Cacciamani – Psychology for Teaching

1. Classical theories of learning

These theories introduce two essential issues in the psychology of education:

Is school intended to teach behaviors or mental skills? Debate between
behaviorist approach and cognitive approach

What relationship exists between cognitive development and learning? Debate between
Piagetian perspective and Vygotskian perspective

Behaviorist approach
For a long time it has been a reference point for educational psychologists because of its study
learning
It was born in 1913 in the USA with Watson who wants to found a new discipline:
•that studies behavior (wants to predict and control it)
•which adopts the experimental method like every natural science
refuses the study of the mind
In this perspective, behavior is determined randomly by the environment (which presents
of stimuli to which the individual responds)
Learning is considered the process of creating stable associations between responses of
individuals and the stimuli of their environment. The task of psychology becomes that of identifying the
conditions that allow learning, answering three questions:
How are such associations formed?
How are they maintained?
How are they extinguished?
First behaviorism: Passive view of the individual
Classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson)

Neobehaviorism (1930s): active view of the individual

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Applications in the educational field

The most famous translation in the educational field of the behavioral approach is known as
Programmed Instruction, which is based on certain principles:
Small steps (the behavior is broken down into simple units)
Active participation (the student must build their own repertoire of responses)
actively)
Knowledge of results (immediate feedback)
Adaptation of the learning path to individual rhythms
The teacher thus organizes the class work into a sequence of micro-units of teaching. In
Each unit contains three elements:
information and question (the opportunity to issue the requested behavior)
the operational response (behavior of the student)
feedback (reinforcement of behavior)
Attention to the definition of behaviors (measurability and observability)
Imitation of effective models
Limits: (a) little attention to disciplinary content and specific teaching methods; (b) the
behavior to be learned is separate from the disciplinary content; (c) little attention to the use of
language and communication in the classroom;

Cognitivism
It developed starting in the 1950s in the USA, taking a critical stance towards the
behaviorism
Scientific value of the study of the mind Metaphor of the computer
It takes the name of HIP (Human Information Processing - Theory of Processing
of the information) interest in mental processes

a group of scholars with a common interest in processes

It is not a homogeneous approach
cognitive and that used computer metaphors

The knowledge activity is a series of information processing.

Output sensi attention decode mental representations

Distinction between different types of knowledge

Declarative knowledge (knowing) knowledge about an object
Procedural knowledge (know how) knowledge about how to use an object

Themes of interest
Reading processes (decoding, comprehension)
Models of arithmetic calculation
Problem solving processes
Memory and study strategies

The attempt is to establish the profile of the expert information processor (or connoisseur of
strategy)
A lot of attention to individual differences: each subject is characterized by its own cognitive style,
gives a tendency to prefer some ways of processing information over others. To
example:
1. visual/verbal (if information presented with images is recognized better or
words, e.g. photographic memory for faces and not for names)
2. global/analytical (if attention is paid to the details of a situation or of a
problem or if you are looking for an overview)
3. impulsive/reflective (if one responds quickly to a task or takes more
time
Differentiated pathways and specific strategies in relation to cognitive style

Starting from the 1970s, interest in metacognition (knowledge of

own node of knowledge - Cornoldi, 1995

Flavell and Wellman (1977) developed a model that outlines 4 types of metacognitive knowledge:
those that the subject possesses on themselves (during reading I tend to get distracted, I follow
better if I take notes...)
•those concerning the objective of the task (I read to find the train schedule or
I follow to better understand the subject.
•those related to the type of material (I know that the train schedule consists of tables of
numbers, I know the lesson etc. etc.
 •questions related to the strategies (I know I don't have to read the whole schedule but I have to do
attention to the departure city and the arrival city

Brown elaborates another model (1978) that distinguishes between different types of control processes.
metacognitive that perform a regulatory function during the ongoing cognitive activity:
the forecast (of the performance level that one expects to be able to achieve in a given
assignment
Planning (the ability to organize actions that lead to a goal)
•the monitoring (control that the individual exerts on cognitive activity in
development)
the evaluation (the ability to judge the adequacy of the strategy used)

Starting from the mid-1980s, a series of studies highlight the importance of affective factors and
motivational even in metacognitive processes:
attribution style (tendency to attribute the causes of a failure either within oneself or externally)
success
motivation to use a strategic behavior
self-esteem

Application in the educational field

Attempt to facilitate the acquisition of appropriate cognitive processes and effective strategies to address
homework
Programs to improve metacognition and increase motivation to learn

Two strands of educational interventions:

interventions aimed at enhancing deficient skills (starting from the identification
of the student's difficulties, the lacking ability is broken down into simpler abilities and
they implement programs to enhance such basic skills
interventions aimed at developing other skills in the presence of a deficiency
they allow to achieve the same result (the teacher identifies skills
substitutive that allow to achieve the same result by other means

In the metacognitive perspective, a learning environment is characterized by three conditions:

provide students with assignments and problems representative of the diversity of situations
to which they will then have to apply the knowledge
provide students with opportunities to connect and observe experts
(can allow to observe effective work strategies)
organize dialogue situations in the classroom to identify, analyze and discuss
strategies and solution processes implemented by the students (metacognitive reflection)

Piaget's theory
Cognitive development as a form of adaptation
In the study of intelligence, it distinguishes between functional and structural aspects.
The functional aspects describe how our mind operates in its activity of
knowledge and how it changes in its development
The structural aspects are the result of the functioning of our mind, which
builds cognitive structures (sequence of operations that are used to organize the
knowledge
2 functional aspects (functional invariants)
tendency towards organization (our mind organizes itself over time, building cognitive structures
that allow them to act more and more effectively on reality, from schemes to operations)
tendency to adaptation (assimilation and accommodation)

Cognitive structures are modified by the subject during their development according to a
non-modifiable and universal sequence
Sensorimotor period
Preoperative period
Specific operative period
Formal operative period

Applications in the educational field

The application to educational contexts is not unique (Piaget did not focus much on this type of
problem)
A learning environment built from a Piagetian perspective focuses on three aspects:
the sequence in which the study topics are presented
•the interest directed towards cognitive structures rather than performances
the teaching methodology

Regarding the sequence, Piagetian theory has often been interpreted as a theory that
defines what a child is ready or not ready to learn the teacher in this sense must
identify the developmental stage reached by the student through the interview, observation, and the
to be able to design an effective intervention must keep up with the pace of change
children
influenza pure on the contents: priority is given to content related to science and mathematics
to acquire logical-mathematical concepts. Only more recently have other aspects been reassessed.
contents_ moral judgment, economic and political aspects, social relations

interest in the underlying cognitive structures of performance and behavior the implementation
saying appropriate behavior in front of a performance does not imply real understanding
of the situation

methodology: fundamental role of self-discovery and active learning the student

manipulates concrete objects to solve problems or discusses with other classmates hypotheses and outcomes of
experiments conducted together
cognitive conflict between experiential data and the subject's beliefs

Sociocultural approach (Vygotsky)

Three main aspects:

1. use of genetic analysis as a method for studying the mind
the idea that psychological development is linked to the use of tools and signs that
medium (organize and shape) the action of the subject on reality
3. The idea that higher mental functions originate in the interpersonal

theory of cognitive development concerning four areas:

phylogenetic domain (species development)
historical-cultural domain (historical and cultural development of humanity)
ontogenetic domain (development of the individual)
microgenetic domain (development of the single psychological process)

When discussing the development of the individual, one must take into account the other levels.
(2) Role of the tools
The development consists of an increasing ability to direct and control behavior, such
mastery is made possible by the emergence of new forms and psychic functions and by the use of signs and
tools

difference between elementary and natural (biological) psychic functions and superior psychic functions
cultural (learned, they use signs and tools)

Sign

Stimulus Response

Instrument

Subject Subject

difference between tools and signs

tools mediators aimed outward (to modify aspects of the environment)
signs oriented towards the inside, auxiliary means to better organize mental activity

tools and signs are products of a culture that gives a particular shape to activities and
social interactions (e.g. email)

General genetic law of cultural development:

every psychological function appears twice during development (interpsychological
intrapersonal

The internalization of functions occurs through interaction with the most competent person.
(adult) in four phases:
the child responds to environmental stimuli directly, not mediated by any
sign
the child begins to use an external sign that he does not fully master but
which frees him from the immediate response to the stimulus
the child, by repeating the operation with the help of the adult, becomes aware of the role of the
sign as support for his mental action
the child no longer needs the support of the adult nor the material sign, because he has
internalized the function and is able to use it independently
Applications in the educational field

Vygotsky opposes Piaget development does not have precedence over learning, but
learning can precede development
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding: a process through which the necessary help and guidance are provided to solve
problems that go beyond the capabilities of the learner
The level of support must gradually decrease (fading)

Importance of social interaction on learning

Cognitive apprenticeship skills must be practiced in their natural context of use

Two differences from the classic apprenticeship:
The goal is to transmit cognitive and metacognitive skills through the execution of tasks.
and problem-solving (classical apprenticeship refers to the acquisition of
behaviors and manual skills
it worries about enabling learners to reuse the acquired knowledge in
new contexts

knowledge is situated in the contexts in which we elaborate it, it cannot be learned if detached
artificially by them In real contexts, the relationship between the symbols we use to represent the
knowledge, the objects and the meanings they represent is preserved

knowledge is distributed among people and in the tools that people use in
conducting activities
within a learning context, the competence (expertise) related to a certain
The subject of study can be considered distributed among different people (teachers and students), different.
sources of information, technological tools, and interlocutors also external to the school
everyone can develop and deepen their knowledge by interacting with more experienced individuals or
referring to various informative sources, inside and outside the classroom

redefinition of the teacher's role become similar to the coordinator of a research laboratory:
guides the work, monitors it, supports the activities of the students, encourages the execution of
collective reasoning on real problems also through different technologies

Chapter 2. The latest theories on learning

Jerome Bruner

It begins in the 1940s in the USA

1950s-1960s interest in cognitive development and education

Try to integrate Piaget's approach with Vygotsky's.

Hypothesize the existence of three systems of knowledge representation:

active representation system (knowledge is organized in sequences of actions yes
learn through practice
 iconic system of representation (knowledge is presented through images) yes
learning by observing or seeing others do it
symbolic representation system (knowledge is presented through symbols è
centered on thought and language

this division reflects Piaget's stage succession

such systems of representation are closely linked and interdependent there is no

hierarchical relationship between forms of thought (contrary to Piaget)

Assigns a very important role to CULTURE

culture promotes the transition from one system of knowledge to another (especially thanks to the
experience contexts and the possibilities of social interaction with adults and peers, through
only the children understand the meaning of symbols and the ways in which they are used
tools)
culture shapes thought through the symbolic systems and tools it provides
disposition (e.g. written language)
the tools are cultural "amplifiers" of the individual's sensory and motor system
(they are used as prosthetics that enhance man's ability to act on reality)

the process of individual growth involves the internalization of ways of acting, imagining and
to use the symbols that exist in his culture, conveyed by tools that represent
amplifiers of his powers

Applications in the educational field

He has been a landmark for educational psychology and Italian pedagogy.
middle school programs from 1979 and elementary school from 1985

School must teach how to think: the different subjects are not a collection of information that
teachers must convey and students must memorize, but languages to read reality,
tools to act on it and fundamental ideas that constitute its core and are
same time simple enough to be learned by younger students, if exemplified
(e.g. ruler for calculation procedures)

The teacher must start from the assumption that there is a version of every ability or knowledge.
suitable that can be taught at any age

The teacher must encourage the student to think for themselves through typical categories of
a discipline The educational activity should not focus solely on disciplinary knowledge,
but especially on the procedures that allow to produce knowledge (experimental method for
the sciences, reconstruction of history, etc.)

In 1997, Bruner introduced 4 fundamental criteria for building environments in which learning is
significant
the capacity for action (agency) - the subject must take control of their own activity
mental
Reflection - to learn one must give a personal meaning to what is learned,
learning must be related to real contexts (situated)
collaboration - the resources of the knowledge path must be shared among all members
engaged in teaching and learning (cognitive activity is distributed among multiple
people)
 the culture - knowledge is built, negotiated, systematized into a common product,
a lifestyle and way of thinking that becomes shared (culture)

it is very important to adopt an approach to problems that guides the student towards the
construction of knowledge in that particular field of knowledge

2. Gardner and multiple intelligences

Resumes Bruner's discourse and focuses attention on symbolic systems (sets of symbols
that we use in every field of knowledge in our culture musical notation, language of
programming, etc.)

Critique of the psychometric approach to the study of intelligence intelligence comes

considered a unitary ability that can be measured through tests, which attribute
intelligence quotient (IQ) scores and therefore allow for comparison among individuals

Piaget also saw intelligence as a general function: universal in the way of

develop and unify in the various fields of knowledge

These aspects have been criticized by various researchers. even the same Piaget
shift

Gardner formulates a definition of intelligence understood as "the ability to solve problems or

create products that are appreciated within one or more cultural contexts

He argues that human beings possess eight intelligences:

linguistics
logical-mathematical
scientific-naturalistic
spatial representation
musical thought
bodily-kinesthetic (use of the body)
understanding of other individuals
understanding of ourselves

Man performs at his best when he uses the system of symbols and procedures to
him more congenial

What differentiates individuals are the particular characteristics of these intelligences and the ways in which
they are called into question and combined with each other to carry out the various tasks

It is important to distinguish between intelligences and the domains of knowledge to which they apply, for which
there seems to be a dynamic of interaction

Some intelligences may have blurred boundaries among themselves.

Intelligences appear at an early age (children already show profiles at four years old.
details)

Applications in the educational field

Gardner criticizes the school institution that generally favors teaching methods and
linguistic assessment and, to a lesser extent, logical-mathematical assessment

He proposes two ideas:

apprenticeship (Rogoff, 1990) that uses observation as an educational method and
imitation a subject who wants to acquire a skill observes, imitates, and becomes
guided by an expert in carrying out a certain activity
children's museum a stimulating learning environment for students because it contains
"real pieces" of our culture G. proposes to create environments at school with
materials actually used by those who carry out a professional activity
In Italy, G.'s thought has found space in the drafting of the Guidelines for kindergarten.
1991

The school needs to recognize and enhance the different intelligences of students in 3 ways:
ensuring a plurality of educational offerings that encompass all fields of our culture
using multiple within the teaching of the same subject
approaches
focusing attention, in the educational field, on respect and the enhancement of
differences, recognizing for example that children do not belong to the Western world
they have developed forms of intelligence different from those predominant in our culture,
due to having experienced different language codes in their countries of origin

3. Community of Learners (Brown, Campione 1990)

Influence of the sociocultural approach

role of culture and tools
human activities must be examined in the contexts of life

Brown and Campione propose the construction of a learning environment, the COMMUNITY
OF APPRENTICES

Metaphor of cognitive learning: the class, starting from real problems (not even the teacher
it implements processing processes aimed at building solutions in such a way that
each student can become an expert

The basic principles of a COL are:

community of practice (the community contributes to determining the path of knowledge development
municipality interchangeable roles of student, teacher, researcher
dialogical structure (the COL are discursive communities) discussion groups to promote
decisions on the course of knowledge to undertake the learning objectives are
conscious for all and intentional negotiation, appropriation of others' ideas
contextualization (real knowledge problems referred to their contexts)
multiple zones of proximal development (the learning path is not defined a priori
from the teacher but negotiated by the community various development paths)
legitimation of differences (individual differences are a resource to be utilized in
community everyone can find their role and space for participation
metacognition (the activity of a COL involves spaces for reflection on the activities carried out in order to take
awareness of the strategies used and introduce methods to optimize them

Applications in the educational field

Subject of distributed knowledge In the context, there are several different partner actors present.
tools and sources of information

Involvement of external experts available to students and teachers to respond to

questions, provide clarifications and support students in

Students must carry out differentiated activities: analyze different sources (books, CD-ROMs, websites,
newspapers and magazines, videos), conduct experiments, produce materials using different media, explain and
comment on their own work, act as consultants and supervisors of others' work

Collaborative dimension (also remotely PC)

Teachers have a strategic role they organize the class activities, promote
the identification of the objects of investigation and maintain the work on the topics and objectives
identified
They also have a modeling function regarding the different techniques used (teaching
reciprocal, mosaic groups, use of various media...) they offer themselves as a model to show it
conduct of activities
They have a scaffolding function in the process of building knowledge. not replacing
the students and making them more autonomous

[…]

Knowledge building community

Knowledge building pedagogy (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1992) pedagogy of construction of

Knowledge: the school can organize itself as a scientific community that builds knowledge.
The community builds knowledge and the individual, by sharing its practices, becomes an expert.

They do not share the view of scientific progress as a gradual approach to the truth.
Progress is a continuous improvement of the currently existing knowledge, which falsifies
the theories of the past (Popper, 1962)

Popper (1972) talks about:

World 1 - physical reality
World 2 - knowledge as a collection of representations that exist in the minds of individuals
individuals
World 3 - knowledge as a system of ideas shared among different people, existing and manipulable
in the social community (knowledge contained in every culture)

Knowledge as a social and cultural object (world 3)

These principles are the foundation of the KBC change of the school from a structure that promotes
learning in an organization that produces knowledge
The attempts to introduce into the school the learning methods that reproduce the model of
scientific research (discovery learning) often remains focused on the individual
and on the methods of acquiring knowledge (World 2) and are unable to change the functioning
of the class in terms of the scientific community
The KBC, on the other hand, aims to develop knowledge at the World 3 level, prioritizing investigation.
conducted by the class-community on real issues
The class engaged in producing ideas that have value for the community. every
a student should not focus on their own performance but on cooperation
Guiding principles:
group understanding (shared responsibility to facilitate the advancement of everyone in
understanding of the problem
symmetric advancements of knowledge (each participant who solves a problem, in the
the moment he makes the knowledge he has built available to everyone contributes
to the advancement of the knowledge of others)
opportunistic learning, distributed (teaching and learning are
interchangeable because each participant is involved in both processes

Reflection on the individual (knowledge builder):

epistemic activation (active responsibility in the process of building knowledge
to achieve the community's objectives
speech focused on knowledge (participants engage in discussions that have
as a result the progressive improvement of ideas
guided inquiry (participants engage in an inquiry process
oriented towards understanding problems rather than memorizing information or
the mechanical execution of tasks
authentic knowledge resources (participants engage with real informational resources)
refinement of theories (the first theories that students develop on a problem are
replaced by newer, increasingly effective theories
complexity and coherence (the construction of coherent explanations is a central task)
progression to higher levels (learning does not have a destination but continues)
configure as a continuous process of improving ideas
contributions to the domain of knowledge (commitment to work at the frontiers of knowledge of
field of investigation and not at the boundaries of one's individual understanding)

this way of acting makes the individual capable of acting as an EXPERT, a figure who has three
features:
is able to integrate coherently the knowledge it builds (the non-expert instead
he possesses isolated pieces of knowledge
he is able to use his knowledge translating it into concrete procedures (knowing how to do)
operates at the limit of one's own knowledge (continual tension to exceed that limit)

Applications in the educational field

The class activity is configured as an investigation that starts from a significant problem for
the students' experience
The class is often divided into research groups that conduct simulations or experiments regarding
the studied problems
Subsequently, hypotheses are formulated that are discussed and subjected to falsification.
At this point, the investigation can foresee:
reciprocal teaching sessions (students examine the bibliographic material together, they
they ask questions about the texts and try to formulate answers
data entry into a common database that students can access via a network of computers
periodic meetings of the class group with the aim of taking stock of the organization of the investigation,
exchange information about the studied problem, identify unresolved issues and decide directions
future of research
Role of the teacher it is a knowledge builder does not externally monitor the process of
learning by predefining the goals to be achieved in advance and prescribing methodologies of
I work, but I am involved "within" the research process

Motivation to learn

It is one of the most important challenges for teachers

What does motivation to study (or to learn) mean?

Distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation availability of a person to engage in a learning activity
for the joy of doing it, regardless of external recognition
Extrinsic motivation characterizes the situations in which people engage in certain
activities not for a real interest but for instrumental purposes (e.g. reward)

Behaviorist approach to the motivation to learn

For a long time, it has been the main approach in this field.
Central concept REINFORCEMENT it is enough to produce satisfaction in the student through
a positive reinforcing stimulus to ensure motivated study behavior (m. extrinsic)

The limitation of this approach is that it excessively anchors the study to external reinforcement.
How can students grasp the importance and usefulness of studying itself if they perceive it?
only as an instrumental activity aimed at achieving a reward (without ties to
content to learn

Ford (1996) argues that giving a reward decreases intrinsic motivation, in particular
when it creates a conflict of objectives:
if the reward is seen as an attempt to control behavior
if the reward distracts attention from the main objective for which one should commit
if my reward depends on the grades I get in school, I'm only interested in knowing that
they will give me a vote
if the reward alters the psychological meaning of the task, pushing the person to
evaluate the main objectives for which one should engage in the activity ('if
I am rewarded for studying means that the task itself is worth nothing.

therefore the use of this approach is at risk

Cognitive approach
Two contributions to the reflection on motivation

Self-Determination Theory by Deci and Ryan (1985)

A behavior is motivated not only if it aims to achieve a goal, but also as it is
meets the fundamental needs of an individual
Motivation is driven by three fundamental needs of the person:
need for autonomy (tension to direct one's actions towards self-determined goals
and according to personally chosen methods)
need for competence (tendency to acquire knowledge and skills in a given area)
need for emotional connection with others (to be involved in a social relationship) is.
group work
the possibility of meeting these needs leads the person to perceive themselves as an effective agent, in
degree of being able to act and decide independently and to feel in control of one's actions and oneself
development

intrinsic motivation: it is a source of energy aimed at learning and growing in a way

positive, as a natural tendency that does not need to be induced but rather to have a
environment that allows her to stand out it is an innate tendency to explore one's own world
internal and external and manifests as curiosity and interest

A central concept is that of interest as the individual's disposition that manifests itself in front of
to activities or situations that appear as new, pleasant, stimulating

According to Deci, interest is dispositional, that is, differentiated from individual to individual according to three
elements:
individual capabilities (everyone tends to prefer activities in which they are more competent or
perceives to have more resources)
environmental factors (challenge the individual's need for competence, understood as the requirement of
master reality and establish the constraints within which an activity can unfold rather
that another)
social context (influences preferences if it meets basic needs in a
determined scope

So Ryan and Deci recognize that extrinsic motivation does not necessarily have a connotation
negative if the reward is perceived as informative feedback on one's ability to
perform a task, the reward stimulates the sense of competence and self-determination and increases
the interest in the task if it is perceived as a form of external control, the interest
decreases

Instructions for the teacher:

the role of interest (the interests of students in motivation the teacher must
tune in
meeting between interests and school activities (students can contribute to defining
promotion of knowledge and skills
It is important to take into account the need for relationships in the activity by creating work contexts.
in a class where such need is met

Ford's motivational systems theory (1992, 1996)

When we study the development of competent behavior, we distinguish three aspects:
components related to motivation (motivational direction) concerning decision-making
what to do in a situation
- components related to a person's skills (operational resources), which concern
the implementation of the decisions made
- components related to the environment, which concern both the availability of material resources,
techniques and information, as well as a positive emotional climate

in figure

motivational processes do not include attention, perceptual, processing, and

memorization, and problem-solving skills

motivation is driven by the combination of three elements:

 personal goals of an individual (they establish the direction in which a person intends to go
to move
processes of activation of emotions (that support or inhibit the implementation of actions)
to achieve personal goals
predictions regarding the modes of success (based on personal or environmental resources)
available)

motivational processes are future-oriented, as they allow people to imagine or

they foresee events and results that are important to them, preparing to act or react to build one
desired scenario or avoiding an undesirable one

Ford suggests imagining personal goals as the captain of a ship setting

which destination to reach, while emotions and perceptions of effectiveness are like consultants who
they help decide the opportunity to make the trip by indicating the factors that could increase
or the possibility of success

In this perspective, the teacher must facilitate the enactment of motivated behaviors by:
explicit the objectives of the activity proposed in class (so that the students can be aware of them
aware and can identify the outcomes that the teacher asks them to achieve
the absence of such clarification does not enable the student to decide whether to work on
that objective, nor does it allow him to effectively activate his operational resources.
make sure that the goal you are working on evokes positive emotions
for the students among the emotions that have a regulation function of
Ford's behavior identifies 4 fundamental groups (a) satisfaction-pleasure-joy
diminishment-discouragement-depression
disinterest-boredom-apathy
to favor an effective perception of the resources that the individual possesses (personal skills) or that
the environment (school and extracurricular) provides you with the opportunity to work towards a goal the
the function of this perception is to assist in the choice of objectives to pursue and to establish
how much time and effort is needed to achieve the result

Sociocultural approach
While the cognitive perspective focuses on the individual and the processes that occur
within his mind, in this approach motivation is studied by emphasizing
on the individual's interactions with other people and with the context in general

In cognitivism, the social dimension is one of many tools available for work.
of the teacher to increase the motivation to learn
In the sociocultural approach, learning is considered by its nature an activity
social There can be no learning without interaction with a partner who contributes to
build knowledge

Wigfield et al. (1998), Ajello (1999) analyze the school context to see how
the organization of the classroom and instructional practices influence motivation
The Authors distinguish between
Organizational aspects concerning the class
classroom and school climate
the definition of the objectives
the practices of grouping students based on abilities
Aspects related to the teacher's practices
evaluation practices of the teacher
 teacher control over the class
teacher support for students

Regarding the classroom climate, several studies have highlighted that:

student satisfaction and school growth are maximized only if the warmth and
the teacher's support is accompanied by an efficient organization and structuring
well-focused lessons on the topics and clear in objectives in other words, to have a
a good climate is not enough, a good relationship between teachers and students is also necessary
a good organization of activities
the overall school climate changes in relation to how much teachers
they feel professionally effective and in line with their expectations regarding the results of the students
can obtain the more teachers feel capable and have expectations of good
student performance, the more motivated they are in teaching and the students
in learning

Regarding the structuring of class objectives, Ames (1984) distinguishes three types:
-individualized structures (when each student is assessed based on their performance
personnel and its evaluation have no relation to the performance of others
competitive structures (all students must achieve a single objective, but in fact
only a few can reach it the performance of each student is measured in
relation to that of others winners and losers
cooperative structures (in which group members share successes and failures and the
evaluation is based on the overall performance of the group common goal)

In competitive environments, students focus more on self-assessment of their skills.

In general, differences in abilities are amplified: the skills of the winners are supported and
empowered while those of the losers are frustrated

In individualistic structures, a motivational orientation is developed to a greater extent.

aimed at mastery goals the student is mainly concerned with improving the
his own abilities (comparison with himself) and to prove to be more capable than others

In cooperative structures, the shared effort and interdependence among students are emphasized.
rather than the perception of personal abilities the performance of the group becomes the object
the motivational orientation and the perception of abilities become less crucial (e.g. cooperative
learning

Regarding the grouping practices of students based on their abilities, they are often carried out.
by the teachers assuming that students will be motivated to learn if the
Material or activity will be adjusted to their level of competence (high skills vs. low skills)
this leads to paradoxical results because various studies show that students placed in
groups with high skills achieve good performance, while those placed in the groups with
low skills do not improve

Regarding the teacher's practices, it is important to consider those related to

evaluation, to the monitoring of students' activities and the support provided
The evaluation of the teacher can provide students with important information about themselves.
performance the way and the form in which such information is given (public or
private; with or without motivations). When the evaluation is linked to differences in competence or
used as a classroom control strategy, intrinsic motivation is reduced
A crucial point of the teacher's control over the students concerns the use of rewards for
motivating students and their methods of delivery rewards can take
various forms (e.g. concrete or symbolic) and can become counterproductive for motivation
intrinsic entails for students the meaning of control tools in hand
to the teacher, if they distract from the internal objective of the activity or if they alter the meaning
psychological of the task
According to various authors, there are three different types of relational scenarios between students and teachers:
closeness (the teacher supports the students and encourages their school involvement)
dependency (poor adaptation at school by the tools and less motivation)
positive)
conflict (is negatively correlated with motivation)

Educational application proposals by McCombs and Pope (1996) inspired by matrix theories.
cognitivist and sociocultural
Changing the Vision of Learning from knowledge transmission to an active process
of building meaningful knowledge for students
To motivate students, certain principles must be followed:
students are motivated by situations or activities that encourage them to engage
personally and actively in their learning
students' motivation is stimulated if they perceive that the activities and tasks
school-related matters are linked to needs, interests, personal goals
motivation to learn can be stimulated in psychologically safe environments,
protected, supportive and characterized by positive human relationships

The teacher must structure a motivating environment by:

- encourage students to be aware of their own psychological functioning and the
improvement of one's sense of self-efficacy
help students value themselves, the learning process, and specific activities
scholastic
create opportunities for self-determination
encourage risk-taking in the school context to avoid negative situations
who might experience the school experience
to create a positive climate of personal and social support where all students are appreciated
for what I am.

For each of these areas, the authors identify objectives and intervention strategies.

First area (understanding psychological functioning and improving the sense of self-efficacy)
Objectives: help students understand the relationships between feelings-emotions and thoughts and the possibility
to check the first through the second
Strategy: it is proposed to invite students to work on the "thinking cycle" (see fig.)
It is a vicious circle that sometimes forms and feeds itself through sequences of thoughts or emotions.
translated into actions by the student, interacting with the actions of the teachers that reinforce the idea that
the student has of himself or of school work for example, when the student thinks that the assignment is
too difficult, reacts with anger and hostility towards the teacher and displays behavior
destructive or aggressive, resulting in a failure or a reprimand that confirms his feeling of
to be unable to tackle that task
The possibility of changing such vicious circles can help improve self-esteem and a sense of
security
Cycle of thought
Thought
this task is too difficult for me

4. Result 2. Feelings and Emotions

(failure or rebuke) (e.g. anger, hostility)

3. Behavior
(e.g. destructive or aggressive actions)

Second area (helping students to value themselves and learning)

Objectives: to help students express their interests, define personal goals,
identify relationships between educational and personal goals
Strategy: resorting to the use of collective discussions, questionnaires, and individual interviews aimed at
to identify the interests of the students
It is important to help students to set personal goals based on their interests (e.g., I
I like music so I want to learn to play an instrument.
A possible strategy is called goal-setting and consists of:
clearly define your own goal based on an interest
list some steps to take to achieve it
thinking about the problems that could arise
think of solutions to such problems
establish a timeframe within which to achieve the goal
evaluate one's progress
reward oneself for one's achievements
The next step is to connect personal goals and interests with learning and ...
educational objectives negotiation to arrive at defining the objectives of an educational project that
meet the needs of teachers and students

Third area (creating opportunities for self-determination)

Objectives: the need to rethink the roles of the teacher and students to promote autonomy
of these last
The teacher is a facilitator of a knowledge construction process, a guide in the use
of research, analysis, and information organization tools, a course designer
developing action plans to connect objectives, interests, and content
Strategy: construction of different learning environments with individual and work areas.
group; stimulate the student's assumption of responsibility in defining goals in
in such a way as to make him an expert

Fourth area (encouraging risk-taking)

Objectives: importance of anticipating risk-taking at the school level, as a capability to
to take on the challenge in front of complex and demanding knowledge problems
Strategy: recognize that you do not have the answers to all questions and topics; act
to choose the incentive systems for the students.

Fifth area (creating a positive atmosphere for learning)

Objectives: importance of creating a positive climate of mutual support in which students
be appreciated and valued individually in a sincere way in a safe and positive environment I
feelings of fear and uncertainty and the personal sense of ineffectiveness that underlie
demotivated behaviors are reduced
Strategy: identify among your own characteristics those that can favor the establishment of a
positive climate in the classroom; use procedures to assess the classroom climate through categories
descriptive (safe environment, clear relationship rules, collaborative decision-making processes, high
expectations, assumptions of responsibility

4. The organization of the class group

The organization of activities in the classroom (group management methods, classroom climate,
The sense of belonging to the group) is very important for teachers
There are different modes of organization that arise from different perspectives.

Behaviorism: symbolic economy (token economy)

The most effective system for maintaining motivation is the organization of relationships between actions.
of students and the related consequences that encourage desirable behaviors.
The reinforcements organized by the teacher can act as a bridge between the study behavior of
incentives and their natural reinforcers (e.g. a very young child learning to read)
The task of the school is to organize the connections between study behaviors and their
natural enhancers, using artificial enhancers as intermediaries.

An example is the TOKEN ECONOMY introduce a negotiation between students and teacher for
the finalization of an educational contract, in which the goals to be pursued are established
work and the rules for carrying out activities oriented towards them