 1950, but the
government officials have publically declared that China Chinese leadership has not been able to calm the situation
will appoint the next Dalai Lama, who will be born in China. in Tibet or win over the Tibetans and get them to accept their
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Jayadeva Ranade is a former additional secretary in the Cabinet Secretariat, Government of India and is presently president
of the Center for China Analysis and Strategy.
presence. In fact, Beijing has long feared the possibility of Buddhism, namely the Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma, and Sakya,
a secessionist movement in Tibet. As a result, Beijing is keen in addition to the many other high-ranking Tibetan lamas.
to have the fourteenth Dalai Lama return to China before The main monasteries of these four sects are all, however,
his death as a symbolic recognition of Chinese sovereignty located in Tibet.
over Tibet. Failing that, China is intent on appointing the
next Dalai Lama in an attempt to try to directly control
BUDDHISM IN INDIAN
the Tibetan religious hierarchy under his leadership. Apart
AND CHINESE DIPLOMACY
from the Dalai Lama, China, incidentally, hosts the Panchen
Lama—the second highest ranking figure in Tibetan India has been promoting Buddhist thought and culture
Buddhism—as well as 870 rimpoches (also known as in recent years. In November 2011, with assistance from
tulkus or living Buddhas). the Indian government, an organization called the Global
Buddhist Congregation (GBC) helped bring representatives
of a multitude of Buddhist traditions together in one
INDIA’S BUDDHIST LEGACY
overarching body. Roughly 900 patriarchs, supreme
Like China, India has deep historical connections to patriarchs, and high-ranking monks of various Buddhist
Buddhism, which modern policymakers can draw on in traditions from around the world attended the GBC in
efforts to enhance the country’s soft power. Buddhism has New Delhi, making it one of the largest gatherings of
provided a quiet but resilient foundation to India’s centuries- Buddhist leaders since the time of King Asoka (268–232
old cultural links to countries in South, Southeast, and East BCE). The gathered heads of the Buddhist organizations
Asia. India is the birthplace of Buddhism, and the religion is agreed that there was a need for a centralized body to interpret
part of India’s spiritual heritage. When India was at the height issues concerning Buddhism, including the preservation of the
of its power, Indian priests and scholars travelled abroad and traditions and practices of various sects. As an outcome of the
spread Buddhism widely: across Tibet and China and then conference, the International Buddhist Confederation was
on to Japan, and throughout Southeast Asia via Sri Lanka. established to further these objectives by promoting research
Tibetan Buddhism in particular spread northward to Tibet and popularizing Buddhist practices and traditions.
and China, while the Theravada school of Buddhism was
A few years earlier, China had begun hosting its own
promoted in South Asia and throughout Southeast Asia.
international Buddhist gatherings in the mid-2000s, known
Buddhism’s influence remains present in Indian art, culture, as the World Buddhist Forums (WBF). The first was held
and architecture. The three lions of the Ashoka pillar, which in Fujian Province in 2006 and three subsequent gatherings
independent India adopted as its national emblem, are a have since been held respectively in Wuxi (in Jiangsu
symbol of the impact of Buddhist thought on the country Province) in 2009, in Hong Kong in April 2012, and again
and its people. As of 2011, there are over 8 million practicing in Wuxi in 2015. The WBF aims to convey to Buddhist
Buddhists in India. populations in China and neighboring countries that the
Chinese Communist authorities approve of Buddhism.
India has ties to Tibetan Buddhism through its own sizable
A large number of Buddhist religious monks, scholars,
Tibetan community. The first major wave of Tibetans arrived
and other figures, including some from India, have been
in India from Tibet with the fourteenth Dalai Lama in March
invited to the WBFs. These periodic gatherings are reflective
1959.1 Following the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1950
of China’s effort to raise the profile of the China-appointed
and the Dalai Lama’s flight to India in 1959, high-ranking
Panchen Lama, Tibetan Buddhism’s second most influential
Tibetan religious leaders, members of the Tibetan nobility,
figure, and convince Buddhists to accept him as the rightful
and ordinary Tibetans continued to flee to India, mainly
holder of this position. Beijing has not invited the Dalai
via Nepal. Today, India remains home to the fourteenth
Lama to the World Buddhist Forums on the grounds that
Dalai Lama and the heads of all four main sects of Tibetan
2
he is a “disruptive element.”2 The GBC hosted in India in Dalai Lamas have looked to the Mongol rulers for support.
2011 impacted China’s efforts and the WBF in 2012 was Mongolia’s unique link to the Dalai Lama lends special
a muted affair. significance to Prime Minister Modi’s visit to Ulaanbaatar
in May 2015. Modi’s visit involved numerous references
On occasion, Tibetan Buddhism has drawn attention to
to India and Mongolia’s shared Buddhist connection.
the ongoing border dispute between China and India.
Two examples were his speech to the Mongolian parliament,
Uyghen Thinley Dorje, another prominent Tibetan Buddhist
which mentioned the Buddha and Buddhism seven times,
figure in exile in India, visited the Indian state of Arunachal
and his visit to the Gandantegchinlen monastery.
Pradesh in November 2016; he is recognized by the Dalai
Lama and Chinese authorities as the Gyalwa Karmapa Mongolia’s special link with the Dalai Lama has, at times,
(head of Tibetan Buddhism’s Kagyu sect). China is especially complicated the country’s relations with China. In November
sensitive to Indian political figures and the Dalai Lama 2016, for instance, Mongolia welcomed the Dalai Lama
visiting this state, which it claims is part of China. The despite stern Chinese warnings not to do so. The Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama’s planned visit to Arunachal Pradesh in April pointedly utilized the four-day visit to exercise his religious
2017 is being interpreted by Beijing as indicative of New authority by approving and authenticating the identity of
Delhi’s willingness to assert its sovereignty despite predictable the tenth incarnation of the third-highest ranking lama of
Chinese protests. In March 2017, India is hosting a Buddhist Tibetan Buddhism, the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, who now
conference in Nalanda meant to advance efforts to bring resides in Mongolia.
together all Buddhist lamas into the fold. Hosted by the
By comparison, other countries in Asia—including Myanmar,
Indian Ministry of Culture, the gathering is convening
South Korea and Vietnam—that have strong links to
prominent Buddhist monks from over thirty countries—
Buddhism have not permitted a visit by the Dalai Lama.
including Bangladesh, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam.
Myanmar and Vietnam, though strongly Buddhist, follow
The Nalanda conference will likely enhance India’s standing
the Theravada tradition and are especially careful of Beijing’s
in the Buddhist community.
sensitivities about the Dalai Lama. Like China, Vietnam is
Meanwhile, since Prime Minister Narendra Modi took office a Communist country, although the country’s Communist
in 2014, the Indian government has made Buddhism an party allows its members to practice religion and many of
element of its bilateral diplomatic efforts, which have been them are Buddhist. South Korea, meanwhile, has adopted a
particularly noticeable with Japan and Mongolia. Modi has form of Buddhism that blends elements of Mahayana with
put Buddhism on India’s diplomatic agenda with Japan. In its own distinctive characteristics.
August 2014, for instance, Modi visited two ancient Buddhist
temples in Japan, and Buddhism was mentioned in the joint
CHINA’S EFFORTS TO SHAPE
statement after a subsequent visit to Japan in November
TIBETAN BUDDHIST POLITICS
2016. Private organizations have been involved in these efforts
as well. In September 2015, for example, the International Since the fourteenth Dalai Lama began travelling abroad
Buddhist Confederation, the Vivekananda International around 1980 to familiarize people with the Tibet issue
Foundation, and the Tokyo Foundation put together a and lobby for the Tibetan people, the Chinese Communist
joint Buddhist and Hindu three-day conclave on conflict Party (CCP) has reacted to his actions and labelled him a
avoidance and environment consciousness. “separatist.”3 As China has grown economically and militarily
stronger, its protests have grown more strident. Since 2007,
Buddhism also factors into India’s diplomacy with Mongolia.
China has been trying to undercut the Dalai Lama’s influence
It is worth noting that since the Mongol ruler Altan Khan
and isolate him by pressuring foreign leaders and governments
first conferred the title of Dalai Lama on the Gelug monk
not to officially receive the Dalai Lama. Failure to comply
Sonam Gyatso in the late sixteenth century, subsequent
has resulted in China taking punitive economic measures
CAR NEGIE INDIA | 3
that typically prompt an appreciable drop in foreign direct Moreover, China has been steadily trying to acquire influence
investment or exports for periods of at least six months to over the various Tibetan Buddhist sects and subtly get them
a year. This has often been accompanied by a suspension, to break ranks with the Dalai Lama. China has consistently
or freezing of diplomatic contact, until an apology has been favored the Kagyu sect, which is numerous in western Tibet;
tendered.4 Beijing has toughened the policy in the past in Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, and Sikkim in India; and
couple of months to include meetings with the sikyong, or in Bhutan. Journalists based in Jammu and Kashmir claim
prime minister, of the Tibetans in exile. The Dalai Lama issue that the Chinese are also discreetly supporting the Drukpa
has also, since 2007, begun figuring more prominently as a Kagyu Rimpoche in Ladakh, who has made little secret of
bone of contention in interactions between India and China his differences with the Dalai Lama and has been urging
at the official Track I and unofficial Track II levels.5 supporters not to flock to the Dalai Lama when he is in
Ladakh or participate in the Dalai Lama’s teachings.
There are major reasons for increased Chinese concern.
Beijing believes that what it deems to be hostile foreign forces
will use the Tibetans to stir up trouble inside China. Beijing BUDDHISM IN CHINA AND INDIA’S
wants to avoid having a situation in which there are two Dalai NEIGHBORHOOD: THE CASE OF NEPAL
Lamas, like the situation that exists in the case of the Panchen
One neighboring country where China is using Buddhism to
Lama; Beijing feels that this would inflame internal tensions.6
expand regional influence is Nepal. China’s interest in Nepal
In the case of the Panchen Lama, though, the individual
is primarily because of the nearly 20,000 Tibetans residing
recognized by the fourteenth Dalai Lama as the Panchen
there. Additionally, a number of people of Tibetan origin
Lama is in Chinese custody and kept away from public gaze
live in the northern fringes of Nepal bordering Tibet. China
while China tries to persuade the Tibetans to accept Gyancain
has serious apprehensions that what it refers to as hostile
Norbu, the individual appointed by China. China persists
foreign forces—an oblique reference to the United States and
with its efforts to persuade the fourteenth Dalai Lama to
India—may use Nepal as a base to create disturbances inside
return to spend his “last days” in his “motherland.”
Tibet. China has expanded its influence in Nepal, and its
China has sought to bolster its claims of being a country with embassy now interacts directly with Nepal’s police to restrict
a strong Buddhist heritage. In 2008, Chinese archaeologists the activities of Tibetans resident there. China has specific
discovered a skull bone of the Buddha inside a model of interest in Lumbini, the birth place of the Buddha, which lies
a stupa made of sandalwood, gold, silver, and gemstones, in Nepal just across the border with India. As a high-ranking
which was then interred in a temple in Jiangsu Province. Chinese official once told a Nepali reporter, “We visit Nepal
because you have Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha.”
China’s efforts to undermine the Dalai Lama’s influence also
have included supporting Shugden worship, which he banned Nepal has been the site of ongoing efforts by Beijing to
in 1996. Chinese authorities have supported worshippers oversee, or at least influence, the selection of Tibetan
of the Shugden deity, disbursed generous subsidies to their Buddhist religious leaders. It has successfully blocked the
monasteries, and instigated Shugden groups in India and Dalai Lama in Nepal. In fact, in 2012, Nepal’s then culture
elsewhere to initiate litigation against the Dalai Lama and minister, Minendra Rijal, said the Dalai Lama might visit
stage protests to harass him. The Chinese government even Lumbini sometime in the future after “the leadership of
invited prominent Tibetan Buddhist monks known to be China will find ways to deal with His Holiness the Dalai
Shugden practitioners, or otherwise critical of the Dalai Lama, which will be respectful of the Chinese people.”
Lama, to the sixtieth anniversary celebrations of what it Meanwhile, the Sakya Tibetan Buddhist lineage and its sub-
describes as the peaceful liberation of Tibet to embarrass sects were permitted, after approval from Beijing, to become
the Dalai Lama. the only sect to hold Monlam celebrations in Lumbini.
The Nyingmapa sect too has accepted Beijing’s contention
4
that it alone has the authority to choose and recognize Additionally, there are many Tibetan Buddhist monasteries
high-ranking monks and followed the procedure prescribed strung across the entire length of the Indo-Himalayan
by Beijing to secure its approval for Penor Rimpoche’s belt that exercise almost unmatched influence on the
reincarnation and enthronement in 2014. The Kagyu sect local populations in their jurisdictions. Monasteries like
negotiated with Chinese authorities in mid-2014 when they Hemis in Ladakh and Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh own
insisted on performing the last rites of Shamar Rinpoche, considerable property and large tracts of land. The latter
the fourteenth Shamarpa and second highest spiritual figure could at some stage become a nettlesome issue in negotiations
of the Karma Kagyu Tradition of Tibetan Buddhism in between India and China. Viewed together with China’s
Nepal. Initial approval accorded by the Nepali embassy in attempts to set up a monastery, seminary, and nunnery in
New Delhi was withdrawn under pressure from the Chinese Lumbini to educate and train young monks free of cost,
embassy in Kathmandu, which objected to the presence of there is a real possibility that China will use them to try
a representative of the Dalai Lama who was to accompany and increase its influence along India’s northern borders.
the body to Kathmandu and preparations by the Tibetan
There are other concerns for the Dalai Lama’s supporters
community for a rally in Kathmandu’s Bouddha area.
and China too. Credible reports indicate rivalries within the
The approval was later restored.
Dalai Lama’s office have grown.7 Gaining quiet momentum
China’s interest in Lumbini first became public in June 2011, among foreigners supporting the Dalai Lama and the Tibet
when a Chinese government-sponsored nongovernmental cause, as well as foreign-based Tibet support groups, is the
organization (NGO), the Asia Pacific Exchange and view that India-based, or Indian Tibetans, are grabbing all
Cooperation Foundation (APECF), proposed a $3 billion political power in the wider community of the Dalai Lama’s
plan to develop Lumbini to the Nepalese government. The sympathizers. Implicit in this perspective is the suggestion
plans included hotels, an airport, and a Chinese-managed that political authority should be shared, but it is unclear as
Buddhist university and seminary. Xiao Wunan, a senior to precisely with whom. The Chinese Communist leadership
CCP cadre who till his retirement late last year was a deputy too appears to have become nervous at the rapid growth in
director in China’s National Development and Reform the number of Buddhist adherents in China. Recent reports
Commission in western China, was executive vice president point to the authorities tightening the monitoring of the
of the foundation. The appointment of Pushpa Kamal Dahal, activities of Buddhist monks, especially of Tibetan Buddhist
better known as Prachanda, who is the current Nepalese monks, and enforcing regulations restricting their activities
prime minister, as vice chairman of the APECF, emphasized and the places they can visit.
China’s interest in Nepal. While the APECF’s proposal has
Buddhism is an intrinsic part of India’s spiritual heritage.
been kept in limbo, the Nepalese government is unwilling
India’s outreach to countries in Southeast Asia will be
to reject China’s proposal. The establishment of the Greater
reinforced by Buddhism. Meanwhile, the presence of
Lumbini National Development Directive Committee
the heads of the various Tibetan Buddhist sects in India
under the chairmanship of Prachanda is indicative of this.
will enrich Buddhism and strengthen India’s bonds with
To canvass support for the development of Lumbini, Chinese
Buddhists around the world. The demographic changes
government-sponsored NGOs have since tried to co-opt
taking place in China similarly make Buddhism increasingly
prominent Nepal politicians and have appointed Madhav
relevant. China’s leadership considers the return of its Tibetan
Kumar Nepal and Sujata Koirala to boards of Chinese NGOs.
Buddhist religious figures important for the country’s stability.
In 2013, the Buddhist Association of China, whose vice-
Beijing can be expected to continue to try and enhance
president is the Beijing-selected Panchen Lama, announced
its soft power by claiming a strong Buddhist heritage and
plans to take over coordination of the Lumbini project.
strengthening its outreach to Buddhist populations within
While more limited in its scope as compared to the APECF
and outside its borders.
proposal, efforts have not moved beyond the planning stages.
CAR N EGIE INDIA | 5
NOTES
1. Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of 5. Based on the author’s personal knowledge.
Modern Tibet Since 1947 (London: Pimlico, 1999), 197–207. 6. Please see an interview with Professor Jin Wei, a senior faculty
2. Jayadeva Ranade, China Unveiled: Strategic Insights into Chinese member of the CCP’s Central Party School located in Beijing,
Thinking (New Delhi: KW Publishers, 2013), 284. published on June 6, 2013, in the Chinese-language Hong Kong–
3. Lhasa Vice Mayor Jigme Namgyal at National People’s Congress based Asia Weekly (Yazhou Zhoukan).
(NPC) session on March 10, 2010; Ranade, China Unveiled, 67. 7. Based on interviews with senior figures in the Dalai Lama’s office
4. Ibid., 27. in Delhi and Dharamsala.
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