Political Parties – An Overview
Definition and Nature
• Political parties are integral to modern representative democracies and are
institutionalized channels for political participation.
• As voluntary associations formed on the basis of shared interests, they differ from
other organizations by aiming primarily to secure political power.
• Eldersveld: Described political parties as a “mutually exploitative relationship”
between leaders and followers.
• Characterized by:
o Structured hierarchy
o Bureaucratic organization
o Ideological framework
o Electoral mobilisation machinery
Functions of Political Parties
Function Description Example
1. Political Encourage citizen engagement in Election campaigns, rallies,
Participation governance manifestos
2. Interest Express and aggregate group Demand for OBC quota by
Articulation demands Patidars
3. Maximizing Electoral outreach via identity BJP’s outreach to Dalit voters via
Support Base alliances Dera Sacha Sauda in Haryana
4. Political Membership drives and cadre Congress’s "Join Congress" digital
Recruitment building campaign
5. Political Inculcating political culture and NSS, NYKS, and party youth wings
Socialization norms (Herbert Hyman) like ABVP, NSUI
6. Political Institutionalizing dissent,
Coalition governments in India
Stabilization reducing chaos
7. Public Manifestos and media
‘Abki Baar Modi Sarkar’ slogan
Communication interaction
8. Building Public ‘Minimum Government,
Shaping narratives and debates
Opinion Maximum Governance’
9. Acting as Monitor and question the ruling Congress questioning electoral
Watchdogs party bonds in Parliament
Structure of Political Parties (M. Duverger)
Type Description Example
Caucus Centralised, closed elite groups, US Republican/Democratic Party core
Type active mainly during elections groups, Sanjay Gandhi's coterie
Branch Decentralised, hierarchical
Indian National Congress, BJP
Type structure, grassroots branches
Secretive cells with vertical linkage, Communist Party of USSR (early), Naxalite
Cell Type
suited for covert operations groups
Militia Militarised, organized groups
LTTE in Sri Lanka, Hamas in Palestine
Type challenging state authority
Types of Party Systems
Type Description Example
Single Party Only one legal party; no
China (CPC), North Korea (WPK)
System competition
One-party rule with limited
➤ Authoritarian Russia under United Russia
freedom
➤ Totalitarian Complete societal control North Korea
Ideological diversity within a Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI),
➤ Plural SPS
single party Mexico
Power oscillates between two UK (Labour vs Conservative), USA
Two Party System
major parties (Republicans vs Democrats)
➤ Distinct Ideological clarity UK
➤ Indistinct Moderate convergence USA
Multi-Party Several parties; coalition
India, Israel, Italy
System politics
➤ Stable Structured coalitions Sweden, Norway
➤ Unstable Frequent breakdowns Italy (post-WWII)
➤ One Party One dominant party, despite India (1950s–1970s: Congress);
Dominant multiparty presence current BJP dominance
Lipset and Rokkan: Cleavage Theory
• Cleavages = Social fault lines influencing voting and political behaviour.
• Four Key Cleavages in post-Industrial Revolution West:
1. Centre vs Periphery → Regional nationalism (Catalonia in Spain)
2. State vs Church → Religious parties vs secularism (Poland: Law and Justice
Party)
3. Owner vs Worker → Class struggle (UK: Labour vs Conservative)
4. Land vs Industry → Rural vs urban-industrial interests (US Midwest farmers
vs coastal elites)
o Emerging Cleavage: Gender, especially in Scandinavian welfare democracies
Indian Context of Cleavage Politics
Dipankar Gupta's Critique
• Traditional cleavages like town-country and ethnic divides have weakened.
• New driver: Urban discontent and aspiration-based cleavages.
• Urban India is increasingly decisive in elections:
o 2014 Lok Sabha Elections: Rise of urban middle-class vote
o 2015 Delhi Assembly Elections: AAP’s victory riding on anti-establishment
urban sentiment
• Rise of Rural Non-Farm Economy: Blurring lines between rural and urban
Current Trends in India
Cleavage Manifestation
Caste Dominant caste mobilization (Jats, Marathas, Patels)
Religion Polarization in UP, Karnataka
Region Bodo identity in Assam, Gorkhaland movement
Class Farmer protests (2020–21), labor code opposition
Gender Women-centric welfare schemes: ‘Ladli Behna Yojana’ in MP
Recent Case Studies & Examples (2020s)
Case Insight
Farmer Protests (2020–21) Class + regional + occupation-based cleavage
UP Elections 2022 BJP’s ‘Labharthi’ strategy overcame caste fragmentation
Urban-centric, aspirational politics echoing Gupta’s urban
AAP in Punjab (2022)
discontent thesis
BRS in Telangana Regional identity and federal aspirations
2024 Lok Sabha Election
Alliances like INDIA bloc attempting new coalition formats
Build-Up
Conclusion
Political parties are evolving institutions reflecting the dynamic nature of society. While
traditional cleavage models explain foundational behaviours, scholars like Dipankar Gupta
highlight the shift toward urban, aspiration-based politics in countries like India.
