Unit 1 Overview of

commercial
shipping

Many industries own their own fleets to carry their cargo, but others
prefer to hire vessels rather than invest in them. There are two basic
types of commercial shipping: tramp shipping and liner shipping. In
both types, shipowners charge clients fees for the use of their
vessels, but they serve different markets. There are important
differences in the way they operate.
The three lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 the place of tramp and liner services in commercial shipping
 bulk and general cargo
 tramp ships and cargo-liners.
Lesson 1...... Tramp and liner shipping
The commercial use of vessels includes a huge range of ships and
services—from small independently-owned fishing vessels to
elaborate oil-rig service vessels owned by international corporations.
The term merchant shipping refers to the fleet of commercial ships
in the ship’s registry of a particular nation. This course,
Commercial Shipping, is more specifically concerned with the
businesses and vessels used in the carriage of cargoes (including
passengers).
Many industries own and operate vessels that are specifically
designed for the carriage of their particular cargo. Other industries
use ships on a permanent contract from a shipowner. These
specialized ships usually move on set routes.
Rather than own or contract vessels on a permanent basis, some
shippers or shipping companies prefer to hire vessels according to
their needs. This may be to cover cyclical peaks in demand for
shipping capacity, to replace ships out-of-service, or simply as a
matter of policy to hire rather than to own, thus conserving capital.
The commercial shipping industry has two main segments, tramp
shipping and liner shipping.
In terms of quantity, tramp shipping occupies the most important
place in world shipping. Tramp shipping companies are much
smaller than their cargo-liner counterparts, and their business
demands an intimate knowledge of market conditions.

Development of commercial shipping in the Caribbean

In international trade, goods and services are exchanged among
countries. People in particular areas export things that they can
produce relatively cheaply or easily, and import things that are
produced more efficiently elsewhere.
In the Caribbean Sea, the Caribs and Arawaks were expert sailors
and, like other coastal peoples, likely developed trade using sea-
going vessels long before the Europeans arrived in the area.
Later, the area was fought over by the major European maritime
powers (France, Spain, Holland, and Great Britain) in their searches
for trading routes and gold.
 The triangle trade
The first African slaves were taken to Jamaica in 1517 by the
Spanish after the Arawaks were annihilated. In the seventeenth
century the infamous triangle trade developed. In this, British ships
took trade goods to Africa where they were exchanged for slaves.
These people then travelled the terrible ―middle passage‖ and were
delivered to plantations in the West Indies or in the English colonies
in America. They were exchanged for agricultural products such as
sugar, cocoa, and tobacco, which were taken back to Europe, often
via New England ports where the sugar was used to make rum.

The importance of Caribbean shipping today

The Caribbean Sea is important in modern international shipping
because of its:
 location on the route to and from the Panama Canal
 strategic location close to North, South, and Central America
 natural resources
 developing tourism industry.

Commercial shipping terms and their abbreviations

Commercial shipping uses some special terminology from shipping
and international commerce. Frequently used terms are often
abbreviated and sometimes there is more than one form of
abbreviation for a single term, which can be confusing when reading
different textbooks and documents.

Tramp shipping
Tramp ships carry mostly full shiploads of bulk cargo. They do not
have fixed routes or schedules, but carry any legal cargo anywhere
in the world. They contract to carry goods between two ports or
ranges. They are privately-owned carriers hired or chartered for a
particular period, voyage, or cargo, by clients who are called
charterers.
 The ships are usually individually contracted under negotiated terms.
There is no advertised tariff of charges, although the terms of charter
or fixtures are regularly published internationally. The negotiated
terms are set down in a document called a charter party (C/P).
Tramp ships are mostly bulk carriers, although many are specially
designed to be flexible in the type of cargo they can carry.

Liner shipping
Cargo-liners usually carry general cargo such as break-bulk and
containers. Some also carry passengers. They ply between
particular ports on fixed schedules charging fixed, advertised rates.
Cargo-liner companies issue documents called an ocean bill of
lading (or simply bill of lading) and a seaway bill. The bill of lading
is not a contract of carriage, but often carries details of the contract
and may act as legal evidence of the contract’s existence.
The ships serving as cargo-liners are mostly ro/ro (roll on/roll off)
vessels, container vessels, and general cargo vessels that are flexible
enough for a variety of cargoes.

Pooling
Sometimes, to achieve economies of scale, individual vessels, fleets,
or parts of fleets are pooled to increase available tonnage and allow
for bidding on larger contracts. Expenses and income are divided in
various ways among the investors.

Contracts of affreightment
Sometimes operators of time-charter vessels or pools of vessels
make a contract to carry a specified quantity of cargo on a particular
route within a specified period, without further specifying what
ships are to be used. The carrier is remunerated according to the
amount of cargo, and maybe using agreed loading and discharge
rates. The contracts are drawn up as they are needed between the
concerned parties.
Lesson 2 ......Bulk and general cargo
This lesson describes the predominant commercial cargoes carried
by tramp ships and cargo-liners. The course Seaborne Cargoes and
Dangerous Goods will describe cargoes further.
Bulk cargo is any cargo that is transported by sea in large
consignments in order to reduce the unit cost. It may be carried in
cargo-liners or in tramp ships. Most often only one bulk cargo is
carried at a time, although some ships can carry various bulk cargoes
in different holds or on different legs of a voyage.
General cargo is made up of smaller quantities of various cargoes.
These are shipped together either in containers or on pallets, in
bales, or some other method of assembly. It may include vehicles.

Characteristics of bulk cargo

Factors affecting whether cargo is suitable for bulk shipment are:
 volume and stocks
 handling and stowage characteristics
 regularity (seasonality).

Volume
There is no specific size at which a trade flow ―goes bulk‖. In
effect, the smallest practical bulk unit is the size of a single carrier
hold. Many commodities travel partly in bulk and partly as general
cargo. For example, 50 000 tonnes of wheat would certainly travel
in a bulk carrier, but 500 tonnes of malting barley would travel by
liner in bags or a container. To minimize stockholding, valuable
cargo is usually shipped in small quantities.

Handling and stowage characteristics

The cargo must be physically suitable for bulk handling. Several
aspects of the cargo are important:
 its handling characteristics for loading and unloading
 the ease with which it can be stowed within a hull
 its susceptibility to damage
 special requirements such as for low temperature, high pressure,
or corrosion-resistant containment vessels.
 Table 1–1 shows the way these factors might vary.

Commodity Handling Stowage

Liquids such as crude oil, oil Rapid handling Integral tanks or parcel tanks, anti-corrosive
products, vegetable oil, by pump linings, pressurization, refrigeration, or heating
liquefied petroleum gas etc. coils sometimes required
Homogeneous iron ore, coal, Conveyor, grab, Loose in bulk carrier hold
NFM ores, bulk materials or pneumatic
such as grain
Forest products; steel Unit load by Wide hatches an advantage
products; baled scrap; baled crane
wool
Vehicles and wheeled units Drive or lift on Cannot be stacked except on flats;
special docks required
Refrigerated cargo Lift on Cannot be stacked unless palletized; requires
refrigeration/temperature control

Table 1–1: Various cargo classifications

Packaging cargoes for carriage

Cargoes do not always travel only in only one form—they may be
packaged for carriage in several possible ways. Table 1–2 contains a
listing of minor bulk trades and general cargoes in 1982 & 1997 and
identifies the ways they were packaged for carriage. These types of
cargoes may also be packed in containers, or on pallets or flats for
transport.

Reducing handling
Costs can be reduced by minimizing the number of times cargo is
handled between its origin and destination, and by shipping in a
form that allows the use of economical transportation during each
leg. For example, importing cement in bags for onward shipment by
rail involves several expensive manual-handling operations. In
contrast bulk cement shipped loose can be discharged straight into
an automatic handling system where it is stored in silos and loaded
direct into bulk railcars.
 Volumes (in millions of tonnes) of minor bulk trades and
general cargoes and their packaging in 1997 (1982)
Commodity Vol. Cargo packages
Minerals
non-ferrous ores 22 (26) Bulk, bags, or drums
metal scrap 13 (15) Loose or bales
gypsum & plaster 14 (18) Bulk or bags
mineral sands 10 ( 5) Bulk or bags
salt 24 (18) Bulk, bags, or drums
asbestos 0 ( 1) Bags or drums
other crude minerals 43 (37) Bulk, bags, or drums
sulphur 10 ( 9) Bulk or drums
Agriculture & forestry
animal feedstuffs 82 (39) Bulk or bags
forest products 83 (84) Logs or packaged
sugar (raw & refined) 37 (28) Bags or baskets
coffee & tea 6 ( 5) Bags, chests, or containers
other foods (inc. flour) 82 (39) Bags or cartons
beverages & tobacco 15 ( 9) Bales, tanks, or cartons
rubber 8 ( 6) Bales, cases, or drums
textile fibres 7 ( 8) Pressed bales
other fibres 4 ( 3) Bulk, bales, or bags
oils & fats 32 (15) Cases, barrels, or drums
Semi-manufactures
woodpulp 60 (17) Pressed bales
non-ferrous metals 18 (12) Ingots or coils
steel products 116 (99) Ingots or coils
chemicals 87 (74) Ingots, coils, pipes, etc.
manufactured fertilizer 43 (37) Bulk or bags
cement 169 (58) Bulk, bags, or drums
Manufactures
non-energy petroleum
products 29 (35) Bulk or bags
paper 32 (24) Rolls or bales
textiles 11 ( 7) Bales or cartons
machinery 34 (16) Crates, boxes, or loose
other simple manufactures 45 (39)
metal manufactures Crates, boxes, etc.
(inc. kits) 9 (24) Crates, boxes, or loose
other manufactures 6 (10) Various
woodpulp & paper waste 19 (16) Pressed bales
Refrigerated cargoes
meat & dairy 9 ( 7) Cases, cartons, or kegs
fish 7 ( 4) Boxes or cartons
fruit & vegetables 26 (20) Cases, cartons, etc.

Table 1–2: Packaging of minor bulk trades and general cargoes

 Effects of seasonality
The shipping operation for cargoes that appear on the market
irregularly requires a different approach. For example, some grain
shipments are seasonal—–there is no regular pattern of trade since a
great deal depends on each year’s harvest. In this case the
immediate requirement is not for an integrated shipping system, but
for a chartering organization capable of obtaining the correct mix of
vessels to meet a changing pattern of trade.

Liquid-bulk cargo
Liquid cargoes shipped by sea fall into three main groups:
 crude oil and oil products
 liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
 vegetable oil and liquid chemicals such as ammonia and
phosphoric acid (minor liquid bulks).
The liquid-bulk cargoes account for about 40% of the world
seaborne trade, Table 1–3.

The liquid-bulk commodities

shipped by sea in 1997
(millions of tonnes)
Commodity Volume
Crude petroleum 1534
Petroleum products 326
Liquefied gas 220
Minor liquid bulks 14
Total 2094
Table 1–3: Liquid-bulk commodities

Crude oil
The oil trade depends on the location of crude oil reserves in relation
to the major oil-consuming centres in the United States, Western
Europe, Japan and, to an increasing extent, the developing countries.
The largest source of crude oil outside the consuming areas is the
Middle East (with 60% of reserves). The other major exporters are
Venezuela, West and North Africa, Mexico, and Indonesia.
Oil transport
Crude oil is transported from the oil fields often via pipeline to
terminals at the coast where it can be stored in a tank farm and
shipped to refineries. The average shipping haul for crude oil is over
7000 miles.
Petroleum and fuel oil is transported from refineries to distribution
centres and bunkering ports.

Oil products.
In both economic and shipping terms the oil products trade is very
different from the crude oil trade. The trade consists of the products
of the oil refining process, which are loosely classified as:
 clean products— the lighter distillates, principally kerosene and
gasoline, which are usually shipped in vessels with coated tanks
 dirty products—the lower distillates and residual oil, which are
generally shipped in conventional tankers, though they
sometimes need steam heating coils in the cargo tanks.

Liquefied gas
A highly specialized latecomer to the liquid-bulk shipping business
is the liquefied gas trade. The two most important liquefied gas
products shipped by sea are:
 liquid natural gas (LNG) which is mainly produced from
dedicated gas fields. LNG is liquefied at around –162C at
atmospheric pressure. It is loaded into ships with insulated
cargo tanks
 liquid petroleum gas (LPG) which is produced as a by-product
of oil wells (this gas is often flared off). Export is mainly from
OPEC countries, with volumes linked to crude-oil output. LPG
may be shipped at ambient temperature and pressure, but
nowadays is most often shipped –50C under pressure.

The transport of liquefied gas by sea is an expensive, complex, and

politically sensitive operation. It requires a substantial investment in
liquefaction and cargo handling facilities as well as the construction
of specialist tonnage.
Dry-bulk trades

The major dry-bulk trades

The three largest major trades are the driving forces behind the dry-
bulk carrier market. In 1997, the trade accounted for just under a
quarter of total seaborne trade. See Table 1–4.

The major dry-bulk commodities

shipped by sea in 1997
(millions of tonnes)
Commodity Volume
Coal and coke 460
Iron ore 430
Grain 203
Bauxite and alumina 54
Phosphate rock 32
Total 1179
Table 1–4: Major dry-bulk commodities

The minor dry-bulk trades

The minor dry-bulk trades are important employers of bulk carriers,
particularly for smaller vessels. Table 1–5 lists the significant minor
bulk trades.
The minor dry-bulk trade is the most complex sector of the bulk
shipping market. These commodities are shipped partly by liner and
partly by tramp ship, depending on the circumstances. For example,
steel products of various types might be shipped in chartered carriers
of 30 000 tonnes deadweight (dwt.) or small coastal charters of
500 tonnes dwt. They might use container ships or ro/ro services.
 Minor dry-bulk commodities
shipped by sea in 1997
(millions of tonnes)
Commodity Volume
Steel products 116
Forest products 83
Cement 169
Manufactured fertilizers 43
Sugar 37
Non-ferrous metal (NFM) ores 22
Salt 24
Sulphur 10
Others 302
Total 806
Table 1–5: Minor dry-bulk commodities
Lesson 3 ......Tramp ships and cargo-
liners
Unit 3 of the course General Ship Knowledge describes in more
detail the vessels used to transport cargoes.
Tramp ships are a type of general cargo ship that includes tankers
and bulk carriers. General cargo ships that are custom-built to
regularly serve particular routes and cargoes are called cargo-liners,
whereas tramp ships are vessels that find cargo wherever they
happen to be.
Container ships and ro/ro ships are more often used in the liner
trades than tramp shipping, but may be chartered for specific
projects. Specialized carriers such as reefers, self-unloaders (for ore
and gypsum), and livestock carriers are also used.

General cargo ships

Deep-sea general cargo ships are usually in the range of 15 000 to
25 000 tonnes. Most are tweendeckers, giving flexibility in the types
of cargoes that can be carried. For example, bulk cargo could be
carried in the lower holds, with palletized or baled goods in the
tweens. The tweendecks also help to spread the weight and stabilize
the cargo. Older general cargo ships were also designed to carry
about twelve passengers.
The major problem with many multipurpose ships is that, although
they can handle a wide range of cargo, they are not operationally
efficient in any of them.

Flexible bulk carriers

Some vessels are specially designed for fast cargo handling and
more efficient cargo stowage. For example:
One type of ship has 42 000 tonnes dwt. with wide hatches
giving a container capacity of 1660 TEU and three holds
with tweendecks for break-bulk cargo. Cargo-handling gear
includes four jib cranes and a 41-tonne gantry crane making
the vessel capable of loading heavy bulk cargo, grain, long
timber, and cars in 400 m2 of special garage space. The
holds have hydraulic container supports rather than cell
guides to speed up container handling, but they leave the
holds clear when carrying bulk cargo. The hatch covers are
hydraulic, and the ships have a design speed of 16.0 knots.
 Another type of vessel is tailored to handle cargo previously
carried by a mixed fleet of traditional liners and reefer ships.
The forward holds are all insulated to carry refrigerated
cargoes, with collapsible container cell guides and electrical
points for refrigerated containers. Doors for banana
conveyors are let into the tweendecks in each hold and side
doors allow the tweendecks to be worked while work is
proceeding in the lower hold. Hatch covers are strengthened
to take containers, and a 35-tonne crane enables the ship to
be fully self-sufficient with container loads in the smaller
ports of the West Indies. Holds aft of the bridge are devoted
to palletized or vehicle cargo on two decks, with access by a
wide stern ramp or a side door if the port does not have
facilities for stern-to-quay loading. Below are tanks for
carrying bulk rum. All these features give the vessel
maximum flexibility and very efficient cargo handling.

OBO carriers
One type of flexible carrier is the ore/bulk/oil (OBO) carrier, often
called a combined carrier. This may carry a full load of dry-bulk
cargo such as ore, coal, grain, or phosphates; or a liquid cargo such
as crude oil.

Dry- and liquid-bulk carriers

Dry-bulk carriers have large, open hatches and deep, wide holds.
Some have self-trimming features such as sloped bulkheads. They
are usually gearless. Some geared tweendeckers may be adapted to
dry-bulk shipment.
Liquid-bulk carriers are called tankers. They depend almost
exclusively on oil for their cargo. The world’s tanker fleet is divided
between tramp ships that operate under a charter party and those
owned by the oil companies. Most independently-owned tankers are
on long-term charter to the oil companies.
Their sizes are roughly (AFRA scale):
 handy or small size: under 25 kilotonnes dwt.
 medium size: 25 to just under 50 kilotonnes dwt.
 large sizes: 50 to just under 160 kilotonnes dwt.
 VLCC: 160 to just under 320 kilotonnes dwt.
 ULCC: 320 kilotonnes dwt. and over.
Break-bulk carriers
These vessels can carry a wide range of cargo. They usually have
their own shipboard cranes for loading and discharge. They are
about 500 feet long. The cargoes are usually packaged and move as
single parcels or assembled on pallets.

Container ships
More and more cargo is being transported in containers. These
boxes are either 20 or 40 feet long (6.1 or 12.2 metres), and can be
mounted on trucks, railcars, or ships as required, giving complete
door-to-door transport without disturbing the cargo. This reduces
handling costs a great deal. Some are refrigerated. Containers may
be used for anything that will fit in them, from bicycles to lobster.

Specialized tonnage
Some ships are built with special facilities suited to the five main
dry-bulk tramp ship trades. Naturally, the use of specialized ships
occurs only where this investment can provide a significant cost
reduction or quality improvement compared to general-purpose bulk
tonnage.

Reefer vessels
Refrigerated cargo is carried in reefer vessels with insulated holds.
Another part of this trade is shipped in reefer containers on liner
services whose vessels are equipped to carry and control the
temperature of reefer containers.

Ro/ro vessels
Any type of vehicle can roll on and roll off these vessels, including
containers, heavy and large objects, trucks, railcars, buses, and cars.
Because they are so flexible and useful in reducing port congestion,
they are very productive despite their high cost. They are used on
short and long hauls.

Auto carriers
These ro/ro vessels are like 600-foot long (183 m) floating garages
and can hold 2000 to 4000 vehicles. They are mostly owned by
Japanese companies.
Unit 2 Tramp ship
chartering

When a tramp ship’s owner receives money for it to be used to carry

cargo, the ship is said to be chartered. The conditions under which
the ship is chartered are set out in a document called the charter
party, which is a legal agreement between the charterer and the
owner. Chartering tramp ships is an important part of commercial
shipping.
The three lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 the charter market and tramp shipping operation
 types of charters
 the charter party.
Lesson 1 ......The charter market and
tramp shipping operation
The shipowner has a vessel for hire with a particular speed, cargo
capacity, dimensions, and cargo handling gear. The vessel will
probably have existing contractual commitments, which will
determine the date and location at which it will become available.
Similarly, there is a charterer with particular cargo to transport at a
specified time. Their needs will be mutually met in the charter
market.
Some shipowners may pursue contracts directly with a shipper and
fix up a charter themselves. However, the majority of shipowners
and shippers use brokers and agents who specialize in seeking out
contacts to make an agreement to charter (or fix) the vessel.
An agent/broker puts the deal together, possibly with the
involvement of an institution such as the Baltic Exchange to act as a
clearing house. By tradition, any verbal agreement is binding, but
the detail is set out in the written contract called a charter party
(C/P). Once the pick-up and disposal of the freight are arranged and
the charges agreed, the charter party is signed. At this point the
arrangements are said to be fixed.
Efficient business depends upon the ability of shippers and
shipowners to conclude the business quickly and fairly without
resorting to legal disputes. Nowadays, they usually use an electronic
data interchange (EDI) system of some sort to exchange what used
to be paper documents.

Tramp shipowners
Shipowners may be private (possible family) companies with small
fleets, or large corporations or consortiums with very large fleets.
Some large industries operate their own cargo fleets and may charter
their vessels to avoid return ballast voyages (voyages without cargo,
that stabilize the ship using ballast).
It is in shipowners’ interests to have their ships in use carrying cargo
as much as possible. Unfortunately, world trade is not balanced
since some regions receive large imports but have few exports.
Sometimes owners are forced to leave a discharge port in ballast.
 Tramp ship agents
Because it is not feasible for tramp ship owners to have branch
offices in every port throughout the world, the services of ship’s
agents are required. Ship’s agents are appointed as required at
loading and discharging ports.
Ship’s agents represent and protect shipowners’ interests while the
ships are in port. The agent acts on behalf of the shipowner under
the authorization of the shipowner and/or master.
Ship’s agents deal with local port authorities and must be aware of
government regulations that apply during the vessel’s visit. The
agent performs whatever functions are required to operate and
manage the vessel and assist the master of the vessel to comply with
governmental regulations and charter party terms.

Charterers
The shipper or charterer has a volume of cargo to transport from one
location to another or may be a liner company that needs an extra
ship for a short period. The timing and the characteristics of the
cargo will determine the type of shipping contract required.

Brokers and shipping centres

There are four types of brokers in the tramp industry:
 shipowners’ brokers
 charterers’ brokers
 tanker brokers (specializing in liquid bulk cargo and tankers)
 sale and purchase brokers (buying and selling ships and
sometimes assisting in arranging financing of these sales).

A shipbroker can be an individual on his/her own or may be a

company that employs several brokers. Brokers earn a commission
based on a percentage of the charter rate.
Professional accreditation is usually not a requirement. However,
there is a professional organization based in London which offers
accreditation through a series of examinations. This recognizes the
broker as an Associate or Fellow of the Institute of Chartered
Shipbrokers (AICS or FICS).
 Brokers’ functions
The shipowner contacts the owner’s broker about the need for a
charter. It is this broker’s job to find suitable cargo by negotiating
with charterers’ brokers. When the charterer’s broker finds a
suitable vessel available on the right dates, he contacts the owner’s
broker with details of the cargo and quantity, dates, loading and
discharge ports, and the freight rate the shipper is willing to pay.
Services provided by shipbrokers include:
 negotiating charter parties
 providing contacts to clients
 giving advice to principals
 preparing final charter party documents.

Brokers acting as port agents

Shipbrokers sometimes provide the service of port agency to their
ship-owning clients. Port agents attend to owner’s and ship’s
business of husbandry, port services, and assisting the master with
operational aspects of cargo loading or discharge. As agents, they
earn a commission.

Shipping centres
To carry out their function effectively, shippers’ and shipowners’
brokers need an extensive network of contacts. For this reason,
there is an advantage in operating from an established shipping
centre, though much is now arranged by Electronic Data Interchange
(EDI).
The largest centre for brokerage activity is the Baltic Exchange in
London. Membership (and rights to trade there) is by election.
Members must hold the FICS designation. There are also important
centres in New York, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Oslo, and Hamburg.

Freight charges and fixtures

Tramp freight rates are not published as a tariff (as they are in liner
shipping). Supply and demand regulates the tramp freight market.
  An owner’s (seller’s) market exists when the demand for vessels
to carry cargo from an area exceeds the supply of ships available
to carry the cargo. An owner can then demand a higher price.
 A charterer’s (buyer’s) market exists when there are many ships
positioned in an area with few cargoes available for carriage.
Charterers can then ―shop around‖ for the lowest rates.

The rates at which charters are fixed depend on market conditions,

and shipowners and charterers take an active interest in the current
rates. Freight fixtures for tramp charters are recorded daily in a
variety of shipping publications such as Lloyd’s List and there are
also other quarterly publications. There are dry-cargo market reports
as well as tanker chartering reports. The data in them may be used
to measure the trends in the world tramp market.

The dry-cargo market report

This report consists of a commentary on market conditions followed
by a list of reported charters under the heading grain, ores, pumice,
and time charters. Not all charters will be reported. The report
usually starts with general comments, such as: “The market saw a
smattering of grain fixtures reported in an otherwise exceptionally
quiet day”.
In the fixture report, the details of the charter are generally
summarized in a specific order. [The following examples are from
Lloyd’s List, July 1986.]

Voyage charter report

A report on a voyage charter might be as follows:
US Gulf to Algeria – Scan Venture, 18 000 t (5%),
heavy grains/sorghum/soya beans, $12.50, 4
days/1,000 t, July 23 - 25 (André)
This means that the vessel Scan Venture has been chartered to load
cargo in the US Gulf and transport it to Algeria. The cargo consists
of 18 000 tonnes of heavy grains, sorghum, and soya beans at a
freight rate of $12.50 per tonne. Four days are allowed for loading
and 1000 tonnes per day rate allowed for discharging. The vessel
must present itself ready to load between July 23 and July 25. The
charterers are Messrs. André.

Time charter report

The layout for time charters is slightly different—the ship details are
given in brackets after its name. For example:
 Captain Sarantis (34 800 DWT, Greek, built 1982,
13 knots on 25 t ifo) delivery passing Cape Passero
westbound, July 25-29, transatlantic round voyage,
redelivery Skaw Cape Passero range, $2700 per
day. (Italmare)
In this case, the vessel carries 34 800 tonnes dwt., is Greek
registered, built in 1982, with a fuel consumption of 25 tonnes of
intermediate fuel oil (IFO) per day when travelling at 13 knots. The
vessel is to be delivered to charterers for a time charter trip passing
Cape Passero, the southern tip of Sicily, between July 25 and July
29. The vessel is to undertake a transatlantic round voyage at a
charter rate of $2700 per day, and is to be redelivered to the owners
on returning to Cape Passero. The charterers are Messrs. Italmare.
Note that this time charter is for a single voyage, not a long period.

Tanker charter reports

Tanker charter reports follow a similar pattern to the dry cargo
market, though the main division in the reported charters is between
―clean‖ and ―dirty‖. Clean charters refer to tankers carrying clean
oil products, while dirty charters refer to tankers carrying crude oil
and black products.

Worldscale
Tanker fixtures are generally published in Worldscale. This is an
index based on the cost of operating a standard tanker on the route.
For example: An item reported in the commentary is the fixing of a
262 000 tonnes dwt. VLCC, which had recently come out of a lay-up
at a rate of Worldscale 33. This charter rate is 40 to 50% higher
than the vessel would have obtained six months earlier, reflecting
the improvement in the shipping market that had brought it out of
lay-up.
The details reported for a tanker charter follow a similar pattern to
dry cargo. For example:
Caribbean Sea to US Atlantic Coast - Rover, part
cargo 27,000 t, Worldscale 130, July 29. (C. Itoh,
New York)
This means that the motorship Rover has been fixed for a voyage
charter from the Caribbean to the US Atlantic Coast. The cargo is
27 000 tonnes and is a part cargo, which means that the Rover must
carry more than 27 000 tonnes. (Checking in Clarkson’s Tanker
Register, we see that Rover is a 1977-built product tanker capable of
carrying 35 000 tonnes dwt.). The charter rate is Worldscale 130
 and commences on July 29. The charterer is C. Itoh, the Japanese
trading house.
Note that the charter rate for the small-products tanker is
substantially higher than for the VLCC, which reflects the smaller
cargo size and shorter voyage of the product fixture.

Tramp ship operation

A tramp ship owner may be an individual or a company. Tramp
operations require a smaller staff than that of a liner company. The
operations include:
 crewing
 purchasing
 engineering and technical operations
 insurance and claims
 chartering.

Crewing
This department arranges hiring and deployment of crewmembers.
Tramp owners often contract this work out to crewing agencies who
often obtain low-cost crews from less developed countries.
Other crewing matters include:
 training of officers and crew
 scheduling of work and holiday periods
 transportation of crew to and from the vessels
 remuneration and benefits.

Purchasing
Ships require numerous supplies including food for crew, fuel
(bunkers), and spare parts. Purchasing departments arrange
contracts with ships’ chandlers and suppliers as necessary. They
may also arrange warehousing of spare parts in strategic locations to
minimize ship downtime.

Engineering and technical operations

This department oversees maintenance programs and dry-docking
for company vessels. It is normally headed by an engineering
superintendent. In the event of a major ship breakdown, the
 engineering superintendent will be dispatched to the ship to
coordinate and supervise the repairs.
Tramp shipowners invest money in vessel maintenance programs to
comply with flag and classification requirements. This also
maintains and promotes their reputations as being capable and
efficient carriers.

Insurance and claims department

This department does the following:
 arrangements for insurance for vessel–hull insurance and
protection and indemnity (P&I) insurance
 dealing with claims against ship and owner

Chartering
This department does the following:
 chartering operations
 engagement of brokers
 appointment of port agents.

Controlling tramp ship routes and schedules

Tramp ships travel from one country to another depending on the
requirements of the merchants and markets. For example:
A shipper in Brazil has a large quantity of ore to be
shipped to Hamburg. Not owning vessels himself,
he applies to a shipping company, which directs one
of its vessels to the Brazilian ports. The ore is
loaded and carried to Hamburg to discharge. In the
meantime, owing to its extensive commercial
relations, the shipping company has been charged
to ship a lot of fertilizer from Rotterdam to
Australia. The vessel sails to Rotterdam to load the
fertilizer and carries it to Australia. Maybe, cargo
for Hong Kong is waiting for her in the Australian
port, and there may be further cargoes from Hong
Kong for Yokohama, and so on.
No particular schedule controls the sailing of a tramp ship; however,
on each voyage, cargoes must be picked up and delivered within a
particular timeframe at particular ports. Specialist bulk trades
require precise timetables during each voyage, using ships with a
 high cargo capacity and fast cargo handling. This requires close co-
operation between the shipper and the shipowner.

BIMCO
Tramp shipping has its own organization–The Baltic and
International Maritime Conference (BIMCO) with membership
open to owners and brokers. The organization does not set freight
charges (which are market-driven). It supplies general information
to its members concerning such things as congestion and ice-
movement. It also gives legal advice, and members can use BIMCO
charter forms to avoid legally doubtful clauses.
Lesson 2...... Types of charters
There are two broad categories of charter:
 demise or bare-boat charters in which the charterer provides the
cargo and the crew, taking full responsibility for the operation of
the vessel. These charters are for a period of time from a few
weeks to several years.
 non-demise charters in which the shipowner provides the vessel
and the crew. The charterer supplies only the cargo. These may
be voyage charters (carrying specific cargoes between specific
ports for a pre-arranged freight). Or they may be time charters
for a stated period or voyage for pre-arranged hire money.

Voyage charters include the following variations:

 gross terms (owner pays all loading, unloading, and port
charges)
 free in and out (f.i.o.) charter (charterer pays for loading and
unloading)
 lump sum charter (owner guarantees a certain volume of cargo
space–this is good for mixed cargo)
 liner terms (charterer pays loading, stowing, and unloading
costs)
 berth terms (shipowner pays loading and unloading costs; lay
time is indefinite).

The charter party contains all details of the vessel, cargo-handling

equipment, voyage, time involved, and cargo.

Voyage charters
With a voyage charter the freight is agreed upon at a certain amount
per ton of cargo or at a fixed amount. The freight level depends on
supply and demand. Usually, except for the freight charges, all costs
are paid by the shipowner. No charges are for the charterer’s
 account, unless otherwise agreed upon in the charter-party (for
example loading and discharging expenses).

Demurrage and dispatch money

The freight agreed upon includes a fixed number of loading and
discharging days. This is called lay time. If the charterer needs
more days for loading or discharging, he will have to pay an
additional amount called demurrage. If fewer days are required, the
shipowner as a rule reimburses the charterer an amount called
dispatch money. The rates for demurrage and dispatch are given in
dollars per day in the charter party. If the voyage is not completed
within the terms of charter party, then there will be a claim.

Time charters
In a time charter the shipowner charters the ship to the charterer at
an agreed fee per day, per month, or per year.
 In a time charter trip, the vessel is hired for one particular
voyage.
 In a period time charter, the ship is hired for a period during
which it may travel anywhere.

The charter party clauses for a time charter are rather different from
those for voyage charters although a number of clauses are common
to both types. The charter party usually sets out certain conditions
under which the charterer is entitled to terminate the arrangement.
For example, if the owner fails to run the ship efficiently.

Hire
Hire is usually charged per tonne deadweight per calendar month.
This rate depends on the market. During the time charter, the
shipowner continues to pay the operating costs of the vessel (crew,
maintenance and repair, stores, lubricants, insurance and
administration). The shipowner has a clear basis for preparing the
ship budget as he knows the ship operating costs from experience
and is in receipt of a fixed daily or monthly charter rate

Charterer’s costs
In a time charter, the charterer directs the commercial operations of
the vessel and pays all voyage expenses and cargo handling costs.
The owner must provide a warranty regarding the vessel’s
performance in terms of speed and fuel consumption. The term of
hire will be adjusted if these margins are not met. The charter also
 sets out the conditions under which the vessel is regarded as ―off
hire‖, when the charterer is not required to pay for the vessel. This
may arise, for instance, owing to emergency repairs.

Trading limits
When fixing a vessel on time charter, the shipowner should consider
the trading limits (the areas where the vessel will be trading). Many
charters stipulate that the vessel shall trade within Institute Warranty
Limits. These are the districts considered safe by the insurance
authorities. If the vessel goes beyond these limits the question of
who is to pay the extra insurance must be decided.

Effects of certain trades

The owner must also consider what trade his vessel is to be
employed in. For example, regular employment in the ore trade is
likely to cause heavy wear and tear on the vessel. Also, loading and
discharging of ore is usually very quick and the vessel has little time
in port in which to carry out maintenance.

Advantages and disadvantages of time charters

The advantages to the shipowner are:
 a regular income and minimum of risk
 no worries about the day-to-day trading of the vessel
 protection against a decline in freight rates.

The disadvantages to the shipowner are:

 loss of control of the vessel
 inability to take advantage of rising freight market
 vessel may not be in convenient locations to perform
maintenance work during a long-term charter.

The advantages to the charterer are:

 the benefits of freight rises
 ability to trade the vessel almost as if it were his own;
 the longer the period of hire, the cheaper the rate at which he can
assure tonnage.
 The disadvantages to the charterer are:
 commitment to the payment of hire
 if trade diminishes, there may be a loss

Bareboat (demise) charters

Under this arrangements the shipowner purchases the vessel but
hands it over to the charterer who manages the vessel. The owner is
not active in the operation of the vessel and does not require any
specific maritime skills. Sometimes the chief engineer acts as the
shipowner’s representative, providing experience of the vessel.
In a bareboat charter the shipowner pays only the depreciation and
the insurance premium unless it has otherwise been agreed upon in
the charter party. All other charges for the vessel’s operation are for
the charterer’s account.
Lesson 3 ......The charter party
If negotiations are successful, arrangements to carry the cargo are
formalized in the contract of carriage or contract of affreightment.
In tramp shipping, these are more often called a charter party (C/P).
The term ―party‖ comes from the old French term parti, meaning
torn. The charter would be torn to give each signer a copy.
Matching the shapes of the tear subsequently proved that the
documents were the originals.
The terms of a charter are written out in the C/P. To avoid disputes
over these terms, it is usual to specify the standard document to be
used when the order is quoted. This is very important in a market
where freight rates can change substantially over a short period and
one of the contracting parties may look for a legal loophole.
Because there are so many variants, there is no definitive list of
charter party clauses. However, the BIMCO Gencon charter party is
a good example of the six major components.

Details of the ship and the contracting parties.

The C/P specifies:
 names of the shipowner, charterer, and broker(s)
 details of the ship, including its name, size, and cargo capacity
 the ship’s position
 the brokerage fee, stating who is to pay.

Details of the cargo and shipper

The C/P specifies:
 description of cargo to be carried, drawing attention to any
special features
 name and address of the shipper, so that the shipowner knows
whom to contact when he arrives at the port to load cargo.
Terms of carriage
The C/P specifies the terms on which the cargo is to be carried. This
important part of the voyage charter party defines the commitments
of the shipper and shipowner under the contract.
This covers:
 the dates on which the vessel will be available for loading
 the loading port or area
 the discharging port and details of multiport discharge where
appropriate
 lay time (time allowed for loading and discharge of cargo)
 demurrage rate per day in US dollars
 payment of loading and discharge expenses.

Terms of payment
The terms of payment are important because very large sums of
money are involved. The C/P specifies:
 the freight to be paid
 the timing of payments—payment may be made in advance, on
discharge of cargo, or as instalments during the tenure of the
contract
 currency and other details of the payment method.

Penalties for non-performance.

The notes in Part II of the charter party contain clauses setting out
the terms on which penalties will be payable, in the event of either
party failing to discharge its responsibilities.

Administrative clauses
These clauses cover other matters that may give rise to difficulties if
not clarified in advance. These include such things as:
 appointment of agents and stevedores
 bills of lading
 provisions for dealing with unusual occurrences such as strikes,
wars, ice, hurricanes, etc.
Special clauses for time charters
Time charter parties follow the same general principles as voyage
charter parties. However, they may exclude the items dealing with
the cargo and include items that specify the ship’s expected
performance. This includes:
 fuel consumption and speed.
 quantity and prices of bunkers on delivery and redelivery
 equipment.

Definitions of charter party terms

All-purpose days Days allowed for both loading and discharge
Always safely afloat
The vessel is to be berthed at a place that it can
reach when loaded, and where it will at no time
rest upon the bottom of the river or dock.
Bareboat or demise charter
The owner of the ship contracts (for a fee,
usually long-term) to another party for its
operation. The ship is then operated by the
second party as if he or she owned it.
Berth terms or liner terms
If a vessel is chartered on berth terms or liner
terms, this means that loading and discharge is
to take place in the same way as in the liner
trade. The loading and discharging expenses
within board are for the carrier's account.
Cancelling date The date on which the vessel must be ready to
load at the latest, in default of which the
charterer is entitled to cancel the charter.
Charterer Individual or company who hires a ship.
Charter party (C/P) Contract setting out the terms on which the
shipper contracts for the transportation of cargo
or the charterer contracts for the hire of a ship.
Cost, insurance, and freight (CIF)
The purchase price of the goods (by importer)
including payment of insurance and freight,
which are arranged by the exporter.
Contract of affreightment (COA)
Shipowner undertakes to carry quantities of a
 specific cargo on a particular route or routes
over a given period of time using ships of the
shipowner’s choice.
Deadfreight The freight charged for space reserved but not
used (the charterer fails to ship the whole
quantity of cargo for which the charter-party
has been drawn up).
Demurrage Liquidated damages (compensation) payable to
the shipowner for delay (for which he is not
responsible) in loading and/or discharging
beyond the lay time.
Dispatch money Money that the owner agrees to repay if the ship
is loaded or discharged in less than the lay time
allowed in the charter party (customarily half of
the demurrage).
Free discharge All costs of discharging are for the consignee’s
account. [It’s ―free‖ for the shipowner.]
Free in and out (f.i.o.)
The cost of loading is for the shipper’s account
and the cost of discharging is similarly, for the
consignee’s account. This is the opposite of
―gross terms‖ which means the shipowner pays.
Free in and... (condition)
The cost of loading is for the shipper’s account,
the attached condition specifying more precisely
at what point the shipper’s responsibilities end,
and the consignee’s begin. For example, free in
and stowed; free in and stowed and trimmed.
Free on... (transport) ... (named place)
Specification of at what point the shipper’s
responsibilities end and the consignee’s begin.
For example, ―free on truck (f.o.t.) Kingston‖,
would mean the shipper pays all costs up until
the cargo is loaded on the consignee’s truck in
Kingston. Other examples are free on wagon
(f.o.w.), free alongside (f.a.s.), and free on board
(f.o.b.). It is important that the place be named.
Geographic rotation
When a vessel has to load or to discharge in
different ports in a certain range, the ports to be
called at are in geographical order of succession,
from north to south (or vice versa) or from east
 to west (or vice versa) to avoid unnecessary
deviations in the voyage.
Gross terms (or gross charter)
The costs of loading, stowing, and discharging
are for account of the vessel. (The term ―gross
charter‖ is American.) As a rule voyage
charters come under this category. The opposite
is ―free in and out‖.
Lay time (lay days) The period of time agreed between the parties in
a voyage charter for loading and discharging
the cargo. This may be expressed as a number
of days or as specific dates.
Notice of readiness The notice of readiness is a notice from or on
behalf of the ship’s master to the charterer or his
agent that the vessel is ready.
Off hire In a time charter, off hire means that the hire can
be adjusted for a certain period when the vessel
has not been ready for use. This may happen in
case of engine breakdown, insufficient crew,
etc.
Period time charter Shipowner earns daily hire for a specified
period, paid monthly or semi-monthly in
advance. The shipowner retains possession and
mans and operates the ship under instruction
from the charterer. The charterer pays voyage
costs.
Reversible lay days If the lay days allowed for loading and
discharge are not equally divided, under the
reversible lay days clause, the time gained or
lost at the loading can be compensated in
discharge (and vice versa). Therefore,
settlement of demurrage or dispatch money can
take place only after completion of loading and
discharge.
Shipper Individual or company with cargo to transport
by sea.
Shipowner Individual or company with a ship for hire.
Time charters The vessel is hired for a specified period of time
for payment of a daily, monthly or annual fee.
Time charter trip Shipowner earns hire per day for the period
determined by a specified voyage for the
carriage of a specific cargo.
Voyage charter Ship earns freight per ton of cargo transported
on terms set out in the charter party which
specifies the precise nature and volume of
cargo, the ports of loading and discharge and the
lay time and demurrage. All costs paid by the
shipowner.
Voyage costs Costs of fuel consumption for the main engine
and auxiliary engines (depends on fuel prices
and speed), port charges, canal dues, tugs, etc.
Unit 3 Lay time
In commercial shipping, it is important to meet agreed deadlines.
Timeliness affects both the ship owner and the charterer, resulting in
profits and rewards. Failure to meet deadlines can result in breach
of contract, losses, and penalties. In addition to voyage time, a
significant factor in meeting the timelines of a shipping contract is
the time taken to load and discharge cargo. The time in port to do
this is called lay time. The specification and calculation of lay time
is crucial in commercial shipping.
The lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 the factors involved in specifying lay time
 methods used to calculate lay time.
Lesson 1...... Overview of lay time
Lay time is the time taken in port to load and unload a vessel. It is
also called lay days. If the cargo takes longer than the allowed time
to load or discharge, the shipper or charterer must pay a penalty to
the ship owner to compensate for delaying the ship. The penalty is
called demurrage and is usually specified in the charter party. When
the cargo is loaded faster than the allowed lay time, that is to the
advantage of the ship owner, who must then pay dispatch (or
despatch) money. This is deductible from the shipper or charterer's
payables. The rate is specified in the C/P and is usually half the
demurrage rate.

Definitions of lay time

Lay time may be expressed in several ways:
 by a number days or hours allowed for loading or unloading the
vessel (for example, cargo to be loaded within 5 weather
working days of 24 consecutive hours)
 by a specific date range within which the vessel must be ready
for loading or unloading (for example: if a vessel is chartered
with ―lay days 10/28 June‖, this implies that the charterer is not
obliged to start loading before June 10 and that June 28 is the
last date on which the vessel must be ready for loading. This
last date is called the cancelling date
 indefinitely (for example, by custom of the port (COP), using
customary dispatch (CD), or as fast as you can (FAC)
 by calculation using a variety of factors in the C/P clauses.

There are defined ways of judging when to start calculating lay time
as well as ways of calculating its duration. These are usually
expressed in the charter party.

Reversible lay days

Under the reversible lay days clause of a charter party, the times
allowed for loading and unloading are not necessarily equal. Any
 time gained or lost at the loading can be compensated in discharge
time and vice versa. Therefore, settlement of demurrage or dispatch
money can take place only after completion of loading and
discharge.

All purpose lay days

If the lay days clause designates a number of days as all-purpose,
this refers to time allowed for both loading and discharge.

Custom of the port (COP)

It is sometimes stipulated in charter-parties that the loading and
discharging time will be calculated in accordance with the custom of
the port. This means that cargo is to be loaded or unloaded
according to local practices and customs. No specific rate of cargo
handling is in the agreement. Such a clause can give rise to all sorts
of disputes and is usually avoided if possible.
If the clause is accepted in a charter party, the principals should be
sure that it meets the following requirements:
 the custom of the port must be generally known
 it must be certain
 it must be reasonable
 it may not be contrary to law.

Commencement of lay time

The commencement of lay time is triggered by:
 arrival of the ship
 readiness to load or discharge
 tendering of a valid notice of readiness (NOR)

Arrival
If the C/P specifies a precise location within the port, such as a
particular loading berth, this is simple. However, if only the port is
specified, the area is larger, and there may be disagreement about
what is ―arrival‖. Some C/P clauses are intended to trigger the
running of lay time even when the ship is not at its loading place,
such as ―whether in berth or not‖. There are berth, dock, and port
C/Ps.
 Arrival may be delayed by such things as ice, blockades, or strikes.
If it is not reasonably possible for the ship to get safely to the
specified place, there may be a clause in the C/P giving alternate
destinations.

Readiness and NOR

The ship must be ready to load. This means readiness in both the
legal and the physical sense. A notice of readiness (NOR) must be
issued on behalf of the owner to the charterer. This notice implies
that the vessel has arrived at the specified destination with all
required documentation in order, and is ready to load or discharge.

After tendering of the NOR, lay time commences in accordance with

C/P specifications. For example, the C/P may specify that ―lay time
shall commence six hours after NOR‖. In some C/P forms, the NOR
may not be tendered outside of normal working hours, which in
effect can delay commencement of running time.

Delays to commencement
Circumstances that may delay commencement of lay time include:
 free pratique not granted—when a vessel enters a port, before
it can be entered in by Customs, a maritime declaration of
health must be submitted and health clearance granted. It is then
said that free pratique is granted. If it is not, delays in
commencement of lay time may occur
 failed hold inspections—holds are inspected for some cargoes
such as grain. Certificates of fitness are issued by port wardens
for seaworthiness and agricultural authorities for cleanliness
 customs not cleared—customs documentation must be in order
before the ship can load or unload cargo
 port turn around time and lack of berths—if turn-around time
in port is not good, no berth may be available. Unless there is a
clause in the C/P, this may delay the running of lay time
 strikes—delay caused by strikes at the port are a risk to the
charterer unless there is a protective clause in the C/P. Some
clauses allow for cancellation of the C/P in the event of strikes.
Duration of lay time
Once lay time has begun it runs continuously against the charterers
unless custom or express words in the C/P provide to the contrary.
This is so even where the delays have been caused by circumstances
beyond their control, such as bad weather, congestion, strikes, or
shortage of cargo, provided that the ship owners were not
responsible for any of those circumstances.

Interruptions to lay time

A number of common C/P clauses specify whether or not certain
conditions or happenings will affect the calculation of lay time.

Shifting in port
Time spent shifting between berths or between berth and anchorage
in port counts as lay time unless the C/P says it does not. This is so
even if the shifting is ordered by the port authority rather than the
charterer.

Weekends and holidays

The test of what is a holiday is whether the day in question is
customarily regarded as a holiday at the port in question. The fact
that work is sometimes done on that day is not a factor. Several
abbreviations are used in this regard:
SHEX Sundays and holidays do not count as lay time
SHINC Sundays and holidays do count as lay time
SHEX unless used Sundays and holidays do not count unless they
are used for cargo operations
FHEX Fridays and holidays do not count (used in
countries where Friday is an observed religious
holiday).

Strikes
Strikes are a risk that can interrupt lay time unless a C/P clause
explicitly protects the charterer.

Bad weather
Unless there is a protection clause, bad weather does not interrupt
the counting of lay time. The extent to which a suspension is
allowed due to bad weather depends on the wording of the clause
about working time. There are two main types of clauses:
  weather working–lay time is not counted during weather bad
enough to suspend cargo operations. Note that this may be in
effect even though cargo operations are stopped for some other
reason
 weather permitting–lay time is suspended only when cargo
operations are suspended due to bad weather.

Statement of facts (SOF)

The statement of facts (SOF) is a summary of events at the loading
or discharging port. It is signed by (or on behalf of) the ship owner
and the charterer. It includes any information that is relevant to the
calculation of lay time. This includes
 vessel readiness to load or discharge
 time and date of tendering of the notice of readiness
 start and finish of cargo operations
 details of interruptions of cargo operations.

Where there is disagreement over the contents of the SOF, it may be

signed ―under protest‖ to indicate that it may be challenged later on.

Examples of SOFs
Suppose that a vessel carrying ore from India to the Northern Range
has a timesheet based on reversible lay days. The SOF for Bombay
and Baltimore might contain the information shown in Table 3–1
and Table 3–2. They will, of course, also have information about
the agents, documentation, and the C/P.
Statement of Facts
m /s Bombay to Baltimore
Cargo: 11 350 tonnes of Iron ore
Day Date Time
Vessel arrived Bombay (roads) Wednesday Jan 4 1730
Vessel berthed at Bombay Saturday Jan 7 1615
Notice of readiness tendered Monday Jan 9 0900
Notice of readiness accepted Monday Jan 9 0900
Time commenced to count from Tuesday Jan 10 0700
Commenced loading Saturday Jan 7 1745
Completed loading Thursday Jan 12 1900
Time allowed for loading at the rate of 1000 tonnes per weather working day as per C/P:
11 days 8 hours 24 minutes.
Lay days to be reversible
Table 3–1: Statement of facts loading in Bombay

Statement of Facts
m /s Bombay to Baltimore
Cargo: 11 245 tonnes of Iron ore (delivered weight)
Day Date Time
Vessel arrived at Baltimore Sunday Feb 12 1430
Vessel berthed at Baltimore Sunday Feb 12 1730
Notice of readiness tendered Tuesday Feb 14 0900
Notice of readiness accepted Tuesday Feb 14 0900
Time commenced to count from Wednesday Feb 15 0800
Commenced discharging Tuesday Feb 14 0800
Completed discharging Friday Feb 17 2130
Time allowed for discharging at the rate of 1000 tonnes per weather working day as per
C/P: 11 days 5 hours 53 minutes.
Time saved at Bombay 8 days 20 hours 24 minutes (see timesheet)
Extra time required a/c stowed in difficult place 0 days 4 hours 0 minutes
Time available for discharge 20 days 6 hours 17 minutes
Holidays:
Lincoln’s birthday Monday February 13: Notice of Readiness could not be tendered
before Tuesday February 14 at 9 am
Washington’s birthday Wednesday February 22.
Table 3–2: Statement of facts discharging in Baltimore
Lay days and hours
For the purposes of calculating lay time, the term ―day‖ refers to the
number of normal and overtime working hours in a 24-hour period.
Where a ship is worked around the clock, a working day is 24 hours.
But if only 12 hours are officially worked every 24 hours, then a
working day is 12 hours. Different ports have different
arrangements for their work forces.
When specifying how long work should take, C/P clauses about lay
time use several different measurements:
 days or lay days with no reference to 24 hours
 running days or consecutive days with no reference to 24 hours
 working days with no reference to 24 hours
 days of 24 hours
 any 24 consecutive hours
 weather working days with no reference to 24 hours
 colliery working days
 running hours.

A sample C/P clause about lay time might state: ―at the average rate
of 500 tonnes per hatch per weather working day‖.
Lesson 2...... How lay time is calculated
The purpose of calculating lay time is to determine whether any
demurrage or dispatch is due. The lay time calculation form is
called the lay time statement. An example of this form is included in
your Reader.

Calculating allowed lay time

Charter party clauses may specify how the lay time is to be
calculated. For example, the C/P may specify loading at so many
tonnes per day. The allowed lay time is calculated from the
measured amount loaded or discharged using the rate agreed in the
C/P. Usually the answer comes out with a decimal fraction of a day,
which must then be converted, to hours and minutes.
Example 1: Time allowed in the statement of facts shown in
Lesson 1 for loading at Bombay is calculated as
follows:
Loading rate from the C/P is 1000 tonnes/day
Measured load = 11 350 tonnes
11350
This takes  11. 35 days
1000
0.35 of 24 hours is 8.4 hours
0.4 of 60 minutes is 24 minutes
Therefore, allowed lay time is:
11 days 8 hours 24 minutes.

Example 2: Time allowed in the statement of facts shown in

Lesson 1 for discharging at Baltimore is
calculated as follows:
Measured discharged cargo = 11 245 tonnes
Rate of discharge (C/P) = 1000 tonnes/day
Allowed lay time = 11.245 days
0.245 of 24 hours is 5.88 hours
0.88 of 60 minutes is 53 minutes
Therefore, allowed lay time is:
11 days 5 hours 53 minutes
 This is very straightforward, but the C/P may also specify tonnes per
hatch per day, which is calculated as follows:
Example 3: Vessel required to discharge at a rate of
175 tonnes/hatch/day (assuming hatch loads are
approximately equal).
Cargo load = 7000 tonnes
Number of hatches = 5
7000
Cargo load =  1400 tonnes / hatch
5
1400
Lay days =  8 days
175

Calculating prorated suspension periods

Hours lost due to poor weather are deducted directly from a 24-hour
workday. Where the actual working day is less than 24 hours, the
suspension period due to weather is pro-rated.
Example 1: If the working day is 12 hours, the time
deducted from lay time is pro-rated by a factor
of two (24  12). For example, if cargo handling
is suspended due to rain for one hour:
Time deducted from lay time is
24
1   2 hours
12
Example 2: If the working day is 8 hours, the time deducted
from lay time is pro-rated by a factor of three
(24  8). For example, if cargo handling is
suspended due to rain for five hours:
Time deducted from lay time is
24
5   15 hours
8

Lay time statements and timesheets

During the processes of loading and discharge, a detailed timesheet
is filled in to keep track of all occurrences that affect the hours
worked. Actual hours worked each day are recorded, together with
any stoppages that suspend the counting of lay time under the
charter party. This timesheet is used to calculate any demurrage or
dispatch due.
When the operation is complete, a lay time statement is completed
by the charterer summarizing the information and stating what
payments are due to the charterer or owner.
A timesheet includes the date and hour of the following:
 arrival in the roads or in port
 arrival at the loading or discharging berth
 the ship being ready to commence loading or discharge, as
evidenced by the notice of readiness
 notice of readiness tendered
 notice of readiness accepted by charterers, consignees, or their
agents
 loading or discharge commenced
 loading or discharge was carried out
 commenced to count lay time according to C/P
 rate of loading or discharge according to the C/P
 days on which no work could be done including such things as
Sundays and Holidays, strike, weather conditions (if weather
working days have been agreed upon)
 when the loading and discharging operations were completed.

In addition, there is a statement of:

 the quantities loaded or discharged per day as well as the total
quantity of cargo loaded or discharged;
 time allowed for loading or discharge according to C/P

The timesheets and lay time statement are signed by the master,
charterers/consignees, or their agents. If it is impossible for the
master and charterers/consignees to reach an agreement concerning
the timesheet, the master can sign this document ―under protest‖,
stating the points of controversy; or he can execute this document
―subject to owner’s approval‖, leaving it to the ship owner to re-
open any controversial points.
 Lay time statement sample 1
A charterer’s lay time statement based on an eight-hour working day
with stoppages due to rain and equipment malfunction might look as
shown in Table 3–3:

Lay time statement 1

Lay time begins at 1300 hours, October 1.
Time allowed for loading : 5 days 3 hours 38 minutes based on an 8-hour day
Date Day Time not used Lay time used
October 1 Monday Lay time begins 1300
(1300 to 1700) Rain stoppage 40 min 3 hr 20 min
October 2 Tuesday Rain stoppage 15 min 7 hr 45 min
October 3 Wednesday Winch and rain stoppage 1 hr 48 min 6 hr 12 min
October 4 Thursday Winch and rain stoppage 38 min 7 hr 22 min
October 5 Friday Winch stoppage 2 min 7 hr 58 min
October 6 Saturday 4 hr
October 7 Sunday Time not counting 0 hr
October 8 Monday Rain stoppage 15 min
Lay time expires 1616 7 hr 01 min
Loading completed 1645
October 8 from 1616 to 1645 = 29 min
Demurrage: 29 min @ $1000 per day or pro rata = $20.14
Table 3–3: Lay time statement, Sample 1

In this example, no work is done on Sunday, and only 4 hours on

Saturday. From Monday to Friday, the 8-hour workday runs from
0800 to 1200 and from 1300 to 1700.
Starting at 1300 on October 1, allowing for the stoppages for the rain
and winch, the specified lay time (43 hr 38 min, based on an 8-hour
day) expires at 1616 on October 8.
Work had to continue for nearly half an hour after expiry to
complete loading, so that demurrage was due.
29
$1000 
Calculation of demurrage = 60  $20.14
24
Note that if there were no weather clause in the C/P, then only the
malfunction of equipment would cause suspension of the counting of
lay time.
 Lay time statement sample 2
A similar statement, based on a 24-hour working day with stoppages
due to rain and equipment malfunction, is shown in Table 3–4:

Lay time statement 2

Lay time begins at 1100 hours, October 1.
Time allowed for loading : 5 days 10 hours 55 minutes based on a 24-hour day
Date Day Hours lost Lay time
used
October 1 Monday Lay time begins 1300
(1100 to 2400) Rain stoppage 40 min 12 hr 20 min
October 2 Tuesday Rain stoppage 15 min 23 hr 45 min
October 3 Wednesday Winch and rain stoppage 1 hr 48 min 22 hr 12 min
October 4 Thursday Winch and rain stoppage 38 min 23 hr 22 min
October 5 Friday Winch stoppage 2 min 23 hr 58 min
October 6 Saturday 12 hr
October 7 Sunday Time not counting 0 hr
October 8 Monday Lay time expires 1318 13 hr 18 min
Loading completed 1645
October 8 from 1318 to 1645 = 3 hr 27 min
Demurrage: 3 hr 27 min @ $1000 per day or pro rata = $143.75
Table 3–4: Lay time statement, Sample 2

In this example, no work is done on Sunday and only 12 hours on

Saturday. From Monday to Friday, there is a 24-hour workday.
Starting at 1100 on October 1, allowing for the stoppages for the rain
and winch, the specified lay time (130 hr 55 min, based on a 24-hour
day) expires at 1318 on October 8.
Work had to continue for nearly three and a half hours after expiry
to complete loading, so that demurrage was due.
27
$1000  (3 )
Calculation of demurrage = 60  $143. 75
24
Unit 4 Lay time
calculations

In Unit 3 you learned what factors are involved in the calculation of

lay time and why lay time calculations are made. This unit uses
some sample calculations to illustrate the process and to show the
effects of various charter party specifications on the results.
The lessons in this unit will cover the topic of:
 sample calculations of lay time
 effects of various charter party clauses on lay time calculations.
Lesson 1 ......Sample lay time calculations
On the next few pages are some examples of timesheets used to
record loading and discharge operations under different conditions
for a vessel (the ss Jenni) fixed for a full cargo of 8636 tonnes (8500
long tons) of iron ore.
In each case, the conditions for the voyage are described on the
lefthand page, and the timesheet and calculations are on the
righthand page.
Sample 1
The charter party contains the following conditions for loading:
The cargo to be loaded at a rate of 1500 tonnes per
weather working day, Sundays and holidays
excepted. Time shall not count between 1 p.m. on
Saturday and 7 a.m. on Monday, nor between 1 p.m.
on the last working day preceding a legal holiday
and 7 a.m. on the first working day thereafter. Time
for loading shall commence to count 24 hours after
written notice has been given by the master or
agents on any day (Sundays and holidays excepted)
between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. to the charterers or their
agents that the vessel is ready to receive cargo,
whether in berth or not.
 Demurrage $840.00 per day and pro-rated for
part of a day.
 Dispatch money $420.00 per day and pro-rated,
for all time saved in loading.
In this sample, we see how the timesheet looks if ss Jenni finishes
loading on March 19, several days after the expiry of the agreed lay
time. In this case, demurrage is due to the shipowners to
compensate them for the delay. The amount to be paid by the
charterers is calculated as shown in Table 4–1.
Note that unless the legal phrase ―per like day‖ is included in the
demurrage condition, once a vessel is on demurrage, Sundays and
holidays count regardless of whether or not they are excepted in the
loading rate condition.
Timesheet 1
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of loading Date Time
Arrived in port March 5 1600
Ready to load March 5 1640
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted March 5 1640
Berthed March 7 2300
Loading commenced March 7 2330
Time commenced to count March 6 1640
Loaded according to B/L 8636 tonnes
Rate of loading: 1500 tonnes per weather working day SHEX
Lay time allowed 5 days 18 hours 10 minutes
Completed loading March 19 0930
Completed trimming March 19 1150

Date Day Lay time allowed Time delayed

March 5, Tuesday Arrived 1600;
NOR given 1640
March 6, Wednesday Lay time begins 1640 0 day 07 hr 20 min
March 7, Thursday Berthed 1100
Started loading 1130 1 day
March 8, Friday Delay by rain
2 hr 10 min 0 day 21 hr 50 min
March 9, Saturday Time not counted after
1300 0 day 13 hr 00 min
March 10, Sunday Time not counted –
March 11, Monday Time not counted before
0700 0 day 17 hr 00 min
March 12, Tuesday 1 day
March 13, Wednesday Delay by rain
5 hr 30 min 0 day 18 hr 30 min
March 14, Thursday Time expired 1230 0 day 12 hr 30 min 0 day 11 hr 30 min
March 15, Friday 1 day
March 16, Saturday 1 day
March 17, Sunday 1 day
March 18, Monday 1 day
March 19, Tuesday Loading & trimming
completed 1150 0 day 11 hr 50 min
5 days 18 hr 10 min 4 days 23 hr 20 min
Demurrage 4 days 23 hr 20 min @ 840.00 per day = $4176.67

Table 4–1: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 1

Sample 2
The charter party conditions for loading are identical to those for
Sample 1, but in this sample, we see how the timesheet looks if
ss Jenni finishes loading on March 9, several days before the expiry
of the agreed lay time. In this case, dispatch money is payable by
the shipowners to the charterers, as calculated in Table 4–2.
Timesheet 2
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of loading Date Time
Arrived in port March 5 1600
Ready to load March 5 1640
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted March 5 1640
Berthed March 7 2300
Loading commenced March 7 2330
Time commenced to count March 6 1640
Loaded according to B/L 8636 tonnes
Rate of loading: 1500 tonnes per weather working day SHEX
Lay time allowed 5 days 18 hours 10 minutes
Completed loading March 9 0930
Completed trimming March 9 1150

Date Day Lay time allowed Time saved

March 5, Tuesday Arrived 1600;
NOR given 1640
March 6, Wednesday Lay time begins 1640 0 day 07 hr 20 min
March 7, Thursday Berthed 1100
Started loading 1130 1 day
March 8, Friday Delay by rain
2 hr 10 min 0 day 21 hr 50 min
March 9, Saturday Loading and trimming
completed 1150 0 day 12 hr 10 min
Time not counted after 1300 0 day 13 hr 00 min
March 10, Sunday Time not counted – 1 day
March 11, Monday Time not counted before
0700 0 day 17 hr 00 min 1 day
March 12, Tuesday 1 day 1 day
March 13, Wednesday 1 day 1 day
March 14, Thursday Time expired 0700 0 day 07 hr 0 day 07 hr
5 days 18 hr 10 min 4 days 19 hr 10 min
Dispatch 4 days 19 hr 10 min @ 420.00 per day = $2015.42

Table 4–2: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 2

Sample 3
Note that in Timesheets 1 and 2, the charter party states that the
dispatch rate is for all time saved in loading. The calculation would
change if the clause had said instead for all working time saved in
loading.
Table 4–3 shows how Timesheet 2 would have looked had the
charter party clause stated that dispatch is payable for all working
time saved in loading.
Together, Timesheets 2 and 3 show how important it is to write
charter party clauses carefully—a lot of money can be saved. The
time for which dispatch money is due can sometimes exceed the
time allowed for loading.
Timesheet 3
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of loading Date Time
Arrived in port March 5 1600
Ready to load March 5 1640
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted March 5 1640
Berthed March 7 2300
Loading commenced March 7 2330
Time commenced to count March 6 1640
Loaded according to B/L 8636 tonnes
Rate of loading: 1500 tonnes per weather working day SHEX
Lay time allowed 5 days 18 hours 10 minutes
Completed loading March 9 0930
Completed trimming March 9 1150

Date Day Lay time allowed Time saved

March 5, Tuesday Arrived 1600;
NOR given 1640
March 6, Wednesday Lay time begins 1640 0 day 7 hr 20 min
March 7, Thursday Berthed 1100
Started loading 1130 1 day
March 8, Friday Delay by rain
2 hr 10 min 0 day 21 hr 50 min
March 9, Saturday Loading and trimming
completed 1150
Time not counted after 1300 0 day 13 hr 00 min 0 day 01 hr 10 min
March 10, Sunday Time not counted – –
March 11, Monday Time not counted before
0700 0 day 17 hr 00 min 0 day 17 hr 00 min
March 12, Tuesday 1 day 1 day
March 13, Wednesday 1 day 1 day
March 14, Thursday Time expired 0700 0 day 07 hr 0 day 07 hr
5 days 18 hr 10 min 3 days 01 hr 10 min
Dispatch 3 days 01 hr 10 min @ 420.00 per day = $1280.42

Table 4–3: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 3

Sample 4
Sometimes, lay time is a little more complicated because of delays
specified in the charter party, or because of holidays.
For Timesheet 4:
 The charter party states that time commences to
count 48 hours after the NOR is tendered and
accepted.
 In the port of loading, the dates March 7, 11,
and 14 are official holidays.
In Table 4–4, notice that the time saved in loading is more than
double the time allowed for loading. This demonstrates what can
happen in practice if charter terms are unreasonable. The 48-hour
delay after the NOR might have been saved by using the phrase
―unless used‖ in the charter party clause.
Timesheet 4
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of loading Date Time
Arrived in port March 5 1600
Ready to load March 5 1640
Berthed March 7 1100
Loading commenced March 7 1130
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted March 8 0900
Time commenced to count March 12 0700
Loaded according to B/L 8636 tonnes
Rate of loading: 1500 tonnes per weather working day SHEX
Lay time allowed 5 days 18 hours 10 minutes
Completed loading March 9 0930
Completed trimming March 9 1150

Date Day Lay time allowed Time saved

March 5, Tuesday Arrived 1600
March 6, Wednesday
March 7, Thursday Holiday. Berthed 1100 –
Started loading 1130
March 8, Friday NOR given 0900 –
March 9, Saturday Loading completed
1150 – 0 day 12 hr 10 min
March 10, Sunday – 1 day
March 11, Monday Holiday – 1 day
March 12, Tuesday Time commenced 0700
0 day 17 hr 00 min 1 day
March 13, Wednesday Time not counted after 0 day 13 hr 00 min 1 day
1300
March 14, Thursday Holiday – 1 day
March 15, Friday Time not counted 0 day 17 hr 00 min 1 day
before 0700
March 16, Saturday Time not counted after 0 day 13 hr 00 min 1 day
1300
March 17, Sunday Time not counted – 1 day
March 18, Monday Time not counted 0 day 17 hr 00 min 1 day
before 0700
March 19, Tuesday 1 day 1 day
March 20, Wednesday 1 day 1 day
March 21, Thursday Time expired 1310 0 day 13 hr 10 min 0 day 13 hr 10 min
5 days 18 hr 10 min 12 days 01 hr 20 min
Dispatch 12 days 01 hr 20 min @ 420.00 per day = $5063.33

Table 4–4: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 4

Sample 5
These first four timesheets apply to the loading of ss Jenni. Suppose
now that various conditions are applied to the discharge as agreed in
the charter party:
For Timesheet 5, the charter party states:
 Cargo to be discharged at the rate of
1000 tonnes per running day, Sundays and
holidays included.
 Time commences to count when vessel is in
berth and notice of readiness has been tendered
and accepted during office hours from 0900–
1700.
 If the discharging commences before the notice
is accepted, time begins to count when
discharging commences.
 Demurrage $840.00 per day and pro-rated for
part of a day.
 Dispatch money $420.00 per day and pro-rated,
for all time saved.
See the timesheet and lay time calculation in Table 4–5.
Timesheet 5
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of discharge Date Time
Arrived in port April 11 1800
Ready to discharge April 11 1800
Berthed April 11 2000
Discharge commenced April 11 2030
Notice of readiness dated April 11 2000
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted April 12 0900
Time commenced to count April 11 2030
Discharged 8636 tonnes out-turn weight
Rate of discharge: 1000 tonnes per running day SHINC
Lay time allowed 8 days 15 hours 15 minutes
Completed discharge April 22 1420

Date Day Lay time allowed Time delayed

April 11, Thursday Discharge commenced
2030 0 day 03 hr 30 min
April 12, Friday 1 day
April 13, Saturday 1 day
April 14, Sunday 1 day
April 15, Monday Holiday 1 day
April 16, Tuesday 1 day
April 17, Wednesday 1 day
April 18, Thursday 1 day
April 19, Friday 1 day
April 20, Saturday Time expired 1145 0 day 11 hr 45 min 0 day 12 hr 15 min
April 21, Sunday – 1 day
April 22, Monday Discharge completed
1420 – 0 day 14 hr 20 min
8 days 15 hr 15 min 2 days 02 hr 35 min
Demurrage = 2 days 02 hr 35 min @ 840.00 per day = $1770.42

Table 4–5: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 5

Sample 6
For Timesheet 6, the charter party is the same as for Sample 5,
except that discharge is per weather working day, Sundays and
holidays excepted, rather than per running day, Sundays and
holidays included. See the timesheet and lay time calculation in
Table 4–6.
Note that in Sample 6, the shipowners must pay the charterers
dispatch money, rather than receive demurrage as in Sample 5.
Timesheet 6
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of discharge Date Time
Arrived in port April 11 1800
Ready to discharge April 11 1800
Berthed April 11 2000
Discharge commenced April 11 2030
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted April 12 0900
Time commenced to count April 12 0900
Discharged 8636 tonnes out-turn weight
Rate of discharge: 1000 tonnes per weather working day SHEX
Lay time allowed 8 days 15 hours 15 minutes
Completed discharge April 22 1420

Date Day Lay time allowed Time saved

April 11, Thursday Discharge commenced 2030
–
April 12, Friday Notice of readiness 0900 0 day 15 hr 00 min
April 13, Saturday 1 day
April 14, Sunday –
April 15, Monday Holiday –
April 16, Tuesday 1 day
April 17, Wednesday Delay by rain 04 hr 30 min 0 day 19 hr 30 min
April 18, Thursday 1 day
April 19, Friday 1 day
April 20, Saturday 1 day
April 21, Sunday –
April 22, Monday Discharge completed 1420 1 day 0 day 09 hr 40 min
April 23, Tuesday 1 day 1 day
April 24, Wednesday Time expired 0445 0 day 04 hr 45 min 0 day 04 hr 45 min
8 days 15 hr 15 min 1 day 14 hr 25 min
Dispatch = 1 day 14 hr 25 min @ 420.00 per day = $672.29

Table 4–6: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 6

Lesson 2...... More sample calculations
Sample 7—reversible lay days based on Timesheet 1
In Timesheet 7, we see what happens to Timesheet 6 if reversible lay
days are allowed. This means that any time saved at loading can be
deducted from discharge time (and vice versa).
Timesheet 1 is taken as the basic loading timesheet, but it first must
be adjusted for Sundays and holidays. Remember that unless the
phrase ―per like day‖ is included in the demurrage condition, once a
vessel is on demurrage, Sundays and holidays count regardless of
whether or not they are excepted in the loading rate condition. If we
want to use ―days saved‖ during discharge to offset ―days delayed‖
on loading, we have to recalculate the loading demurrage taking into
account any Sunday and holiday exception conditions in the C/P.
Thus, time delayed between 1300 on March 16 and 0700 on March
18 (the weekend) must be deducted from the demurrage on
Timesheet 1 as follows:
time delayed 4 days 23 hours 20 mins
less 1 day 18 hours
demurrage 3 days 05 hours 20 mins.
With reversible lay days, this amount may be deducted from the time
allowed for discharge. That is:
time allowed 8 days 15 hours 15 mins
less demurrage 3 days 05 hours 20 mins
time for discharge 5 days 09 hours 55 mins.
Table 4–7 shows the timesheet and lay time calculation for
Sample 7.
Timesheet 7
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of discharge Date Time
Arrived in port April 11 1800
Ready to discharge April 11 1800
Berthed April 11 2000
Discharge commenced April 11 2030
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted April 12 0900
Time commenced to count April 12 0900
Discharged 8636 tonnes out-turn weight
Rate of discharge: 1000 tonnes per weather working day SHEX
Lay time allowed 5 days 09 hours 55 minutes (including adjusted
reversible lay time from Timesheet 1)
Completed discharge April 22 1420

Date Day Lay time allowed Time delayed

April 11, Thursday Discharge commenced –
2030
April 12, Friday Notice of readiness 0900
0 day 15 hr 00 min
April 13, Saturday 1 day
April 14, Sunday –
April 15, Monday Holiday –
April 16, Tuesday 1 day
April 17, Wednesday Delay by rain 0 day 19 hr 30 min
04 hr 30 min
April 18, Thursday 1 day
April 19, Friday Time expired 2325 0 day 23 hr 25 min 0 day 00 hr 35 min
April 20, Saturday – 1 day
April 21, Sunday – 1 day
April 22, Monday Discharge completed
1420 – 0 day 14 hr 20 min
5 days 09 hr 55 min 2 days 14 hr 55 min
Demurrage = 2 days 14 hr 55 min @ 840.00 per day = $2202.08

Table 4–7: Timesheet and lay time calculation for Sample 7 (reversible lay days)
Samples 8—reversible lay days based on Timesheet 2
Timesheet 8 looks at what happens to Timesheet 6 if reversible lay
days are allowed, using Timesheet 2 as a basis for loading.
Just as we had to revise Table 1 for use in Table 7, so we have to
revise Table 2 for use in Table 8. Sunday and holiday exceptions in
the C/P have to be observed in calculating the allowable time saved
during loading.
Thus, time saved between 1300 on March 19 and 0700 on March 11
(the weekend) must be deducted from the dispatch on Timesheet 2 as
follows:
time saved 4 days 19 hours 10 mins
less 1 day 18 hours
dispatch 3 days 01 hours 10 mins.
With reversible lay days, this amount may be added to the time
allowed for discharge. That is:
time allowed 8 days 15 hours 15 mins
plus time saved
on loading 3 days 01 hours 10 mins
time for discharge 11 days 16 hours 25 mins.
Discharging is then as in Timesheet 8. Table 4–8 shows this
timesheet and the associated lay time calculations.
Timesheet 8
ss Jenni: Timesheet port of discharge Date Time
Arrived in port April 11 1800
Ready to discharge April 11 1800
Berthed April 11 2000
Discharge commenced April 11 2030
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted April 12 0900
Time commenced to count April 12 0900
Discharged 8636 tonnes out-turn weight
Rate of discharge: 1000 tonnes per weather working day
Lay time allowed 11 days 16 hours 25 minutes (including adjusted
reversible lay time from Timesheet 2)
Completed discharge April 22 1420

Date Day Lay time allowed Time saved

April 11, Thursday Discharge commenced 2030
April 12, Friday Notice of readiness 0900
0 day 15 hr 00 min
April 13, Saturday 1 day
April 14, Sunday –
April 15, Monday Holiday –
April 16, Tuesday 1 day
April 17, Wednesday Delay by rain
04 hr 30 min 0 day 19 hr 30 min
April 18, Thursday 1 day
April 19, Friday 1 day
April 20, Saturday 1 day
April 21, Sunday –
April 22, Monday Discharge completed 1420 1 day 0 day 9 hr 40 min
April 23, Tuesday 1 day 1 day
April 24, Wednesday 1 day 1 day
April 25, Thursday 1 day 1 day
April 26, Friday 1 day 1 day
April 27, Saturday Time expired 0555 0 day 05 hr 55 min 0 day 05 hr 55 min
11 days 16 hr 25 min 4 days 15 hr 35 min
Dispatch = 4 days 15 hr 35 min @ 420.00 per day = $1953.00

Table 4–8: Adjusting Timesheet 6 for reversible lay time calculations in Sample 3
Sample 9—multiple ports of discharge
All of the timesheets looked at so far have had a single port of
discharge. Timesheet 9 looks at the situation where discharge takes
place in two ports.
The ss Jenni has been fixed for a full cargo of grain under the
following discharge conditions:
 Rate of discharge is 2000 tonnes per working
day, Sundays and holidays excepted.
 Time commences to count, at the first port of
discharge only, 24 hours after the NOR is
accepted during normal office hours whether in
berth or not.
 Demurrage is $700.00 per day and pro-rated.
 Dispatch money is $350 per day and pro-rated
for all time saved.
Discharge is to be in Rotterdam and Hamburg.
Note that the quantities of grain discharged at each port has no
bearing on the timesheet.
The timesheet and calculations for this situation are shown in
Table 4–9.
Timesheet 9
ss Jenni: grain St. Lawrence to Rotterdam/Hamburg Date Time
Timesheet Rotterdam/Hamburg
Arrived at Rotterdam June 3 1010
In berth June 3 1300
Notice of readiness tendered and accepted June 3 1020
Discharge commenced at Rotterdam June 3 1330
Time commenced to count June 4 1020
Finished discharge at Rotterdam June 6 0630
Sailed from Rotterdam June 6 0800
Arrived Hamburg June 8 0330
Ready to start discharge at Hamburg June 8 0400
Start discharge at Hamburg June 8 0800
Completed discharge at Hamburg June 11 1100
Quantity discharged according to B/L 9000 tonnes
Rate of discharge: 2000 tonnes per working day (SHEX)
Lay time allowed 4 days 12 hours 00 minutes

Date Day Lay time allowed Time saved

June 3, Monday NOR given 1020
June 4, Tuesday Lay time begins 1020 0 day 13 hr 40 min
June 5, Wednesday 1 day
June 6, Thursday Completed discharge at
Rotterdam 0630 0 day 06 hr 30 min
June 7, Friday
June 8, Saturday Ready to discharge at
Hamburg 0400 0 day 20 hr 00 min
June 9, Sunday –
June 10, Monday 1 day
June 11, Tuesday Completed discharge at
Hamburg 1100 0 day 08 hr 50 min

Time expired at 1950 0 day 19 hr 50 min

4 days 12 hr 00 min 0 days 08 hr 50 min
Dispatch money 8 hr 50 min @ 350.00 per day = $128.82

Table 4–9: Timesheet and lay time calculations for Sample 9 (multiple ports of discharge)
Unit 5 Liner shipping
Liner services provide transport for cargoes that are too small to fill
a single ship and that need to be grouped with others for
transportation. The ships operate regularly scheduled, advertised
services between ports, carrying cargo at fixed prices for each
commodity; though discounts may be offered to regular customers.
The two lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 liners
 liner shipping terminology
 liner operations
 bills of lading and other liner shipping documents.
Lesson 1...... Cargo-liners and their
terminology
Some shipping companies have vessels that regularly call at the
same ports according to a fixed schedule to load or discharge goods.
These companies are called liner companies. Their services are
called liner services and their vessels cargo-liners or simply liners.
Cargo-liners operate a regularly scheduled, advertised service
between ports, carrying cargo at fixed prices for each commodity.
They offer cargo space to all shippers who require it, though
discounts may be offered to regular customers. They sail on their
scheduled dates, whether they are full or not.

Cargo-liners
It is the fact that liner vessels provide a regularly scheduled service
between groups of ports that defines the liner, not the size or speed
of the vessel. As a rule, tramp vessels carry only bulk cargo,
whereas liner vessels carry general cargo in addition to bulk cargo.
In general, liner services provide transport for cargoes that are too
small to fill a single ship and need to be grouped with others for
transportation.
Most liner vessels have to be equipped to carry a large variety of
goods. Some cargoes may not be stowed together, so it must be
possible to load them into separate holds. For goods that are liable
to deterioration, cooling (refrigerating) provisions must be available.
Many liner vessels are equipped to carry special cargo such as
containers.
Combined transport vessels (linking with road and rail) include
container tonnage, ro/ro (roll-on, roll-off vessels for passengers,
containers, and other cargo) general cargo/passenger, general cargo
single-deck, general cargo multideck, and general cargo/container
vessels.
The container and ro/ro tonnage make up the prime growth sector of
liner services. Worldwide, countries are developing their seaports
and infrastructure to accept this very efficient and reliable unitized
method of global distribution. However, a very small volume of
tweendeck break-bulk cargo vessels remain in service, particularly in
the developing countries.
Definition of terms
Some terms frequently used in liner shipping have been used in these
courses previously, but others may be new to you. This list may
help you to remember their meanings.
Bill of lading (B/L) A dated document which states that a carrier has
received certain goods in order to carry them to
an indicated destination, and deliver them there
to an indicated person. It also contains the
conditions on which delivery is to take place.
Blading Abbreviation for bill of lading in telex/fax
messages, and cables.
Break-bulk cargo Another term for non-unitized general cargo
Broken stowage The proportion of cargo hold space that is
wasted owing to the cargo or hold being of
irregular shape.
Closed conference Conference to which entry is subject to
agreement by current membership.
Conference Any type of formal or informal agreement
between shipping companies, usually in the liner
trades. Its purpose is to restrict competition and
secure regularity and frequency of service and
stability of rates.
Dunnage Wood or other material used to pack general
cargo securely in the hold of a traditional
cargo-liner. Also used to assist ventilation.
Freight ton (also called revenue ton)
The unit of cargo on which the liner company
calculates its tariff. This is usually a
measurement ton or a metric ton (tonne),
whichever is the larger for the commodity.
General cargo Cargo that travels as small individual parcels
too small to fill a ship, hold, or compartment.
Liner service Shipping service that operates regular services
at advertised times between designated ports at
published commodity tariffs.
Measurement ton Freight ton charged by the physical volume
of the cargo rather than its weight (usually either
a cubic metre or 40 cu. ft.)
Open conference Conference to which entry is not restricted but
members must follow the price agreement and
other rules published by the conference.
Outsider (non-conference operator)
Liner service that is not a member of the
conference on the route and does not conform to
its rules.
Parcel Individual consignment of cargo: for example,
500 tonnes of steel reinforcing rods or three
concrete mixers.
Stowage The stacking of cargo in the hold of the ship.
Unitized cargo Cargo packed into standard units for more
efficient handling and stowage: for example,
containers, pallets, pre-slung timber, wool bales.
Lesson 2...... Operations and documents
Liner shipping operations
The transport of a mass of small items on a regular service presents
the liner operator with a vastly more complex task than that facing
the bulk ship owner. Liner operators have a complex organizational
task and the business is management-intensive. Liner operation
involves an adequately sized fleet, and a relatively large shore-based
establishment.
Operators must be able to:
 offer a realistic, regular service for many small cargo
consignments
 process the associated mass of paper work
 charge individual consignments on a fixed tariff basis that yields
an overall profit taking into account the large capital investment
in vessels
 plan tonnage availability—including repair and maintenance of
the company’s fleet, the construction of new vessels, and the
chartering of additional vessels to meet cyclical requirements
 load the cargo into the ship in a way that ensures that it is not
damaged by the weight of other cargo above it but is accessible
for discharge at several different ports while the ship remains
stable and in trim
 run the ship to a tight schedule with punctuality while allowing
for all the normal delays arising from adverse weather,
breakdowns, strikes, etc.

Because of their high overhead costs and the need to maintain a

regular service even when a full payload of cargo is not available,
liner businesses are vulnerable. There is much competition between
ship owners operating on the same trade routes. Liner companies
continuously strive to improve efficiency and overall transit times.
Modern liner cargo service is very sophisticated in terms of logistics
and computerized operations and the companies tend to be large. In
recent years, liner companies have tended to operate container
tonnage on a consortia basis. More and more liner cargo is being
cleared through customs inland, away from the former traditional
seaport area.
 Combined transport (CT)
Combined transport, provides service from warehouse to warehouse.
It also involves inland distribution by road and rail. It is designed to
achieve fast turn-round times and a high level of ship management
efficiency. Vessels are completely integrated into the seaport
operation using purpose-built berths and extensive port and inland
infrastructure.

Bill of lading (B/L)

When cargoes are carried, documentation is needed to keep track of
it. In liner shipping, this is most often done using bills of lading.
They are used in many types of cargo carriage, not just shipping.
The bill of lading for an ocean voyage is more specifically called the
ocean bill of lading. The usual abbreviation is B/L, plural Bs/L. In
telex/fax messages and cables, the term Blading (plural bladings) is
also often used. Most bills of lading are drawn up in English.
The following is an official definition of the bill of lading:
The bill of lading is a dated document by which the
carrier states to have received certain goods in
order to carry them to an indicated place of
destination, and deliver them there to an indicated
person, also containing the conditions on which
delivery is to take place.
The bill of lading is the most important document for the transport
of goods by ship. These goods must be delivered as received unless
relieved ―by the excepted peril‖. This means excused because of
circumstances that are defined in the contract of carriage.

Receipt for goods

The bill of lading has various functions. Among other things it is a
receipt for goods. The carrier (in this case the ship owner) declares
in the B/L to have received certain goods in order to carry them by a
certain vessel. When the shipper has received a B/L from the
shipping company or their agent, it is a receipt for the goods in
question.
 The B/L may state that the consigned goods are:
 received on board—this is called a shipped B/L where the goods
are officially received on board the carrier's vessel
 received for shipment—goods are received at the carrier's
warehouse or inland container depot.

Clean B/L
A carrier signs the B/L on receipt of the goods but will note any
deficiencies, damage, or poor packing on the B/L. If there are no
such notes, the B/L is said to be clean. Thus the seller can prove
that goods were supplied according to contract, and any claim of loss
or damage on receipt of the goods by the consignee should be made
against the carrier rather than the shipper.

Contract of carriage and Hague Rules

The B/L acts as a contract of carriage. That is, an agreement
between two parties (the shipping company and the shipper) that
states clearly the conditions on the goods are to be carried and
delivered. These conditions are not identical in all bills of lading.
They may vary for each shipping company, but they must be based
on the Hague Rules. These Rules are an international agreement
defining the rights and obligations of the carrier by sea.

Negotiable document
The bill of lading is a negotiable document, because it represents the
goods that are identified in it. For example, the ownership of an
original bill of lading for 100 cases of machinery is tantamount to
the ownership of the machinery. Anyone holding the B/L may claim
the goods described in it. During transit, the goods may be
transferred by transferring the B/L. The carrier should not deliver
the goods without presentation of the B/L unless he gets a guarantee
against delivery to the wrong person (for example, a deposit of twice
the invoice value).

Combined-transport bills of lading

In combined transport carriage, a combined-transport bill of lading is
used, based on a through-rate. Separate bills of lading on each stage
of such a carriage would be very cumbersome, slow, and costly to
administer.
Terms and conditions
Each B/L contains details of its terms and conditions. Words that
are used extensively throughout the contract are defined to put their
interpretation beyond doubt and to allow one word in the subsequent
clauses to convey a full meaning, which might otherwise require
more than one word. This makes the clauses easier to read.

Short form B/Ls

The short form of bill of lading introduced in 1979 is legally
identical to a long-form B/L, but is simpler to use. It uses standard
legal clauses and is a negotiable document.

The sample B/L

The P&O Containers bill of lading shown in the text can be used as
a port-to-port (P-to-P) or combined transport (CT) bill of lading
according to how it is completed. That is, it is an options document.
It has the flexibility to mix port-to-port at one end with combined
transport at the other.

Options
On this form, the areas for Ports of Loading and Discharge must
always be completed. Treatment of the areas for Place of receipt
and Place of delivery varies depending on the type of agreement.
Table 5–1 shows the possibilities:

Place of Place of
receipt delivery
CT throughout Completed Completed
CT at loading but not after Completed Left blank
discharge
No liability until loaded but Left blank Completed
CT after discharge
P-to-P only Left blank Left blank

Table 5–1:
Completing place of receipt and delivery areas on bills of lading

Identity of the carrier

The identity of the carrier is clear from the signature clause as well
the definition in Clause I on the B/L.
Shipper
This space must be completed with the name of the party with whom
the carrier has contracted. It may show the actual shipper or the
shipper’s freight forwarder.

Warranty
The B/L serves as a warranty by the merchant that he has authority
to give instructions to the carrier in relation to the goods concerned.
The shipper shown on the face of the B/L may be:
 a freight forwarder acting for an undisclosed principal
 a freight forwarder acting for a disclosed principal
 a principal contracting with the carrier direct or through an
undisclosed agent
 a merchant contracting with the carrier to carry goods which will
be supplied direct to the carrier by the shipper
 a merchant contracting with the carrier on his own behalf.

Consigned to the order of

This space may be completed with the name of the consignee or the
words ―to order‖ (making the shipper the consignee). Delivery is
made in accordance with consignee’s instructions as follows:
 by specific endorsement on the B/L: for example, Deliver to J.
Smith and Co. (stamp and signature of shipper).
 by attaching authorized delivery instructions on the shipper’s
stationary: that is, a delivery order from shipper to consignee.
 by means of a blank endorsement on the B/L, which is passed to
the consignee: that is, containing the shipper’s stamp and
signature with no qualifications. Whoever has this document
may take delivery of the goods. That is, it is a bearer document.

Blank endorsed order bills of lading

Note that a blank endorsed order B/L means that the carrier must
make delivery to whoever presents it unless fraud is suspected. This
is dangerous, but is frequently used because of the requirements of
banks financing foreign trade. A bank advancing funds requires the
security of documents, which it can use to foreclose on the goods if
need arises. Thus the bank can use the B/L as a document of title to
take delivery of the goods if it has to. However, it does not wish to
become a party to the contract of carriage in case it incurs any
liabilities. A B/L contains indemnities to the carrier which impose
 liabilities upon the merchant. The bank may choose to conceal its
interest and avoid these liabilities.

Notify Party
The Notify Party is the name of the party to whom, in most trades,
P&O Containers sends its arrival notification form advising of goods
coming forward for delivery.

Sea waybills
Sea waybills are received-for-shipment documents similar to short-
form bills of lading. The document names the carrier and the
consignee and uses standard clauses of a contract of carriage.
Like a B/L, a sea waybill is a receipt for the goods and provides
evidence of a contract of carriage. However, it is non-negotiable—it
is not a document of title to the goods. The document need not be
produced in order for the goods to be delivered. This speeds the
release of goods at their destination.
It is often used instead of a B/L for standard port-to-port movements
with or without pre-carriage or post-carriage arrangements. It is
useful where
 shipper and consignee have an established relationship
 a multinational company ships from plant to plant
 cargo is likely to arrive before the documents.

Mates receipt
A mate’s receipt may be tendered by the ship owner’s agent to the
shipper upon delivery of the goods on to the quay for shipment. It is
often issued by the officer (mate) of the ship after checking the tally
clerk’s records. Later the B/L is checked against the mate's receipt.
This receipt is evidence of the quantity and condition of goods
received. It is not a document of title. However, usually, the person
possessing a mate’s receipt is entitled to the B/L which is given in
exchange for it.
Unit 6 Liner companies
and conferences

Liner services provide transport for cargoes that are too small to fill
a single ship and need to be grouped with others for transportation.
The ships operate regularly scheduled, advertised services between
ports, carrying cargo at fixed prices for each commodity, though
discounts may be offered to regular customers.
The three lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 liner company organization
 liner conferences
 competition and controlling liner conferences.
Lesson 1...... Liner companies
Types and sizes of liner companies
The size of a shipping business depends on the type of service that is
operated. The tendency in recent years is for smaller shipping
companies to merge. This enables the enlarged trading company to
improve their competitive ability with more economical service at
lower cost, resulting in improved tariffs. This is done by being able
to:
 economize on administration costs
 improve prospects of raising capital for new tonnage
 rationalize facilities and personnel such as port agents,
departments, overseas offices, berths, and ports of call
 consider long-term improvements in tonnage utilization and
productivity. This may lead to rationalization of the fleet and
centralization of marine department activities covering manning,
management, survey program, and new building
 enlarge their large customer portfolio.

Shipping companies are changing because:

 market conditions are changing
 information technology is quickening the pace of decision-
making, especially in middle management
 the head offices of modern companies tend to be much smaller
with authority devolved to encourage more accountability of
personnel at all management levels
 diversification of the business with interests which include real
estate, construction, and ancillary activities of the core business
such as road, haulage, seaports, warehouse, and shipbroking.

Within the bulk and liner shipping industries there are many
different types of businesses, each with its own distinctive
organizational structure, commercial aims, and strategic objectives.
They range from a family owning one tramp ship, to large
multinational corporations with huge fleets.
Examples of liner companies
Consider the following examples of large liner companies:
Company A:
This liner company is in the container business.
– It operates a fleet of around twenty container ships from
a large modern office block housing of about 1000 staff.
– All major decisions are taken by the main board, which
consists of twelve executive board members and
representatives of major stockholders.
– In addition to the head office, the company runs an
extensive network of local offices and agencies, who
look after their affairs in the various ports.
– The head office has large departments dealing with ship
operations, marketing, secretariat, personnel, and legal.
In total the company has 3500 people on its payroll,
2000 shore staff and 1500 sea staff.

Company B:
This is the shipping division of an international oil company that has
a policy of transporting 40–50% of its oil shipments in company-
owned vessels.
– The division is responsible for all activities associated
with the acquisition and operation of these vessels.
– There is a divisional board, which is responsible for day-
to-day decisions, but major decisions about the sale and
purchase of ships or any change in, the activities
undertaken by the division must be approved by the
main board.
– Each year the vice-president is responsible for
submitting a corporate plan to the board, summarizing
the division’s business objectives and setting out its
operating plans and financial forecasts. In particular,
company regulations lay down that any items of capital
expenditure in excess of $2 million must have main
board approval.
– Currently the division is running a fleet of ten large
crude carriers (VLCCs) and thirty-six small tankers from
an organization that occupies several floors in one of the
company's office blocks.
Company C:
This large, diversified shipping group was founded in the early
nineteenth century.
– It runs a fleet of more than sixty ships from offices in
the city of London, though recently it has been
considering moving outside the area.
– The company is quoted on the London Stock Market and
most shares are owned by institutional investors, so that
its financial and managerial performance is closely
followed by shipping investment analysts.
– The company has divisions: liner shipping and cruise
ships. In recent years the problem of operating in the
highly cyclical shipping market have resulted in
strenuous efforts to diversify.
– Recently the company successfully resisted a major
takeover bid, but management is under constant pressure
to show a good return on capitals.

Company D:
This large, Scandinavian, specialist shipping group was started by a
Norwegian who purchased small tankers in the early 1920s.
– Although it is quoted on the Stock Exchange, the family
still own a controlling interest in the company.
– Since the Second World War the company has followed
a strategy of progressively moving into more
sophisticated markets, and it is involved in a number of
liner shipping operations as well of the carriage of
specialist bulk cargoes such as motor vehicles and forest
products. It has succeeded in winning a sizeable market
share and a reputation for quality and reliability of
service in both of these markets.
– The company runs a large fleet of modern merchant
ships designed to give high cargo handling performance,
and is based in an Oslo office with a sizeable staff.
– Although the company has jealously guarded its status
as a Norwegian ship owner, recently it took the decision
to ―flag out‖ and has progressively transferred ships to
the Liberian flag.
Liner company organization
Direct responsibility for a particular aspect of company business
may rest with an individual or with a department. The
organizational structure of a liner company depends on a number of
factors, such as:
 fleet size and overall financial turnover
 the trade(s) in which the company is engaged
 the scale of the business involved
 whether it is a subsidiary company reporting to a parent
company which may have common services such as a legal
department, planning organization, etc.
 whether it has offices abroad, relies on agencies, is part of a
consortium, or out-sources some of its ship management.

Large, modern companies in most industries have changed their

organizational structure in recent years in an attempt to reduce costs
and remove some of the many layers of managers, making the
company more responsive to its clients’ needs. It is almost
impossible to describe a ―typical‖ modern organizational structure,
they are evolving so rapidly. Many of the old job descriptions and
names you will see in the literature are now obsolete. Some
examples of organizational charts are shown in your reader, but be
aware that actual company organization charts may be very different.

Upper management
The organization of the upper management of a liner company is
usually no different from that of any other company or corporation.
The following describes some of the functions of various officers
and groups within the higher management echelons.
Some of the duties described may be performed by a person who has
more than one function, for example, the person who is general
manager may also be the president. In some companies the names of
the functions may be retained in the person’s title, for example,
Mr. So-and-So, chairman and chief executive officer. In others, the
 person’s title will be shortened and the definition of the person’s job
then becomes more company-specific or less well defined.

Board of directors
Directors are people appointed by the stockholders (the owners) to
govern a public company. The directors establish the policies of the
company which are then carried out by officers who are either
chosen by the directors, or by the stockholders.
In a very large business organization, comprising many different
companies, the board of directors of the company may need to seek
the approval of the board of directors of the parent corporation for
major financial or business decisions.
Companies that are privately owned do not need boards of directors
as the owners themselves can set the policies.

Chair of the board of directors

The chair (chairman or chairperson) of the board of directors is the
person through which the board communicates with the stockholders
on the one hand, and with all employed by the company on the other.
The chair is a powerful position in a public company. The chair
must ensure that:
 shareholders, and other interested parties such as the
government, are kept informed as to the state of the company’s
affairs

 there is co-operation with any parent corporation, including the

implementation of parent corporation directives
 the president, or if there is no president the chief executive
officer, runs the company profitably, in accordance with the
board’s directives
 any matters requiring the board’s attention are dealt with by the
board.

The person who fulfils the duties of chair of the board may also be
the president, or have some other role in the company.

President
The president is the chief officer of the company. If the company is
a public company, the president will be appointed either by the
stockholders, or by the board of directors. Private companies are
usually managed by the owners, in which case the president would
 either be the owner, or one of a small group of owners, or, less often,
some trusted person appointed by the owner or owners.
In very large business organizations, comprising many different
companies, the president of the company may be accountable to the
president of a parent corporation.

Executive branch
The executive branch of a company is that part of the company that
actually carries out the policies of the company—that is, it is the part
of the company that does the work.
The title of the head of the executive branch (if there is one such
person) is usually:
 chief executive officer (CEO)
 general manager
 executive vice president, or
 some such similar name.

The principal officers in the executive branch will similarly be

variously named officer, manager, vice president, or if they are
also members of the board, directors, or executive directors.

Company secretary
The company secretary is responsible for convening board meetings,
preparing and circulating board minutes, and looking after the
shipping company’s statutory affairs.
The secretary also:
 maintains records of stock and shares
 processes estate matters, such as land and property sales and
purchases
 performs general administration of the company’s affairs
 deals with legal matters.

Middle management

Line management
Usually in a company there will be a continuous chain of command
extending from the chief executive officer through the senior
 managers and supervisors down to the workers. This type of
organization is known as line management, and managers in this
chain of command are sometimes called line managers. If the chain
of command is long, the management structure is said to be vertical;
if it is short, as it tends to be in more modern companies, it is said to
be flat. Line managers, and all those who work for line managers,
are directly responsible for doing what the company does.

Staff management
The staff management of a company is that part of the company that
acts in a support capacity to the production- or service-providing
side of the company. Typical support services provided include:
 running the head office
 financial services
 purchasing and stores
 human resources (or personnel) management
 legal services
 public relations services
 responsibility for government relations
 computer services
 quality control
 building maintenance, security, etc.

Staff managers have similar titles to line managers, except that the
head of finance may be called, company treasurer, comptroller,
controller, or something similar. The organization of staff
management usually does not have the long top-down structure of
line management; it is much flatter as it provides specialist services
to all levels of line management.
There is no rule as to which function belongs where. In a legal firm,
for example, legal services would be a line management function,
not just a support service.

Management organization

By function
The are several different ways the management of a company may
be organized. The classical organization is known as organization
 by function. Each major function within the company has a
department (or division), for example, operations, marketing,
finance, purchasing, engineering, legal, etc.

By product
Another way of organizing a company is by product or groups of
major products. Applied to a liner shipping company for example,
this type of organization could result in a freight shipping division
that operated independently of the passenger shipping business.
Product organization is common in large corporations that have been
built up by the amalgamation of already-established companies.

By geography
Multinational companies will almost certainly have some layers of
their management structure organized by geography—a European
division, a North American division, a South East Asia division, and
so on.

By project
By project organization is a popular way of organizing the
management of large projects. Each major project has its own team
of managers and staff who are assigned exclusively to the project for
the project’s lifetime. A liner company might adapt this approach by
assigning, for example, a trade or service manager to a particular
route, and have this manager be responsible for all aspects of the
business associated with that route, including responsibility for
operations, sales, marketing, finance, etc.

Other structures
You can probably think of other ways of organizing a business for
yourself—how about organization by major customer, for example.
In practice you will also come across combinations of these
structures. A corporation organized by geography will not continue
to use this method once we are down to considering the
organizational structure of business centres within a single country
or territory.

Management divisions in a liner company

Since the business of a liner company is the transport of goods and
passengers by ship, a liner company will usually have (functional if
not actual) divisions (or departments) responsible for:
  management of the fleet—placing orders for ships, selling ships,
crewing, chartering, etc.
 operations of the fleet—ship deployment, ship scheduling,
terminal operations, etc.
 freight traffic management
 passenger services.

Fleet management
The fleet manager (if there is one such named person in the
company) would be responsible for providing and maintaining the
fleet that the fleet operations manager uses. This would involve:
– the sale and purchase of ships
– chartering ships
– appointment of ship’s officers
– crewing
– ship safety, relevant navigational matters, and ship
discipline
– scheduling maintenance
– insurance.

Within the domain of the fleet manager one might find a shipbroker
and chartering department which would be responsible for
chartering, insurance, and ship sale and purchase. In some
circumstances, the chartering department would procure additional
tonnage when needed, and conversely secure fixtures for the
company’s own vessels when it had surplus tonnage.

Operations
The operations department is usually the largest and most important
in any company and is often headed by a vice president of
operations, or operations director.
Among other duties, the head of operations is responsible for
producing the optimum performance from the fleet. He or she does
this by reconciling:
  traffic needs with the available ship capacity, taking into account
both short and long-term needs
 sailing schedules with obligations of a joint service or liner
conference, whereby each operator may be allocated a certain
percentage of the sailings.

The vice president of operations will have one or more managers

reporting to him or her.
A fleet operations manager (if there is one such person in the
company) would cover:
– the deployment of ships
– schedules
– ships’ customs formalities (entering and clearance)
– victualing (the job of a commissary superintendent)
– ship stores
– bunkering.

Management of terminal operations would involve:

– negotiating with port authorities
– appointing and liaising with port agents, brokers, etc.
– taking care of loading and discharging formalities
– organizing the provision of berthing and quay facilities
and related equipment.

Freight management
The freight traffic management function is another very important
part of a liner company’s services and could well be headed by a
senior manager, such as a vice president.
The vice president of traffic will be responsible, through managers,
for freight agents and freight departments.

Inward freight department

An inward freight department would be responsible for customs
clearance of imports, delivery to consignees, and transshipment of
cargo.
 Outward freight department
An outward freight department would be responsible for processing
export cargo and related documentation, supervising the provision
of shipping space for cargo bookings
The processing of international consignments is an important
function and fully computerized. It involves close liaison with the
ports.
The freight department might also be responsible for the acceptance
and conveyance of dangerous cargo and the related procedures and
conditions.

Passenger services management

A passenger services manager would be responsible for appointment
and liaison with travel agents, for setting and collecting fares, for
handling baggage and passenger complaints, and for liaison with
passengers’ associations and liner conferences.

Support services in a liner company

Engineering
A liner company may have some in-house engineering expertise, or
it may prefer to contract-out such work. An engineering support
group in a large company might be responsible for ship procurement,
surveys, actual maintenance and repair, new ship design, etc.
An engineering manager (or technical director) may run a
department that might include specialists in the following fields:
– electrical engineering
– naval architecture
– project and contract management for new-ship
purchases
– ship surveys required to ensure ships meet
statutory/classification society standards
– ship design when new tonnage is required
– maintenance and repair of ships
– marine workshops and stores.
Sales and marketing
Sales and marketing are two very closely related activities. In some
companies, these are the responsibility of a single department or
division, in others they may be separate. Sales personnel handle all
stages of a ―sale‖ from initial customer inquiry through contract
negotiation to final sale. Marketing personnel are usually
responsible for maintaining and expanding the customer-base of the
company. They do this through advertising and promotions, and
they may also be involved in pricing.

Marketing director
The marketing director of a liner company develops the company’s
business in the freight and passenger markets. The marketing
director’s duties may include:
 devising an annual sales and marketing plan
 maintaining a field sales force (if this is the way the company is
organized)
 producing advertising promotions and publicity material
including public relations
 market research
 appointment of the advertising agency
 dealing with freight rates.

Finance

Finance department
The two broad aspects of managing the financial affairs of a
company are those to do with the day-to-day financial transactions
(managing the cash) and longer-term financial planning (budgets,
investment strategies, loan procurement, etc.).
A financial director (or vice president of finance, etc., however he is
called) in a liner company would usually be responsible for:
  budgets for revenue, expenditure, investment, and cash flow
 credit control involving the billing of customers/shippers and
payment of accounts
 preparation of management data which may cover any month’s
traffic carryings, revenue, and actual expenditures against
budget
 costing data such as voyage costs and individual traffic flows.

The accountant’s department, which would work under the financial

director, might have individual officers responsible for each function
such as audit officer, budgets officer, costing officer, and credit
controller.
Purchasing agents are required to support particularly the fleet
operations manager, but also engineering and other parts of the
company.

Human resources (or personnel)

Human resources officer
Human resources is responsible for training, education, recruitment,
career development, appointments, redundancy, shore discipline,
wages and salaries negotiations, industrial relations, service
conditions, etc.

Legal
Large companies may find it advantageous to retain their own in-
house legal specialists rather than rely on outside services.

Public relations
The public relation/press officers develop business in both the
passenger and freight sector in liaison with the marketing director,
and possibly the passenger and freight managers. Duties might
include:
 liaison with freight associations, chambers of commerce, and
shippers’ councils
 organizing participation in liner conferences.

Government relations
A liner company might find it worthwhile to have a single point-of-
contact for government agencies. It might also employ lobbyists to
 influence both national and international government decisions on
legislation and policies that have a potential impact on the
company’s business.

Computer services

Information technology director

Shipping companies make extensive use of computer and data
transmission technology. For example, brokers use electronic data
interchange (EDI) to make contracts. The information technology
director is a specialist and has a high profile in many liner
companies.
The information technology director’s duties normally include:
 budgetary control of all computer activities (hardware and
software)
 liaising with other departments and the computer industry to
develop information technology and EDI
 ensuring the effective use of computer technology
 formulating the information technology investment policy
 improving users’ satisfaction with the company’s data
transmission networks
 training.
Lesson 2 ......Liner conferences
A liner conference is an organization whose members agree upon the
conditions under which liner services are to be offered on a
particular sea route. Some cargo operators belong to more than one
conference. They have been a prominent part of liner shipping, but
in recent years their influence has greatly reduced. In 1970, liner
conference members carried 90 to 95% of liner cargo, but by 1995,
this was reduced to 20% and non-conference vessels carried almost
80% of liner cargo.
The first conference was the Calcutta Conference founded in 1875.
Today, there are many conferences worldwide, such as the Europe-
East Africa conference, which has eleven members. The
organization that acts as a conference in the Caribbean is
Cagema/Carifreight, based in St. Lucia.

Functions of a conference
Conferences restrict competition among their members and protect
them from outside competition. Their chief function is to establish a
common tariff of minimum freight rates and passenger fares.
Members compete with the quality of their service. Costly price
wars are avoided.
In addition, conferences do the following:
 Establish sailing schedules for members.
 Mutually adapt tonnage to suit shippers’ requirements.
 Establish and maintain uniform terms and conditions in
documentation such as bills of lading.
 Supervise the adherence of members to the agreed conditions of
membership.

Meetings
Some conferences meet regularly but informally, to discuss rates and
policy. Others have more formal organization with strict rules for
membership and penalties for violations of the conference rules.
Owners’ or principals’ meetings are usually held several times a year
and are attended by the managers of the shipping companies in the
conference. Important matters discussed may include new members,
extensions of the sphere of action of the conference, and general
questions regarding rates.
Supervision of conference members’ compliance
Sometimes a conference supervises its members’ compliance itself,
and sometimes it charges a neutral supervisory organization to do
the work.

The secretariat
Conference tasks are carried out by the secretariat, headed by an
impartial professional secretary who has wide knowledge of
shipping affairs. It is the secretary’s job to notify brokers of rate
changes.

Cargo control
Cargo control includes checking:
 weights and measures against documents
 contents of packages and containers (this may be done where the
container is stripped)
 that correct freight rates are applied.

Administrative control
Administrative control involves checking the manifests to ensure:
that all the data is correct. This includes:
 freight rates
 contracting party
 commission
 wording of documents such as clauses in the bill of lading.

These checks are made at the shipbroker’s office or the broker may
be invited to send in the documents.

Irregularities, misdeclarations, and fines

If there are any irregularities they are reported and put right. The
shipbroker and the secretary of the conference are informed by
letter. If there is undercharging, the shipbroker must collect the
difference from the shipper. The secretary reports to the shipping
company involved and may impose a fine.
Usually these irregularities are due to simple errors, but fines are
still imposed because the basic principal of minimum rates is very
important to conferences. The fines are usually more than the
difference in freight charges. Although it is the shipping company
 that pays the fine, the broker is also affected by losing business due
to inattentiveness to detail.
If there are discrepancies between documents and the weight or
dimensions of packages, they are called misdeclarations. They are
also reported to the wharfinger so that things may be put right before
the manifests and freight notes are made out. There may be
consequences, depending on the bill of lading clauses. The shipping
company may be entitled to collect several times the freight
difference or twice the correct freight less the rate charged.

Rate changes
Shipping companies that belong to a conference may not reduce
their freight rates below the conference tariff. However, it is
possible to obtain a change in agreed freight rates without having a
conference meeting. There is no set policy on charging more than
the minimum, if the market allows it.
If a member finds that the conference rate is not competitive, a
request for a change must be made. This process is started by using
a rate enquiry form.

Rate enquiry forms

A shipper fills out a rate enquiry form containing all the data
required for a decision on freight rates. These include:
 port of shipment and destination
 nature of the goods
 packing
 weight/measurement ratio
 f.o.b. value
 amount of shipment expected
 information about the competition

The shipbroker passes this information to the principals who submit

it to the conference. A decision is made within a few days. It is in
all conference members’ interests for the conference to be as
competitive as possible in their rates.

Pooling
When there is excess tonnage in a trade, there may be an agreement
to reduce the number of sailings and pool earnings. Each member
 operates an agreed percentage of sailings and takes the same
percentage of the total pooled income.
Some conferences have regular pooling agreements. In these, traffic,
gross earnings, or net earnings, or traffic are pooled, with members
receiving an agreed percentage of the pool.
The way pools work is as follows:
 With gross earnings arrangements, the ship owner bears all
operating and investment costs and pools gross earnings.
 With net earnings arrangements, each operator pools net
earnings. Under this type, the more efficient, low-cost owner is
penalized.

Some cargoes pay better than others. Pooling provides good

protection for a carrier who carries mostly low-value commodities
for the good of the conference as a whole. Such pools are called
profit pools.

Over-carriers and under-carriers

When companies exceed or remain below their agreed share, they
are called over-carriers (over-earners) and under-carriers (under-
earners). Over-earners compensate under-earners provided that the
under-earners have met their tonnage obligations.

Rebates, net rates, and contracts

Rebates are used by carriers to ensure loyalty of shippers to
conference liners. In the past the rebates were deferred for several
months, after which a percentage of total freight charges was repaid
to the shipper. This was expensive to administer, so increasingly,
slightly lower rebates are given at the time of payment. These are
called net rates.
Sometimes a shipper contracts to use a liner conference for all
shipping in return for a reduced freight rate. This may be for all the
shipper’s business, or for one large project.
These systems are criticized because they tend to keep rates high and
build monopolies. Shippers are restricted in their choices for fear of
losing their rebates.
Lesson 3 ......Competition and controlling
liner conferences

Competition among conference members

Although they do not compete in their rates, members do compete
through the quality of their services. Some aspects of this
competition are:
 quality and speed of the ship
 facilities for shipping heavy or awkward cargo
 behaviour of ship brokers’ staff (customer relations)
 ability and willingness to propose solutions to problems
 care of the cargo during shipping
 efficient administration (including interactions with banks where
credits are involved).

Independent lines and outsiders

A shipping company that does not belong to a conference or adhere
to their tariff is called an outsider. These companies are in direct
competition with conference members.
Some shipping lines call themselves independent lines. Although
they do not belong to the conference, they conform to a certain
extent with their policies and freight rates.

Harmonization conferences
At voluntary harmonization conferences, cargo operators who may
be members of more than one liner conference discuss matters of
 mutual concern. Often the operators are from different countries.
They discuss such things as documentation, fuel surcharges, and the
basis of the freight rates.

International liner codes

The UN and other international groups seek to control how liner
conferences work and the amount of government intervention
allowed. Some groups wish to see the liner conference system
eliminated. Aside from the monopolistic aspects of their rules,
complex modern transportation of containers from door to door has
complicated matters.
Numerous international meetings and reviews continue to be held to
resolve the issues. The traditional, mostly Western, maritime
nations prefer less government intervention. Developing countries
seek a larger share of the trade and favour inter-governmental
regulation of rates.

UNCTAD liner conference code

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) introduced a liner conference Code in the 1970s that
differed from the European Code. UNCTAD is also discussed in
Unit 10.
The Code specifies:
 the right of countries to become members of the conference
serving their trades
 a cargo-sharing formula 40/40/20, whereby the two countries
between whom there is trade have a right to carry 40% each of
the trade and only 20% may be carried by third parties.
 that shipping conferences must consult shippers over the rates
charged and methods to deal with currency fluctuations
 that national lines of developing countries must be fully
involved in major policy decisions

Shippers’ councils and other associations

Shippers have also rallied their forces and united in various national
and international shippers’ councils. These councils work closely
with the conferences, discussing such things as freight changes and
currency surcharge fixtures.
 There are also various shippers’ associations that are specifically
interested in particular products, exports only, or imports only.
These associations help their members with their problems.

Advantages of a conference
Advantages of a conference include:
 avoidance of wasteful competition through over-supply of
tonnage
 reasonable chance of a good profits without rate competition
 stability of rates which diminishes the risks of forward
contracting
 regular, frequent sailings, maximizing ship use
 equality of treatment for shippers
 economies of service, enabling operators to provide faster, better
ships

Disadvantages of a conference
The main disadvantages of a liner conference are:
 large shippers cannot use their bargaining power to get lower
rates
 shippers cannot take advantage of low-rate tramp tonnage or
non-conference liner rates without penalty.

Factors influencing the decline of liner conferences

The UNCTAD liner code reflects the shift away from traditional
maritime powers and toward developing countries. In addition, the
inflexibility of rating systems, lengthy procedures to negotiate
discounts, and rigidity have influenced the decline of conferences.
They concentrated on their traditional concerns and were slow to
take advantage of modern market developments such as multimodal
transport and container consortia.
Much of their previous advantage was due to their cargo handling
expertise, but containers have made this less important. Change is
needed in the system to accommodate the growing intermeshing of
sea transport with pre- and post-shipment transport on land. To be
profitable, container operators require flexibility and quick
decisions.
There have also been many technological changes in ship operations
and cargo handling. The vessels are no longer the largest expense
for the carrier. Computer systems and container handling are the
major costs.
Unit 7 Scheduling,
routing, and
bunkering

Organizing the schedule and route of a cargo vessel is complex as

many things must be taken into account. Theses include issues to do
with the vessel, the crew, the types of cargoes carried, the layout and
efficiency of the ports to be visited, the geographical areas to be
passed through on the voyage, and the availability of reasonably-
priced bunkers.
The three lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 an outline of the key issues in routing and scheduling
 the effects of loadline requirements on routing
 the factors involved in choosing bunkering ports.
Lesson 1 ......Steamship scheduling and
routing issues
In planning a vessel’s sailing schedule it is of the utmost importance
that it be fully employed while it is available. It earns no money for
the shipowner when laid up – whether for survey, general
maintenance, or due to lack of traffic. Such periods must be kept to
an absolute minimum. This is important because of the large
amount of capital invested in a ship, which has heavy annual
depreciation charges. A ship must earn as much profit as possible
during its limited life.

Limits to fleet size

Owners who have full employment for their vessels are likely to
realize a larger profit than those who operate vessels only during
peak periods. If some vessels have a few months’ uneconomic
service each year, it might be worthwhile for the owner to reduce the
size of the fleet.
As a shipowner’s business expands, the cost of increasing the size of
the fleet may exceed the additional revenue to be gained, and so the
operator may sustain a loss. If such is the case, the new project
should be abandoned unless there are compelling reasons (social,
political, or even commercial) to the contrary.
The optimum size of fleet is that where the minimum number of
vessels is earning the maximum revenue. The owner is not normally
able to have a standby vessel available, as the amount of capital tied
up in any one vessel is considerable.

Tramps and cargo-liners

As discussed in the previous units, there are basically two types of
commercial shipping service:
 regularly scheduled service, primarily in liner cargo trades
 service operated according to a particular demand, mostly
confined to tramps.

With cargo-liners, the frequency of sailings is published months in

advance, and agreed within the consortium where such conditions
apply. Many cargo-liners operate outside the liner conference
system.
Factors influencing the formulation of sailing schedules
Sailing schedules are based primarily on commercial considerations
with political, economic, operating and, to some extent, the technical
capabilities of the ship all playing their role as contributory factors.
Some of the factors affecting scheduling are:
 traffic and competition
 available ships
 crew availability and certification
 efficiency of ship and port operations
 uncontrollable conditions of work.

Traffic and competition

This category of issues includes the following:
 volume, type, and any special characteristics of the traffic
 traffic fluctuations such as peak demand
 some competition between conference tonnage
 competition between conference and non-conference tonnage
 seasonality—food cargoes are often seasonal, and with
multipurpose vessels conveying road haulage vehicles,
passengers, and accompanied cars, the amounts shipped can vary
according to the time of year and/or day.

Available ships
The number and types of available ships have a strong impact on
scheduling. A large fleet of small vessels has more operating
flexibility than a small fleet of large vessels that are restricted to a
limited number of ports whose facilities can accommodate them.
Important factors include:
 size (length, beam, and draft)—some large vessels can only
operate between ports that have deep-water berth facilities.
 special characteristics—some may be suitable only for cruising
 special equipment may be required for loading and discharging
cargo
 plying limits for individual ships due to agreements and
conferences.
Crew
Efficient, well-trained crew have a great effect on scheduling (and
profits). Issues in this area include:
 availability of crew
 costs of crew
 the impact of STCW (the International Maritime Organization’s
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers)
 arrangements for relief measures in emergencies.

Efficiency of ship and port operations

The efficiency of the ship’s operations and port operations affect
scheduling through the following factors:
 maintenance of time margins where services connect (for
example, with multimodalism involving container tonnage and
the dry port concept involving dedicated rail networks, port turn-
round time is crucial)
 time necessary for terminal duties at the port, including such
things as loading, discharging, customs procedure, bunkering,
and victualing
 voyage times
 estimated voyage cost and expected traffic receipts.

Uncontrollable political, port, or geographic conditions

Shipping must operate in some conditions that are not within the
operators’ control. These include:
 climatic conditions—some ports are ice-bound throughout
certain periods of the year, which prevents any shipping calling
 hostile activities, actual or envisaged, in any particular waters
 political actions such as flag discrimination or bilateral trade
agreements causing unbalanced trading conditions
 location of canals routes such as the Suez and Panama
 general availability of port facilities and dock labour
 tidal restrictions affecting times of access and departure
 for liner tonnage, any condition imposed by liner conference
agreements.
Multimodal transport (intermodalism)
Container operations are usually multimodal. Multimodalism is the
process of operating a door-to-door or warehouse-to-warehouse
service for the shipper using at least two means of transport (by
road, rail, river, canal, ocean, or air). The merchandise is conveyed
in the same unitized form for the entire transit. It is also referred to
as intermodalism.
A wide variety of containers and pallets allows cargo to travel in any
combination of truck, railcar, barge, ship, and airplane with a
minimum of cargo handling at transfer points.
Lesson 2 ...... Loadlines
The amount of cargo and supplies that may be carried on board a
vessel varies with the route followed and the time of the year. This
is because the maximum permitted draft varies according to the
season and waters in which the vessel plies. This is explained in
more detail in Unit 4 of the General Ship Knowledge course.
The draft of a vessel is the vertical distance from the keel to the
waterline. The draft limits are marked on the sides of each vessel
with horizontal lines, called loadlines. A ship must not be loaded so
that the loadline for the zone and season in which it is plying is
submerged.
Loadlines define the minimum amount of freeboard the vessel must
have. Freeboard is the distance measured amidships from the water
line to the uppermost continuous deck in a ship with one or more
decks. In a shelterdeck vessel it would be the next deck below.

Placing and certifying loadlines

UN member countries have a designated authority who can
administer the award of loadline certificates. Without this document
a ship cannot legally trade. The certificate is issued only after
stringent rules have been applied. This authority specifies and
verifies the ship’s freeboard, the position of the loadlines, and where
on the hull they are located, before issuing the certificate,
Loadline marks are cut-in the hull and painted, light on a dark
background, or vice-versa, so as to be clearly seen and not moveable.
The dimensions of the lines and lettering are laid-down in the
regulations. These marks at amidships then correspond to official
draft marks cut-in and painted at the bows and stern.
The loadline mark includes a disc, commonly called the Plimsoll
mark. The initials of the assigning authority are placed on each side
of this disc; (for instance, ―L–R‖ standing for Lloyd’s Register).

Permanent and seasonal loadline areas

The navigable waters of the world are divided into loadline zones
defined by the International Convention on Load Lines (1966).
These geographical areas are described as either tropical (T),
summer (S), or winter (W). Some areas are permanent and others
are seasonal.
 In seasonal zones, loadlines vary according to the time of year
because of climate changes. These variable zones are defined
according to the international standards for specified dates for each
type of vessel. Vessels are not permitted to have less freeboard than
is indicated by the loadline mark that applies for that time of year.

International standards
Details of winter, summer, and tropical loadlines are specified in the
international standard by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO). A copy of part of this standard is in your reader. The topic
is also discussed in Unit 4 of the General Ship Knowledge course.

Variations in permitted freeboard

Tankers have separate freeboard rules from other classes of ships
because of their peculiar construction. They have a closer sub-
division of cargo compartments and smaller deck openings. This
type of vessel is permitted smaller freeboard and deeper loading.
Timber carriers with deck cargo effectively increase their buoyancy,
and enjoy increased protection from adverse weather, provided this
deck loading is carried out strictly in accordance with appropriate
regulations. These vessels are allotted lumber loadlines permitting
them to load deeper than their standard loadlines.
Ships of all classes with overall length of 100 metres or less are
restricted to a larger freeboard, particularly in winter conditions in
the North Atlantic. An extra loadline mark is cut on vessels that
trade in that region. This is called the winter North Atlantic mark
(WNA).

Changing zones during a voyage

Tropical zones are considered the safest for vessels, and
consequently, ships carrying cargoes in such areas are allowed to be
more heavily laden and to be deeper in the water than in summer or
winter zones. (Winter zones are judged the least safe and most
prone to heavy weather.)
When a ship is loaded to its tropical loadline mark, the ship’s master
must take care that a seasonal tropical zone does not change to
summer whilst the vessel is trading there. In such a case, the
summer mark would be submerged and the ship would be
overloaded and illegal.
Also, as the vessel crosses from a tropical to an adjacent summer
zone, the ship’s master must ensure that the weight carried is
reduced enough to ensure that the ship rises in the water to its
summer mark. This is done through the vessel’s consumption of the
correctly estimated amount of bunkers and water. Similar
constraints apply, of course, for a ship moving from a summer to a
winter zone.
Lesson 3: .....Choosing bunkering ports
During a voyage, bunkers and water are continually used. Sufficient
bunkers and water must be carried for each leg of the journey, but
this must be balanced with the need to maximize revenue-producing
cargo. Overall weights that can be carried are limited by the need to
respect legal loadlines that depend on the location and season.
There is no hard and fast rule about where bunkers should be
replenished. It is in the shipowner’s interest to run each voyage as
efficiently as possible, minimizing time and costs while maximizing
revenues. Although bunkers may be readily available at a very low
cost at a particular port, it may not be economical to detour to that
port, or it may be positioned so that large quantities of fuel cannot be
loaded without submerging the loadline on the next leg of the
voyage.

Factors affecting choice of bunkering port

The following factors affect where bunkering is done:
 rate of freight per tonne after deduction of loading and/or
discharging expenses, if any, and commission or brokerage
 prices for bunkers, including delivery charges such as lighterage
charges (For example, bunker prices are very low in places such
as Aden and Djibouti.)
 possible extra port charges and delays at bunkering ports
 availability of facilities to replenish bunkers at port(s) and
dock(s) of loading, to allow loading cargo and bunkers
simultaneously, thus avoiding delay
 type of cargo. A full load of heavy cargo has the vessel at
maximum draft with limited space for bunkers and water. A
light cargo means that capacity is governed by grain space and
the vessel is not loaded to maximum draft. This allows extra
deadweight for bunkers or water, avoiding the need to replenish
en route
 possible draft restrictions at the port of discharge. For example,
Russian Black Sea ports have restricted draft. Vessels plying
between Australia and Europe usually replenish bunkers at Aden
or Djibouti, but if a large bulk carrier must go to a Black Sea
port afterwards, that may not be possible.
 In general, reserves are essential for a long voyage, and a bunker call
should:
 avoid deviation from the route
 avoid high costs (fuel and port charges)
 take no more than half a day.
Calculations must be made to decide when and where to bunker.
This is an important part of voyage estimating, which will be
covered in Unit 8.

Example 1 of bunkering during a voyage

A carriage of a cargo of wheat from Bahía Blanca to Yokohama via
the Cape of Good Hope illustrates some of the issues in bunkering.

Vessel data
dwt. capacity winter loadline 25 125 tonnes
summer loadline 25 875 tonnes
tropical loadline 26 625 tonnes
Grain space Holds 1 205 000 cu.ft.
Wing tanks 150 000 cu.ft.
Total: 1 355 000 cu.ft.
Bunker capacity (IFO and DO) 1760 tonnes
Bunker use At sea (15 knots)
Bunkers used is 38 tonnes per day
Water used is 10 tonnes per day
In port
Bunkers used is 3 tonnes per day

Minimum reserves
Each leg of a voyage must be planned so that a certain minimum
amount of bunkers, water, and stores remains in reserve when the
vessel reaches port. For the purposes of this and the following
examples, we will assume (arbitrarily, but realistically) that the
following reserves are always carried.
Planned length of leg Reserves Bunker reserves
0–10 days 0–6 days 0–228 tonnes
10–20 days 6 days 228 tonnes
20–30 days 6–8 days 228–304 tonnes
 For simplicity, we will assume that the weight of the ship’s stores is
a constant 250 tonnes, although in fact of course, some will be
consumed during the voyage.

Voyage data
The proposed route of this voyage is Rotterdam (Netherlands) -
St. Vincent (Cape Verde Islands) - Rosario (Argentina) - Bahía
Blanca (Argentina) - Durban (South Africa) - Singapore - Yokohama
(Japan).
The vessel is scheduled to load some cargo in Rosario and to finish
loading in Bahía Blanca before heading to Yokohama. Rosario is
upriver on the Río de la Plata and vessels must pass the Martin-
Garcia Bar. This is shallow and requires vessels to have maximum
draft. Bulk carriers loading full cargoes of grain from the Río de la
Plata to Japan may load to full capacity at Buenos Aires (Argentina)
or Bahía Blanca.
Bunkering stops may be made in St. Vincent, Durban, and
Singapore. There is a long passage during which bunkers will not be
replenished—from Durban to Singapore, which is 4975 nautical
miles.
4975
At 15 knots, this takes  13.8 days
15 24
This means approximately 14 days at sea (rounding off to the nearest
integer).
Loadlines Bahía Blanca 39°S: summer*
Durban 30°S: summer
Singapore 1°N: tropical
Above latitude 10°N: summer
Yokohama 35°N: summer
* the voyage between Bahía Blanca to Durban is ―seasonal
winter‖ if the vessel crosses the Atlantic south of 34°S;
however, at the time of year we are imagining the voyage to
be taking place, summer conditions apply in southern
seasonal winter areas.

Calculating dwt. for bunkers, water and cargo

Bunkers and water are needed for the passage with no bunkering
stop from Durban to Singapore (14 days) plus a minimum reserve
for 6 days. This totals 20 days. Space requirements are calculated
as follows:
 Total bunker requirements
20 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 760 tonnes
Total water requirements
20 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 200 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 250 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 210 tonnes
dwt. on summer loadline (at Bahía Blanca) = 25 875 tonnes
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 24 665 tonnes

Cargo data
There is to be a full cargo of wheat and the stowage factor of wheat
in bulk is 1.3935 cubic metres per tonne (50 cu. ft. per long ton).
Note that:
 If this vessel were loaded to capacity,
38370
the full load could be  27 535 tonnes.
1.3935
However, this must be reduced to allow for loadline requirements
and deadweight for bunkers, water, and stores as calculated
above.
 The terms of the charter party specify how long it should take to
load and discharge the 24 665 tonnes of wheat that will be
carried.
 If loadlines change, or waters near upriver ports are too shallow,
the full allowable cargo may have to be loaded at two different
ports.

Table 7–1 shows the voyage schedule for Example 1. This schedule
shows the dates of arrival and sailing for all stops on the voyage. It
also shows the total distance travelled and the total number of days
at sea and in port.
 The voyage schedule
Number of days
Route Miles Arrival Sailing at sea in port
Rotterdam Nov 15
2568 7
St. Vincent Nov 22 Nov 23 1
3984 11
Rosario Dec 4 Dec 8 4
625 2
B. Blanca Dec 10 Dec 20 10
4540 13
Durban Jan 2 Jan 3 1
4975 14
Singapore Jan 17 Jan 18 1
2900 8
Yokohama Jan 26 Feb 5 10
Totals 19 592 55 27

Table 7–1: The voyage schedule for Example 1

The voyage schedule is expanded to show the quantities of bunkers

stored, used, and replenished in the total consumption report which
is shown in Table 7–2.

Total bunkers consumption:

Bunkers is used at the rate of 38 tonnes per day at sea and 3 tonnes
per day in port.
IFO +DO (tonnes)
55 days at sea: 2090
27 days in port: 81
Total: 2171
Total consumption report
Route Miles Number of days Bunkers taken on and used
at sea in port arrival at sea in port refill sailing
Rotterdam 418 418
2568. 7 266
St. Vincent 1 152 3 1109 1258
3984 11 418
Rosario 4 840 12 828
625 2 76
B. Blanca 10 752 30 722
4540 13 494
Durban 1 228 3 535 760
4975 14 532
Singapore 1 228 3 307 532
2900 8 304
Yokohama 10 228 30 198*
Totals 19 592 56 27 2090 81 2369
*Bunkers on discharge at Yokohama
Table 7–2 Total consumption report for Example 1

The effects of bunkering arrangements on routes

via St. Vincent

In this example, bunkers will be replenished at St. Vincent for the
onward voyage. Sometimes vessels replenish bunkers at La Palma
(Canary Islands). Bunker prices at La Palma and St. Vincent are
roughly the same, and so an exact calculation would have to be made
to find out which is preferable.
Sometimes, also, vessels proceed directly from Northern European
ports to the Río de la Plata without a bunkering stop. There is no
hard and fast rule and each case has to be considered on its merits.
Note that the vessel arrives at St. Vincent with a bunkers reserve of
4 days (4 × 38 = 152 tonnes) in accordance with the minimum
reserve plan specified above.

via Durban or Capetown

From Bahía Blanca, the following options are open to the vessel. It
could proceed:
 1. via Durban (29°52'S) for bunkers, on to Singapore for bunkers
again, and then to Yokohama = 12 415 miles (as is shown
above).
2. via Capetown (33°54'S) for bunkers, on to Singapore for bunkers
again, and then to Yokohama = 12 335 miles.
Calling at Capetown rather than Durban would save 80 miles, but
the prices for bunkers at Durban are slightly lower than the prices at
Capetown. We can show that the break-even price for bunkers at
Capetown, assuming that the vessel arrives in Singapore with
exactly the same amount of bunkers, is when:
80
$P(C)  (535   38)  $P(D)  535
15  24
which is when:
$P(C)  527  $P(D)  535
where:
$P(C) is the price per tonne of bunkers at Capetown;
527 tonnes of bunkers would be needed at Capetown;
$P(D) is the price per tonne of bunkers at Durban;
535 tonnes of bunkers are purchased at Durban;
80
 38  8 tonnes is the amount of bunkers saved by
15  24
sailing 80 fewer miles at 15 knots and a bunkers
consumption rate of 38 tonnes per day.

527
Only if the price of bunkers at Durban were more than  98.5%
535
of the price in Capetown would it not be worth going to Durban.

via the Strait of Magellan

Instead of calling at either Durban or Capetown on the southern tip
of Africa, the vessel could instead proceed directly from Bahía
Blanca to Yokohama via the Strait of Magellan at the southern tip of
South America. At this time of year it is summer in the south and
winter loadline regulations do not apply.
Using the Strait of Magellan, the distance to be covered from Bahía
Blanca is 10 280 miles. This has to be covered without an
opportunity for bunkering which means carrying bunkers for about
29 days at sea, plus a reserve, because of the distance, for 8 days.
These routes from Bahía Blanca to Yokohama compare as shown in
Table 7–3:
 via via
Strait of Magellan Durban
Distance 10 280 miles 12 415 miles
Time at sea 29 days 35 days
Time in port 20 days 22 days
Capacity for cargo 23 849 tonnes 24 665 tonnes

Table 7–3:
Comparison of two routes from Bahía Blanca to Yokohama

Total bunker requirements (Strait route)

37 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 1406 tonnes
Total water requirements
37 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 370 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 250 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 2 026 tonnes
dwt. on summer loadline (at Bahía Blanca) = 25 875 tonnes
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 23 849 tonnes
Sailing directly would save time, but at a cost of a reduction in cargo
capacity of about 800 tonnes.

via the Strait of Magellan and Honolulu

If the vessel were to use the Strait of Magellan, replenishing bunkers
at Honolulu (Hawaii) would be an option. Such a deviation would
mean
 about 500 miles extra steaming and time in port, a total of about
three days
 the distance between Bahía Blanca and Honolulu (7375 miles)
means only 20 days at sea, with only 6 days reserve for bunkers.

Although going via the Strait appears to be the better route, in

practice, the number of bulk carriers proceeding this way direct to
Yokohama is limited. The majority of bulk carriers follow the route
via Cape of Good Hope, calling at Durban. This is probably due to:
 better weather conditions
 ability to call at Capetown, Durban, or Singapore for repairs.
Example 2 of bunkering decisions on a voyage
A carriage by the same vessel of a full cargo of wheat from
Vancouver (Canada) to Rotterdam (Netherlands) illustrates more of
the issues in bunkering.
Let us assume that the vessel first sails unloaded to Vancouver from
Rotterdam, leaving on April 10.

Vessel data
This is all the same as in the previous example.

Voyage data
The proposed route of this voyage is from Rotterdam (Netherlands)
via Cristobal (east Panama) and Balboa (west Panama) to Vancouver
(Canada), returning the same way.
Since the vessel is unloaded during the outward leg of the voyage,
there is no concern over either its loadlines or its bunkering
requirements until it leaves Vancouver bound for Rotterdam on
May 17.
The longest passage on the return leg during which bunkers will not
be replenished is Cristobal to Rotterdam. This is 4793 miles which
means (approximately) 13 days at sea. (Use the method in the
previous example to check this calculation.)
Loadlines Vancouver 49ºN: summer
Below latitude 33ºN: tropical1
Below latitude 13ºN: tropical
Balboa 9ºN: tropical
Cristobal 9ºN: tropical
Above latitude 13ºN: tropical2
Above latitude 20ºN: summer
Above latitude 36–43ºN: summer3
Rotterdam 52º N: summer3

NOTES
1. Once the vessel is south and east of 33ºN, 123ºW along the west
coast of North America, seasonal tropical regulations apply. From
March 1 to June 30 this zone is deemed a tropical zone.

2. Once the vessel is north of 13ºN in the Caribbean, seasonal

tropical regulations apply. From November 1 to July 15, this zone is
deemed a tropical zone.
 3. From April 16 to October 15, the northern seasonal winter zone is
deemed a summer zone.

The combination of these loadline regulations, together with the

sailing dates, and the assumption that the vessel takes on bunkers at
Cristobal, means that:
 the vessel must leave Vancouver loaded to no more than its
summer loadline
 the vessel may leave Cristobal loaded to its tropical loadline;
provided that, by the time it has reached 20ºN, it has consumed
sufficient fuel, etc. to rise to its summer loadline.

Calculating dwt. for cargo

Vancouver to Bilboa
Bunkers, water, and stores are needed for the passage from
Vancouver to Cristobal. Reserves need be held only for the portion
of the journey between Vancouver and Bilboa, because the vessel
has the option of replenishing its supplies there if necessary. The
journey takes 11 days, with 6 days of reserves. The total of 17 days
requires space as follows:
Total bunker requirements
17 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 646 tonnes
Total water requirements
17 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 170 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 250 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 066 tonnes
dwt. on summer loadline (at Vancouver) = 25 875 tonnes
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 24 809 tonnes
Calculating dwt. for cargo

Cristobal to Rotterdam
Bunkers, water, and stores are needed for the non-stop passage from
Cristobal to Rotterdam, taking 13 days, plus a minimum reserve for
6 days. The total of 19 days requires space as follows:
Total bunker requirements
19 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 722 tonnes
Total water requirements
19 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 190 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 250 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 162 tonnes
dwt. on summer loadline (at Cristobal) = 25 875 tonnes
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 24 713 tonnes

At this point we might be tempted to conclude that the maximum

weight of cargo that can be carried is 24 713 tonnes, since this is less
than the 24 809 tonnes that could be carried from Vancouver.
However, we should note that the 24 713-tonne figure is based on
the assumption that the vessel leaves Cristobal loaded only to its
summer loadline. If we were to consider leaving Cristobal with the
maximum load that could be carried from Vancouver, then the dwt.
would be:
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 162 tonnes
dwt. of cargo carried from Vancouver = 24 809 tonnes
Total dwt. (adding) = 25 971 tonnes

Since 25 971 tonnes is less than the vessel’s tropical loadline dwt.
capacity of 26 625 tonnes, this would be a perfectly legitimate thing
to do. The only stipulation would then be that the vessel would have
to continue to sail in the tropical zone until it had reduced its
deadweight to the summer loadline limit of 25 875 tonnes by
consumption of:
25 971 – 25 875 = 96 tonnes of bunkers and water.
At a combined consumption rate of 48 tonnes per day, this would
only take 2 days and it would be easy to plan a route eastward
through the Caribbean that complied with this constraint. Ships
 commonly sail 1100 miles from Cristobal before reaching latitude
20º N, which, for our example vessel, takes 3 days.
The full cargo of wheat is therefore 24 809 tonnes.

The voyage schedule

The voyage schedule for Example 2 is shown in Table 7–4. This
shows arrivals and departures for all stops on the voyage. It also
shows distances travelled and the numbers of days at sea and in port.
The voyage schedule (Example 2)
Route Miles Arrival Sailing Days Days
at sea in port
Rotterdam April 10
4793 13
Cristobal April 23 April 24 1
44 1
Balboa April 25 April 25
4045 11
Vancouver May 6 May 16 10
4045 11
Balboa May 27 May 27
44 1
Cristobal May 28 May 29 1
4793 13
Rotterdam June 11 June 21 10
Totals 17 764 50 22

Table 7–4: Voyage schedule for Example 2

Total bunkers consumption

Bunkers is used at the rate of 38 tonnes per day at sea and 3 tonnes
per day in port.
IFO +DO (tonnes)
50 days at sea: 1900
22 days in port: 66
Total: 1966
The total consumption report for Example 2 is shown in Table 7–5.
Total consumption report (Example 2)
Route Miles Days Days Bunkers taken on or used
at sea in port arrival at sea in port refill sailing
Rotterdam 722 722
4793 13 494
Cristobal 1 228 3 907 1132
44 1 38
Balboa 4 1094 1094
4045 11 418
Vancouver 10 676 30 646
4045 11 418
Balboa 1 228 228
44 1 38
Cristobal 1 190 3 535 722
4793 13 494
Rotterdam 10 228 30 198*
Totals 17 764 50 22 1900 66 2164
*Bunkers on discharge at Rotterdam
Table 7–5: Total consumption report for Example 2

The effects of bunkering arrangements on routes

In this example, at Rotterdam there is sufficient bunkers to reach
Cristobal with a reserve for 6 days (6 × 38 = 228 tonnes). Bunkers
is replenished at Cristobal for the voyage to Balboa and Vancouver
and back again to Balboa with a reserve for 6 days. Bunkers is
replenished again at Cristobal for the return voyage to Rotterdam
with a reserve for 6 days on arrival at Rotterdam.

The effects of date of sailing on deadweight capacity

To illustrate the effects of sailing dates on deadweight capacity, let
us consider what would happen to our vessel if it leaves Cristobal
for Rotterdam on October 15. The voyage schedule shown in Table
7–4 would then be as shown in Table 7–6.
 The voyage schedule (Example 2, later in the year)
Route Miles Arrival Sailing Days Days
at sea in port
Rotterdam Aug 27
4793 13
Cristobal Sep 9 Sep 10 1
44 1
Balboa Sep 11 Sep 11
4045 11
Vancouver Sep 22 Oct 2 10
4045 11
Balboa Oct 13 Oct 13
44 1
Cristobal Oct 14 Oct 15 1
4793 13
Rotterdam Oct 28 Nov 7 10
Totals 17 764 50 22

Table 7–6: Voyage schedule for Example 2 later in the year

The loadline zoning that then applies is as follows:

Loadlines Vancouver 49ºN: summer
Below latitude 33ºN: summer1
Below latitude 13ºN: tropical
Balboa 9ºN: tropical
Cristobal 9ºN: tropical
Above latitude 13ºN: summer2
Above latitude 20ºN: summer
Above latitude 36–43ºN: winter3
Rotterdam 52º N: winter3
NOTES
1. Once the vessel is south and east of 33ºN, 123ºW along the west
coast of North America, seasonal tropical regulations apply. From
July 1 to October 31 this zone is deemed a summer zone.

2. Once the vessel is north of 13ºN in the Caribbean, seasonal

tropical regulations apply. From July 16 to October 31, this zone is
deemed a summer zone.
3. From October 16 to April 15, the northern seasonal winter zone is
deemed a winter zone.

Compared with our example earlier in the year, there are two
important changes.
 Because of the hurricane season in the Caribbean, the effective
summer loadline zone has moved southwards from 20ºN to
13ºN.
 Winter loadline regulations now apply in the North Atlantic.

Let us consider the second of these two changes first. We have to be

sure that the vessel can reach Rotterdam through the winter zone.
The closest that the vessel can sail to Rotterdam before entering the
seasonal winter zone is Cape Toriñana (Spain), roughly 2 days
sailing south. Hence the maximum cargo that can be carried,
allowing for 6 days reserve upon arrival, is:
Total bunker requirements for the winter zone
8 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 304 tonnes
Total water requirements
8 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 80 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 250 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 634 tonnes
dwt. on winter loadline (at entry to the winter zone)
= 25 125 tonnes
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 24 491 tonnes
This is the most that the vessel can bring to Rotterdam at this time of
year, no matter what conditions apply earlier in the voyage. The full
cargo of wheat must therefore be reduced from 24 809 tonnes to at
least 24 491tonnes.
Now we can look again at the departure from Cristobal to see if
there are loadline problems in the Caribbean.
Proposed dwt. of cargo = 24 491 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 162 tonnes
Proposed total dwt. (adding) = 25 653 tonnes
Since 25 653 tonnes is less than the vessel’s summer loadline dwt.
capacity of 25 875 tonnes, the vessel will leave Cristobal with its
summer loadline above water. The change in the seasonal zones in
the Caribbean will therefore, on this particular voyage, have no
impact.
The full cargo of wheat for this late-in-the-year sailing is therefore
24 491 tonnes.
Unit 8 Voyage estimating
Commercial shipping aims to make a profit by carrying goods or
passengers between ports. To ensure that a commercial venture is
viable, estimates of costs must be accurately made so that they may
be weighed against projected revenues. During a voyage fuel and
fresh water are used continuously and must be replenished.
Estimating the best timing and location of these functions is vital to
the enterprise.
The lessons in this unit will cover the topic of voyage estimation.
Lesson 1...... What voyage estimation is
Before undertaking a voyage, the shipowner or charterer will want to
know how much money will be made on the venture. During the
voyage, the ship incurs expenses and uses supplies that must be
replenished. Rough cost estimates, and later more accurate ones,
must be made so that different routes can be compared. Such
estimates focus on the variable costs involved.

The main steps in estimating a voyage

The six steps of accurate voyage estimation are as follows:
1. Become familiar with the vessel’s characteristics.
2. Map out the proposed employment of the vessel.
3. Estimate the cargo quantity and loading/discharging times.
4. Calculate expenses.
5. Calculate income.
6. Calculate the net income (loss) including freight taxes.

Step 1: Assess the vessel

1.1 Various aspects of the vessel affect the cost of a voyage. Its
overall shape and size determine how much of which kinds of
cargo can be carried, and how much space is used for bunkers,
freshwater, and other supplies. The characteristics of a ship
that affect voyage estimates include:
– gross and net registered tonnage (GRT and NRT)
– fuel consumption and speed
– cargo capacity in tonnes (deadweight, dwt.)
– cargo capacity in cubic metres, TEUs, etc.
– holds and hatches which affect loading, discharge, and
stowage
– overall length (LOA) and draft
– length between perpendiculars (LBP or Lpp)
– moulded breadth (width of the underside of the upper
continuous deck between the ship plating)
– moulded depth (depth from the underside of the upper
continuous deck to the inner bottom of the ship)
age and classification.
Step 2: Map out the voyage
The voyage plan must consider what route will be taken, and what
bunkering arrangements will be made.
2.1 Considerations that enter into route planning include:
– distances and sailing times involved
– weather conditions
– availability and cost of bunkers in different locations
– loadline zones
– ports of call—extra time must be allowed per port
– canal tolls
– canal transits—extra time must be allowed
– proximity to the route of ports able, if necessary, to
replenish supplies and make repairs.

2.2 Bunkering arrangement considerations include:

– speed of vessel—bunker consumption at various speeds
– bunker consumption—fuel oil and diesel oil per day at
sea and in port
– bunkering calls—the general rule is half a day per call,
avoiding deviation from route
– and again, cost of bunkers in different locations.

Step 3: Estimate the quantity of cargo and

loading/discharge times
3.1 The potential cargo-carrying capacity (tonnes) of the vessel is
its deadweight-carrying capacity less the weight of:
– stores, including food and other supplies for the crew
and lubricants for the machinery
– freshwater
– bunkers (IFO and DO).

A vessel may not however be able to carry the maximum

weight of cargo if the volume of that maximum weight of
cargo is too great for the holds.
3.2 The cargo-carrying capacity of the holds of a vessel are
specified in cubic metres, or, less often nowadays, in cubic
feet or measurement tons. A measurement ton is a unit of
volume defined in a particular tariff.
 To estimate the equivalent weight of the maximum volume of
cargo, the following formula is used:
grain or bale capacity
full-load weight =
stowage factor
where:
the grain or bale capacity is the grain or bale capacity of
the vessel. Grain capacity is used for bulk cargoes that
completely fill the hold; bale capacity is used for cargoes
that are packaged and so cannot entirely fill the hold
because of its awkward shape.
the stowage factor is the volume per unit weight of the
particular cargo stowed.

The units of weight in the above formula will be those

defined by the stowage factor. If the stowage factor is
defined as so many units of volume per long ton, for
example, then the full-load weight will be in units of long
tons. The units of volume in the above formula must be the
same. For example, if the grain or bale capacity is in units
of cubic feet, then the stowage factor must be in units of so
many cubic feet per unit weight. If you can, always use
metric units (cubic metres, tonnes, and cubic metres per
tonne).

3.3 The vessel can only carry either the cargo-carrying capacity
measured in tonnes, as calculated in paragraph 3.1, or the full-
load weight in tonnes, as calculated in paragraph 3.2,
whichever is smallest.
In general, amounts of cargoes with stowage factors of less
than about one cubic metre per tonne are limited by weight
(deadweight cargo); those with stowage factors of more than
about one cubic metre per tonne are limited by volume
(measurement cargo).1
3.4 Allowances for load time and discharge time are calculated as
explained in Unit 3 and Unit 4.

1
Some tariffs specify volumes in terms of ―measurement tons‖. A measurement ton is a unit of volume
specified in the tariff and is commonly, but not always, one cubic metre. Charges are then made on the basis of
cargo weight (tonnes) or cargo volume (measurement tons), whichever is higher. The actual unit used for cost
calculations, whether it is a tonne or a measurement ton, is called a ―freight ton‖.
Step 4: Calculate expenses
4.1 An estimate of the required bunkers is obtained by calculating:
– fuel consumption for the number of days at sea
– fuel consumption for the number of days in port
– total cost of fuel.

4.2 Port charges are estimated from the pro forma invoice (a
―before-the-fact‖ invoice) of the agency.
4.3 Special charges, such as canal transit fees, must be included in
the estimate.
Remember that when estimating voyages, we are mostly interested
in variable costs. If the cost of doing, providing, or purchasing
something, is the same for all plans, then knowing the amount of that
cost is no help in deciding which plan is best—it has to be paid
anyway. Only when it comes to deciding whether or not a voyage
should be undertaken at all are fixed costs a factor, and generally
these types of decision are not made on a voyage-by-voyage basis.
Keeping vessels busy is usually good for business. This topic is
covered in greater detail in the Economics of Shipping course.

Step 5: Calculate income

This calculation includes:
– cargo quantity (Step 3)
– freight rate
– commissions and brokerage
– demurrage or dispatch payments so far as these are
predictable in advance.

Step 6: Calculate net results

Compare the results of the calculation in Steps 4 and 5. Take
account of any taxes due.
Lesson 2...... Sample voyage estimates
The following voyage estimates have been made for a single-deck,
self-trimming bulk carrier. Two possibilities are considered.

The characteristics of the ship

Deadweight Winter loadline 25 125 tonnes
capacity Summer loadline 25 875 tonnes
Tropical loadline 26 625 tonnes
Cubic capacity – Holds 1 205 000 cu.ft.
– Wing tanks 150 000 cu.ft.
Total 1 355 000 cu.ft.
Draft on summer freeboard 9.96 m
Average speed 15 knots
Bunker capacity
Intermediate fuel oil (IFO) 1600 tonnes
Diesel oil (DO) 160 tonnes
Total 1760 tonnes
Daily consumption of IFO at sea 36 tonnes
Daily consumption of DO at sea 2 tonnes
Daily consumption of IFO in port 2 tonnes
Daily consumption of DO in port 1 tonne
Daily consumption of water 10 tonnes

Certificates: National Panama Canal Suez Canal

Gross tonnage 16 640 16 890 16 610
Net tonnage 11 550 13 670 13 300
The upper wing tanks are self-trimming and can be used for grain in
bulk or water ballast. These tanks are loaded through small hatches
fitted with covers. They are discharged by emptying them into the
centre holds through 20-inch (51-cm) diameter openings.

Conditions of the cargo and voyage

Reserves
Assume that the vessel carries a minimum reserve of bunkers and
water throughout the voyage for unforeseen circumstances. The size
 of this reserve depends upon such things as the distance to be
covered, weather conditions expected during the voyage, and the
possibility to replenish bunkers in ports en route. It is up to the
ship’s master to judge each case on its merits; no hard and fast rules
can be given.

Stowage factor
The stowage factor for grain in bulk varies considerably for different
ports of loading or seasons. It also depends upon the age of the crop
and whether a light or heavy variety is shipped. The following
figures can be taken as fair averages:
Maize or corn in bulk 48–52 cu.ft. per long ton
Wheat in bulk, heavy variety 45–47 cu.ft. per long ton
Wheat in bulk, light variety 47–50 cu.ft. per long ton
Whether the wing tanks will be required or not, depends upon the
type of grain shipped.

Duration of voyage
The estimated duration of the voyage is increased by the number of
days required for such things as preparation, repairs, dry-docking,
and survey. The number of days used is based upon experience.

Loading and discharge (cost and time)

The vessel will be loaded and discharged in accordance with the
terms of the charter party. Assume that:
 The cargo will be loaded, trimmed, and discharged free of
expense to the vessel (f.i.o.t.). This is so unless otherwise stated
in the charter party.
 In practice the agreed lay time may be exceeded or lay time may
be saved, in which case the charter party stipulates how
demurrage or dispatch money will be payable. These are usually
fixed at levels that cover daily operating costs and do not have
an important bearing on voyage estimates.

Payment of freight
Assume that the agreed freight will be fully prepaid upon surrender
of signed bills of lading. (This is the case unless it is otherwise
agreed.)
 Daily operating costs
Daily operating costs may vary considerably since they depend on
the nationality of the vessel and other factors. Consequently, this
item has been left blank in the estimates. The same applies to
amortization, which depends upon the building costs of the vessel,
etc.
The operating costs cover the following items:
 wages, including overtime and benefits
 victualing
 insurance, including war risks and P&I insurance
 maintenance, repairs, and survey
 stores (for deck, engine, and steward)
 lubricating oil and water
 miscellaneous expenses.

Pro forma voyage account

The pro forma voyage account includes various charges and
disbursements that are incurred during a voyage. These have been
left blank in the following examples. In these times of fluctuating
rates, prices, and port charges, it serves no purpose to fill them in.
Shipowners have complete information concerning port charges,
canal dues, etc., enabling them to estimate these items with
maximum accuracy in a complete estimate.

Sample voyage estimation

This calculation is for the carriage of a full cargo of coal from
Norfolk to Yokohama.
Rate of loading Five days, all purposes, Sundays and holidays
excepted.
Rate of discharge Five days, all purposes, Sundays and holidays
excepted.
Route Rotterdam (Netherlands) – Norfolk (Virginia
USA) – Panama Canal – Yokohama (Japan)
Stowage factor for coal = 42 cu.ft. per long ton
Table 8–1 shows the voyage schedule.
 Route Miles Arrival Sailing Days Days
at sea in port
Rotterdam Jul 16
3490 10
Norfolk Jul 26 Jul 28 2
1728 5
Cristobal Aug 2 Aug 3 1
44 1
Balboa Aug 4 Aug 4 –
7742 22
Yokohama Aug 26 Aug 29 3
Totals 13 004 38 6

Table 8–1: Voyage schedule Rotterdam to Yokohama

Loadlines Norfolk 37°N: summer

Cristobal 9°N: tropical
Balboa 9°N: tropical
Yokohama 35°N: summer

Calculation of dwt. for bunkers, water, and cargo

The longest passage the loaded vessel makes on which bunkers are
not replenished is Panama Canal (Balboa) to Yokohama. This is
7742 miles and takes 22 days at sea. Bunkers and water are needed
for this passage, plus reserves for, say, 8 days.
Total bunker requirements
30 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 1140 tonnes
Total water requirements
30 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 300 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 250 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 690 tonnes
dwt. on tropical loadline (at Balboa) = 26 625 tonnes1
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 24 935 tonnes2
cargo weight @ 1016 kg/ton = 24 542 long tons
cargo volume @ 42 cu.ft./long ton = 1 030 764 cu.ft.

NOTES
1. How many days after leaving Balboa will the vessel have
 consumed enough fuel and water to bring it up to the summer
loadline limit? Is it reasonable that the vessel spend this long at sea
before crossing into the summer zone? Take a look at the chart in
the Student Reader.

2. You should verify for yourself that the vessel can leave Norfolk
for the Panama Canal with this weight of coal aboard. Allow 5 days,
plus 3 days in reserve, and observe the summer loadline limit.

Pro forma voyage account

(Filled in with accurate estimates by the ship owner or charterer)
Intake weight = 24 935 tonnes
Short weight (2%) = 500 tonnes
Delivered weight = 2 435 tonnes
@$ per tonne = $

Disbursements:
Bunkers
Port charges
Panama Canal dues
Loading expenses
Discharging expenses
Cleaning expenses
Insurance
Commission and brokerage
Miscellaneous expenses
BALANCE =$
Excluding 44 days of daily operating costs and amortization.

Calculating and reporting total consumption

Table 8–2 shows the total consumption report for this voyage.
 Route Miles Days Days Bunkers used and replaced
at sea in port arrival at sea in port refill sailing
Rotterdam 804 804
3490 10 380
Norfolk 2 424 6 418
1728 5 190
Cristobal 1 228 3 953 1178
44 1 38
Balboa 1140 1140
7742 22 836
Yokohama 3 304 9 295*
Totals 13 004 38 6 1444 18 1757
*Bunkers on discharge at Yokohama
Table 8–2: Total consumption report Rotterdam to Yokohama

Total bunkers consumption:

IFO: DO Total (tonnes)
38 days at sea: 1368 76 1444
6 days in port: 12 6 18
Total: 1380 82 1462

Explanation of bunkering arrangements

When fixing the maximum quantity of coal that can be carried on
sailing from Norfolk via Panama Canal to Yokohama in Japan, the
following considerations played a part:
 on sailing from Norfolk the vessel may be loaded to her summer
loadline
 on sailing from Balboa the vessel may be loaded to her tropical
loadline.

Reserves
It has been assumed that the vessel will be dispatched from
Rotterdam with sufficient bunkers to reach Cristobal with a reserve
for 6 days (reserve = 6 × 38 = 228 tonnes). At first sight, such a
margin seems high, but bear in mind that the consumption on the
 voyage in ballast (without cargo) from Rotterdam to Norfolk may be
higher than anticipated due to weather conditions. It is possible to
replenish bunkers at Norfolk, but the saving in bunker costs may not
be worthwhile in view of the small quantity involved, lighterage
expenses, etc.

The unbroken journey to Yokohama from Balboa

The carrying capacity for coal on this voyage is governed by the
tropical loadline on sailing from Balboa with sufficient bunkers,
water, and other stores to reach Yokohama without stopping on the
way (for example at Los Angeles).
Replenishing bunkers at Los Angeles would not be a paying
proposition. Apart from the extra distance (about 100 miles) during
which supplies would be used, there would be extra port charges and
loss of time. Also, on sailing from Los Angeles to Yokohama the
summer loadline may not be submerged. As a result, the carrying
capacity for coal would be reduced by about 245 tonnes, as shown
below:
Total bunker requirements
14 + 6 days @ 38 tonnes per day = 760 tonnes
Total water requirements
14 + 6 days @ 10 tonnes per day = 200 tonnes
Estimated weight of stores = 225 tonnes
Total requirements for non-cargo = 1 185 tonnes
dwt. on summer loadline (at Los Angeles) = 25 875 tonnes
dwt. available for cargo (subtracting) = 24 690 tonnes
Reduction compared to direct route = 24 935 – 24 690 = 245 tonnes
Unit 9 Passenger
shipping

Passenger shipping has changed a great deal in the last century.

Modern ferry and cruise ships deal with a very different clientele
and must interface with other modes of transport efficiently.
The three lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 modern passenger shipping
 the logistics of passenger shipping
 marketing passenger shipping.
Lesson 1...... Modern passenger shipping
Until the 1920s, travel by sea was the accepted mode of international
travel and passenger lines were profitable. The more famous
passenger steamship companies were household names, and their
ship commanders were considered to be at the peak of their
profession. This has ended with the availability of cheap, fast air
travel using jets. The slow pace of sea travel does not suit the
modern business traveller or those with short holidays and long
distances to travel. The future of passenger shipping lies in cruise
ships and ferries.

Building and operating passenger ships

Building a new passenger ship is very expensive. One of the last
great ones built, the passenger liner QE2 (Queen Elizabeth the
Second), cost more than £500 (US $830) per tonne and this
represents a huge investment of capital. Very few companies or
countries have invested in passenger ships in recent years and
governments no longer encourage the production of passenger ships
as backups to carry troops during war, since they also are carried by
air now.

Crewing of passenger ships

Passenger ships are labour-intensive and qualified crewmembers are
hard to find and expensive, adding to increasing operating costs.
Modern ship design allows more passengers to be carried
comfortably with fewer crewmembers. In the last few years, the
numbers have changed from one passenger per 50 tonnes gross to
one passenger per 30 tonnes gross. The ratio of passengers to crew
has gone from two-to-one to four-to-one.

Cargo/passenger ships
Up until the 1940s, cargo/passenger ships were very much in vogue.
They carried several thousand tonnes of cargo with, say, two
hundred passengers. However, because of increased costs of the
passenger sections and slow turn-around in ports, they are no longer
economic.
It may be that increased mechanization of cargo handling giving
swifter turn-around may allow a return to this type of service. Some
cargo lines currently carry small numbers of passengers.
Ferries
The first roll-on/roll-off (ro/ro) vessels were tank-landing aircraft in
the second world war. Since the widespread introduction of ro/ro
car passenger ferries in the 1960s, there has been huge growth in this
service. In the same period drive-on/drive-off air ferry services have
remained stagnant or decreased.
Ferry services also include foot passengers. Voyage times vary from
10 to 45 minutes for estuarial services, to 1.5 to 36 hours in short sea
trades. Most are from 3 to 8 hours. Often, regular road hauliers are
given priority over ordinary motor vehicles.
Fares are determined by:
 length of voyage
 competition (air and other shipping)
 port dues for passengers and vehicles
 fuel and crew costs
 agreements with other operators
 seasonal demand
 class of travel and concessions to age or youth
 group discounts
 size of vehicle and number of passengers in the vehicle
 government controls and charges
 revenues on board—food, drink, gifts, etc.

Ferry design
Ferries are designed to be as functional and versatile as possible and
are called multipurpose vessels with vehicular capacity. They can
carry cars, trucks, trailers, containers, and caravans. Many have
passenger certificates for 2000 with about 200 to 300 berths. Some
have cabins and some do not. Others may have capacity for 400 cars
or 80 trucks/trailers. Some more recent vessels can carry up to 120
trucks/trailers. The ships are designed for quick turn-around and
have bow and stern ramp loading, and a mezzanine deck so that car
and truck combinations can be varied.

Cruise ships
The cruise ship industry is growing rapidly (10% per year) in the last
few years as people in developed countries have increased their
 leisure time and prosperity. In 1994, the global cruise market was
four million passengers. The Mediterranean and the Caribbean are
very popular cruise markets.
This type of service requires a different style of marketing and is
susceptible to trends in consumer spending. It is very competitive in
both prices and quality. It often includes the organization of
connecting flights. Cruise ships are operated as floating hotels and
prices include most on-board facilities.
In setting prices, a cruise line must take account of market
conditions and costs. Voyage costs are broken down into the cost
per passenger at a specific load factor (such as 80%), and then a
profit margin is added.

Cruise ship design

Traditional passenger ships are not suitable for cruising. Cruise
ships are extremely expensive to build and operate because they
need modern luxurious amenities and have special requirements.
Some of the special requirements of cruise ship are:
 cruise ships must be able to enter romantic and beautiful old
ports, so their draft is usually small
 they must be able to berth and unberth with limited assistance
 fuel consumption must be kept to a minimum at normal cruising
speeds, while the ship must be able to reach 20 knots
 the vessels must carry many passengers in comfort and safety
 all noisy machinery must be sited away from public areas
 cabins must be located away from busy service areas
 considerable generating power is needed for air conditioning and
other passenger needs.

Owners usually opt for two propulsion sets of twin, medium-speed

diesel units. These can use less expensive, heavy bunkers and allow
intensive in-service maintenance to reduce overhaul time. Each pair
is connected to a controllable-pitch propeller via a reduction
gearbox. This combines with bow or stern thrusters to increase
manoeuvrability. As much waste heat as possible is used to generate
power.
Cabins have little variation except for a few luxury ones. There is
usually a wide choice of recreation facilities including at least one
swimming pool. There are also several indoor and outdoor areas for
 eating and drinking. Baggage handling equipment and internal
transportation is designed to minimize crew. Catering is often run
by a concession rather than seafarers. Launches are usually
available to ferry passengers ashore.
The trend in recent years has been toward larger vessels with
improved passenger accommodation and fewer passenger classes on
board (first class and tourist class only).

Cruise associations
Positive economic reports and expanding popularity in the cruise
market place have stimulated regulatory and legislative interest in
the industry. The International Council of Cruise Lines (ICCL) is
the main trade association to protect the interests of the cruise
industry. It is a non-governmental consultative organization.
As North America provides the largest market for the cruise
industry, the ICCL focuses extensively on legislative and regulatory
maritime issues in the USA. The rapid growth of the cruise industry
has caused some federal legislators to consider altering existing laws
and adopting new provisions that change, frequently adversely, the
way this international industry operates from US ports. Because
many of the lawmakers are unaware of the intricacies of the
industry, some of the legislative proposals would, perhaps
unintentionally, harm cruise operations and impede future growth.
ICCL membership represents over 90% of the ocean-going,
overnight, deep-sea, passenger cruise industry. Its charter covers the
USA as well as other countries. The organization advises the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) on issues that effect
cruise line operations.
Another important group is the Cruise Lines International
Association (CLIA). Some of their activities includes:
 programs to train agents to become more knowledgeable about
cruises and sell them more efficiently
 research and statistical data about the cruise population.
Today’s new cruisers are younger (averaging 44 years old) with
a moderate income of US $51 000. They are more inclined to
travel with their children.
Lesson 2...... Logistics of passenger
shipping
The factors influencing the passenger’s choice of cruise shipping
have changed dramatically during the past decade. The business is
based on the ―total product‖ concept, including reliability,
frequency, cost, transit time, quality of service (comfort, luxury, and
fun), packaging, baggage and car/caravan handling, import duty,
insurance and so on.
The passenger shipping business is multimodal with sea transport as
the major leg of the overall transit. Logistics and just-in-time arrival
and departure terminals play a major role in the operations. The way
people and information can be moved through the complex system
strongly affects how the ship owner can best meet the needs of the
passengers.

Managing passengers and information

To operate passenger shipping means managing both the flow of
passengers and information. Optimal customer service features are:
 specialized personnel who use their experience and
professionalism to devise a solution to logistic problems
 payment in electronic form
 efficient organization of documents, tickets, and other
paperwork
 good management of information provided on paper, or by
telephone, telefax, telex or data network (covering, for example,
where the passengers and baggage are located at any time, or the
arrival time at a specific place).

A sophisticated information system is essential to the build-up of

networks and integrated transport.
Cruise and ferry liner companies manage and control operations to
provide a fully integrated service for each customer.

Queue length management

The most important logistical problem that each company has to
resolve is the queues of waiting passengers embarking and
disembarking. Passengers must queue (line up) at the boarding
terminal, to disembark at visited ports, to re-board the vessel, and to
 disembark at the end of the cruise. If a launch is used to ferry cruise
passengers ashore, this also can create bottlenecks.
In an ideal situation there are no queues for the passengers and no
idle time for the people serving them. A passenger arrives exactly at
the time scheduled for ―processing‖ and the terminal has just
become available to perform the operation.
However, ideal conditions rarely exist in checking in and out.
Queues must be planned to compensate for the uneven flow of
incoming passengers and the variations in terminal processing times.
The objective of queue length management is to control lead-time
and the stream of passengers, to obtain full use of bottleneck places,
such as counters, and to avoid downtime in the flow. Determining
the nature of queues at the critical centres is the first step in
establishing meaningful queue length goals.

Typical queue distributions

The following are four different queue situations:
 a controlled queue: in this type the queue has a predictable
average length and never goes above a certain maximum; the
work centre is never idle and seldom overworked
 an excessive queue length: in this type, the queue length never
goes below a certain length; this means that people are
overworked and the queue could be substantially reduced
without causing idle time. The flow to the location must be
reduced
 an uncontrolled queue: these occur where unpredictable flows
come from earlier centres elsewhere in the system. Analysis of
the sources and processing patterns of incoming passengers
should provide clues for possible remedies
 substantial idle time due to a short queue: where possible, work
from overloaded centres should be moved to these locations.

Adjustments at earlier locations in the flow clearly affect flow

downstream in the system. In most cases changes should be made
gradually to minimize adjustment problems. Shortening the length
of a queue will, in itself, affect the distribution elsewhere in the
system–removing one backlog may cause another elsewhere. The
subject of queue management is complex and has been closely
studied. Its theory is beyond the scope of this course.
It is usually possible to reduce queue length by opening more
processing centres, but this may not be cost effective. A shipping
company must look at the cost benefits of the whole flow before
investing in the extra facilities and personnel.
Lesson 3:..... Marketing passenger
shipping
Although formal marketing departments are relatively new in
shipping the basic principles have always been considered by good
management. Marketing, in shipping as in any other business,
involves product analysis, traffic and market development,
promotions, and product development.
 Product analysis means assessing:
– supply and demand for the shipping service
– costs of such a service.

• Traffic and market development is concerned with how to

deploy resources. For example, in cruising the following
questions are considered:
– how long should the cruises be?
– where should the cruises go?
– for which age group, class, and nationality is it designed to
cater?

• Product development deal with:

– analysing mistakes and passengers’ complaints—in
logistics, this is called constraints management
– shore excursions
– food and entertainment.

• Promotion of a ship owner’s business involves four basic

elements:
– advertisement of the service
– pricing policy with regard to passenger fares
– publicity (press releases and general relations with the
press)
– direct selling of the company’s services by forwarding
travel agents or by shipping company salesmen negotiating
contracts with clients.
 Although marketing of passenger shipping is considered in this
lesson, most of the information also applies to other forms of
commercial shipping.

Marketing plans
Marketing policy strongly influences the success of any company.
The object of a marketing plan is to identify the products that the
company wishes to sell and to win the maximum market share
consistent with profitability. A passenger shipping company’s
annual marketing plan should be adopted at the same time as the
budget and support its goals.
The details of the marketing plan depends upon the type of ship
operator and trade, and the level of competition. Competitors’
programmes are monitored and an attempt is made to keep the
company in the public eye throughout the year. Great stress is laid
on the advantages of the service over its competitors. Timing plays
an important role in achieving the maximum impact.
Increasingly, passenger ship operators are collaborating with tourist
boards, hoteliers’ associations, and local businesses in the joint
promotion of inclusive tours.

Marketing budgets and revenues

The marketing budget for a service should be in proportion to the
budgeted gross revenue derived from the service. This is usually up
to 3%, although the figure will be higher for the promotion of a new
service. The marketing plan includes a detailed breakdown of the
year’s marketing budget according to country, commodity, and
medium.
Agents and personnel responsible for executing the plan should be
allotted realisable revenue targets. Incentives may be offered in the
form of annual awards for outstanding results. Reports on
achievements in individual countries or services should be prepared
at regular intervals where practicable.

Advertising
Possible advertising media are: newspapers, trade journals,
commercial radio, television, brochures, sales conferences, trade
fairs, promotions, etc. In general, only large shipping companies
advertise on television and radio.
 It is essential that a promotion be launched to coincide with the
availability of the product, and this could involve a lead-time of up
to 12 months from the time the plan is first discussed.

Advertising agencies
Large shipping companies engage advertising agencies to develop
their promotions. They may use separate agents in each country to
reflect different advertising customs and techniques.
Close liaison between advertising agency and shipping company is
essential throughout an advertising campaign so that the response
can be monitored and the campaign modified if necessary.

Market research
Before promotions, market research assesses market potential and
determines the factors that cause passengers to use the service.
Relatively simple surveys may be carried out to discover, for
instance, where motorists learned of a particular ferry service. At
the other end of the scale, specialist consultants may conduct
research that will result in far-reaching developments. (An example
of this is the use of market research to determine service patterns
and tonnage requirements for deep-sea container services when that
sector was being established.)
Simple market surveys may be carried out by:
 questionnaire distributed by mail or to all passengers on a
cruise. Questions may relate to the reasons for taking the cruise,
good and bad points about the cruise, and age, income bracket
and profession of the respondents
 desk research, extracting information from trade journals,
newspapers, government reports, and publications of chambers
of commerce and the like
 direct personal interview in a field survey; this is the most
expensive but most reliable method of obtaining data from
individual prospective customers.

Market structure and market share

Knowledge of the composition, profile or structure of the existing
market both at home and overseas enables the ship operator to plan
the promotion and development of new tonnage and tariff structures.
Market share is an important consideration in a general market
analysis. However, the paramount concern in the long term must be
the degree of profitability that each market share commands.
Market forecasting
A market forecast plays an important role in formulating future
strategy, both in the product (the shipping service) and the market.
Market forecasting of an international market is a difficult task. It
involves obtaining as much statistical data as possible.

Obtaining data
The forecaster must be well acquainted with the economic, political,
cultural, and business background of the overseas markets relevant
to the service in question. Much reliable data can be obtained by the
overseas agent or sales representative, who can include it in regular
sales reports.
Some other sources of data for forecasting are:
 trade associations
 overseas marketing boards
 trade journals
 the International Chamber of Commerce
 tourist boards
 international banks
 overseas Governments’ statistics
 Export Intelligence Service (EIS)
 economic trading blocs (such as ASEAN, EU, NAFTA)
 advertising agencies.

Ensuring reliability and tracking changes

To be sure of the reliability of market research data, the forecaster
must take into account any likely changes in
 exchange rates
 import and export controls, tariff structures, and customs
arrangements
 free trade or bilateral trade agreements
 flag discrimination
 new competition through new operators entering the trade or
existing ones modernizing their fleets
 new technology
 government policy.
Market pricing
An increasing number of ship owners in passenger trades are using
the technique of market pricing. This is essentially the practice of
correlating passenger and freight tariffs to potential market demand
and sensitivity. This is done to maximize cash flow, attain high
passenger loads, counter competition, stimulate market growth, and
improve profitability. An example of market pricing is the different
fares charged on short sea passenger services and car ferries at
various times of the year.
The basic tariff must cover direct costs and make a major
contribution to indirect costs. The reduced tariff should at least
cover direct costs if possible. The formulation of graduated tariffs
requires careful evaluation of existing tariffs, costs, competition,
agreements with other operators and, above all, market sensitivity.
In adopting market pricing policy, care must be taken to ensure that
full-rate traffic is not diverted to the lower rate in endeavouring to
generate a higher volume of business. If the market for the service
does not particularly care about the price (within limits), reducing
the price may bring only a few extra passengers while reducing the
revenue from regular customers.
Market pricing policies that lead to a tariff war should be avoided.
They may generate additional traffic, but the average rate will fall
and there may be little prospect of increasing revenue for any
company.
Unit 10 Politics and
organizations
Governments influence the shipping industry directly through the
liner conferences and via the intervention of the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
Shipping organizations watch over the interests of trade in general
and the interests of their members in particular. They enhance
understanding and co-operation between their members, and give
them advice and information. They consult and co-operate with
other associations and organizations directly concerned with the
shipping industry and the promotion of world trade.
The three lessons in this unit will cover the topics of:
 the role of UNCTAD
 political aspects of shipping
 services performed by the principal shipping organizations.
Lesson 1...... The role of UNCTAD
A conference was established by the General Assembly of the
United Nations in 1964. This was the United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development. Its aims were to help modify the
traditional patterns of international trade so that the developing
countries would be able to play their part in world commerce.
Committees were established to deal with:
 commodities
 manufactures
 invisibles such as insurance, intellectual property, and
information; and trade finance
 shipping
 transfer of technology
 economic co-operation among developing countries
 trade preferences.

UNCTAD directed the committees to seek internationally acceptable

solutions to problems of international trade and development faced
by developing countries. This included related transportation
concerns, such as ocean shipping.
The objectives were to:
 elaborate support measures for the commodity market in order to
arrest the deterioration of the terms of trade for developing
countries
 establish ways to improve the external environment for the
development of these countries.
UNCTAD and conferences
Developing countries were particularly interested in the liner trades,
which were usually self-regulated by the cartel-type system of liner
conferences. UNCTAD’s Shipping Committee sought to encourage
closer consultation between shippers and conferences in regard to
the running of shipping services in developing countries through:
 international financing
 technical assistance for improving port operations
 providing favourable terms and conditions for developing
connected inland transport facilities
 encouraging development of merchant marine services.

UN code of conduct
One important decision of UNCTAD was the establishment of the
UN Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences.
UNCTAD proposed the 40/40/20 rule. This gave each of the trading
partner countries the right to carry 40% of the liner cargoes
generated by their own trade, leaving the remaining 20% to third-
flag carriers.
UNCTAD was primarily concerned with:
 commodity price stabilization
 devising support measures for the terms of trade
 the level and structure of freight rates
 the protection of shippers’ interests
 consultation machinery.
UNCTAD Shipping Committee tasks
The UNCTAD VI session directed its Shipping Committee to:
 ensure the orderly development of liner and multimodal
transport services to the general satisfaction of the affected
governments, operators, carriers, and shippers
 establish an equitable basis for the participation of developing
countries in the carriage of bulk cargoes
 establish a regime that would facilitate funding on favourable
terms for construction and purchase of ships by developing
countries
 establish equitable laws, that take account of the interests of
affected parties (for example carriers, operators, shippers,
insurers, assurers, and third parties affected by maritime and
related contracts)
 ensure that the trade of developing countries is not stifled as a
result of inadequate port capacity
 foster management and technological expertise in shipping and
ports in developing countries.

Specific actions resulting from UNCTAD committee work and

recommendations
There are several ways in which UNCTAD recommendations are
being translated into actions to improve conditions in the shipping
industry:
Liner trades adoption of the Code of Conduct for Liner
Conferences 1974.
Multimodal transport
adoption of the Multimodal Convention.
Law revisions adoption of the Hamburg Rules for carriage of
goods by sea and ongoing work on international
maritime legislation.
Bulk trades ongoing investigation of market practices and
procedures.
Open registry operations
drawing up model clauses for international use.
Insurance reform (hull and cargo marine)
drawing up model clauses for international use.
 Port operations increasing the efficiency of existing facilities
and developing new facilities for changing
volumes and types of traffic.
Technical assistance and training
accelerated implementation of effective
programmes from developing countries.

More recent UNCTAD initiatives

Details of new areas of interest in commercial shipping emerging at
UNCTAD VIII are as follows:
 promotion of transparent maritime services
(transparency means there are no organizational or paperwork
barriers to free flow.)
 promotion of competitive maritime services
 development of infrastructure including ports
 analysis and monitoring of developments in multimodal
transport, including technological development and
containerization.
 further work on marine legislation
 strengthening human resources development.

Other inter-governmental groups

In 1992, an inter-governmental group of experts on ports began the
following two main tasks:
 Port organization, including issues relating to privatization,
commercialization, deregulation, and legislation.
 Port management, including issues relating to human resources,
development and sustainability, strategic planning, marketing,
and investment.

This involves the promotion of transparency in shipping, ports, and

multimodal transport, and fostering competition in marine transport
services.
Lesson 2 ......Political aspects of shipping
Many political situations and controls affect the shipping industry.
Changes of government, political ideology, colonialism, and
political alignment all cause changes in trading patterns.
Governments can pass laws to protect their own fleets and thus exert
influence on the flow of trade.
Special taxation and government restrictions can have profound
effects such as with the growth of the use of flags of convenience.
Political ideology may cause a government to restrict trade. A
recent example of this is the restrictions on ships visiting Cuba if
they wish to trade with the USA.

Effects of wars
Wars cause losses of ships and the need for rapid rebuilding. They
produce a considerable stimulus to research and shipbuilding
capacity. The effects on trade can also be colossal as artificial
demands are created and routes lengthened, as in the closure of the
Suez canal.
Blacklisting can occur and ships trading to one country may not be
allowed to visit another.
When there is the possibility of war, nations do not like to be
dependent on the ships of other nations for the delivery of essential
supplies.

Flags of discrimination
During recent years, an increasing number of countries have
introduced various forms of trade protection for their own national
fleets. Flags of countries that give various forms of trade protection
to their ships are sometimes referred to as flags of discrimination.
Flag discrimination occurs when ships sailing under a specified flag
are boycotted in one way or another.
The reasons for flag discrimination vary—for example, a developing
nation might wish to build up its fleet. At the other end of the scale,
the high operating costs of US ships make it difficult for them to
compete in an open market with ships of other maritime nations.
Some nations may feel justified in helping their fleets for military or
strategic reasons, or because it is felt that this is a useful way of
earning foreign currency.
 Types of discrimination or protection
Unilateral actions taken by a nation to protect its shipping include:
 cabotage—this is the reservation of the coastal trade either to
ships flying that nation’s flag or to include also ships owned by
nationals but operating under a flag of convenience
 reduced customs dues on goods imported on her own flag ships
 restriction of credit if goods are not carried in national ships
 various forms of import/export licence control
 priority for the nation’s own ships in loading and discharging
 reduction in harbour dues, light dues, etc., for the nation’s own
ships
 preference on inland transport charges
 government sponsorship and reservation for certain types or
quantities of cargo on national ships
 persuading exporters to sell CIF (cost, insurance, and freight)
and importers to buy f.o.b. (free on board). The result of this is
the control of transport of goods entering or leaving the country.

Disadvantages of protectionism
Although these measures undoubtedly protect a nation’s shipping,
the overall effect on the country’s economy may not be so
advantageous. Shipments may have to wait for a suitable ship and as
the best possible use cannot be made of shipping space, the shipping
services to and from that country cannot operate at maximum
efficiency. Therefore shipments take longer and become more
expensive.
One measure that can be adopted to partially overcome these
measures is to transship cargo to a nearby foreign port. This again
not only increases the cost and time but also increases the danger of
cargo getting lost, broken, or pilfered.
The International Chamber of Commerce has made the observation
that developing countries would be better to invest their money in
trying to establish good modern ports and inland transport systems
rather than simply protecting their shipping.

Flags of convenience (open registry)

All ships must be registered somewhere and the ship acquires the
nationality of the state in which it is registered. It flies the flag of
 that state and is governed by its laws. An international agreement
states that:
Each state shall fix the conditions for the grant of its
nationality to ships for the registration of ships in its
territory and for the right to fly its flag.
Convention of the high seas implies that there must be a genuine link
between the state and the ship but this seems to be open to very
vague interpretation. In some countries, the right to fly the national
flag is subject to stringent conditions and involves responsibilities.
A flag of convenience is the flag of a country whose laws make it
easy for ships owned by foreign nationals to fly their flag. Another
term used for flags of convenience is open registry. Flags of
convenience are mainly used for tankers and bulk carriers, but also
used on some cruise ships.
The outstanding example of a flag of convenience country is Liberia,
whose merchant fleet has grown from virtually nothing in the early
fifties to the largest fleet in the world. Other examples are Panama
and Bermuda.
A flag of convenience country may possess some or all of the
following features:
 It may be a small, poor country having very few resources with
which to raise foreign currency.
 Manning by non-nationals may be permitted.
 There may be a very low tax levy.
 No adequate administrative machinery may exist to enforce
international safety regulations.

Advantages to ship owners of flags of convenience

Some reasons ship owners use flags of convenience are:
 freedom from taxation—a major advantage during profitable
periods
 greater operating freedom with few government-imposed
restrictions
 possible reduction in operating costs, particularly for owners in
developed countries due to the high cost of their crews
 avoidance of specific disadvantages, restrictions, and
discriminations caused by operating under one’s own flag.
General disadvantages of flags of convenience
There are disadvantages in the use of flags of convenience, for the
shipping industry, for individual nations, and for the international
community.
For the shipping industry:
 Tax avoidance gives ship owners an unfair trading advantage
and can discourage the responsible national ship owner.
 Without national registration and support, it may be difficult to
obtain satisfaction in just legal claims.
 Many shipowners operating under flags of convenience take
their responsibilities seriously and the governments of countries
offering flags of convenience are increasingly aware of the need
to improve safety standards. It would be wrong to assert that all
flag of convenience ships are unsafe compared with ships
operating under a traditional maritime flag. The casualty record
of flag of convenience countries is, however, worse than the
world average. Further, the thoroughness of the investigations
carried out by some flag of convenience countries into casualties
is not always as rigorous as it might be.

For individual nations:

 From the points of view of taxation and control, it is obviously
better for any country to have ships registered in that country.
Ship owners require tax concessions and more consideration
from their governments to keep their ships from registering
under flags of convenience.

For the international community

 A large volume of tonnage without traditional, national ties or
international involvement means that they do not carry their fair
share of responsibility in the world shipping community. Most
flag of convenience countries are members of IMO but they are
not noticeably active. Few are members of the International
Chamber of Shipping.
 Vessels without national ties are not concerned with the
expensive problem of training local seafarers, as they can gain
their crews by poaching from other, traditional, maritime
countries. Further, when times are bad, they accept no
responsibility for the crews who then return to accentuate any
unemployment problems in their native countries.
Shipping subsidies
Another way of helping the nation’s shipping is by subsidies. These
can take several forms:
 operating subsidies
 construction subsidies
 indirect subsidies.

State-owned fleets enjoy all these subsidies automatically or at least

have the comfort of knowing that these resources are there to help
them when times are bad.

Operating subsidies
Operating subsidies occur when direct financial assistance is given
to help the nation’s ships compete on the international shipping
markets. With these subsidies certain conditions are usually
attached such as that the ships must be built in the home country.
With direct operating subsidies there is the danger of encouraging
inefficient management.

Construction subsidies
Construction subsidies are various types of financial help in meeting
the high capital cost of building a ship. They can take several forms
such as building grants, long term loans with easy terms, customs
duty exemptions, or rebates on imported materials or parts, or
financial help with expensive research.

Indirect subsidies
Indirect subsidies also occur, such as various forms of tax
concessions like free depreciation. These subsidies have the merit
that they encourage successful and resourceful management.
Indirect subsidy can also be used to stimulate new growth in the
industry by having profits reinvested rather than just dispersed to the
shareholder.

Tax incentives
Government may permit accelerated depreciation allowances, low or
zero corporation tax, or tax-free reserves. The actual value of
depreciation allowances and tax-free reserves depends on the usual
rate of corporation tax—the higher the tax rate, the greater the
 benefit to the company. There may also be favourable tax treatment
of individuals and partnerships investing in shipping.

OECD policy on shipping subsidies

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) Maritime Transport Committee concluded it would not be
practical or acceptable to phase out subsidies to shipping. These
subsidies have the following positive purposes:
 To ensure the maintenance of a national flag or nationally
owned fleet for security or strategic purposes.
 To maintain employment of national seafarers in order to secure
marine know-how and a pool of personnel in case of need.
 To maintain a relatively free shipping market and preserve the
freedom of shippers’ choice.
 To make available shipping services to remote communities in
the country’s territory which are otherwise not commercially
viable.
 To assist their operators in competing with other fleets who are
in a favourable economic position. This may be due to non-
commercial advantages granted by another state or to particular
characteristics of their national economies.
 To increase the contribution of shipping to the balance of
payments.
 To modernize their fleets, make them more competitive or ease
structural adjustment.
The OECD is discussed further in Lesson 3.
Lesson 3: .....Shipping organizations
Council of European and Japanese National Shipowners’ Association
(CENSA)
The primary objective of CENSA is the promotion and protection of
the interests of its membership through the development of sound
shipping policies, such as:
 elimination of restriction on, and interference with, international
transport and trade
 promotion of a system free, so far as possible, from
governmental discrimination or regulation and which preserves
for shippers the freedom of choice of vessel
 development of a system of fair-trading between providers and
users of shipping services on the basis, as far as possible, of self-
regulation.

International Association of Independent Tanker Owners

(INTERTANKO)
INTERTANKO is a non-profit organization whose aims are to:
 promote internationally the interests of independent tanker
owners in matters of general policy
 promote a free and competitive tanker market
 work for safety at sea
 protect the marine environment
 co-operate with other technical, industrial or commercial
interests or bodies on problems of mutual concern to its
members and to such interests
 take part in the deliberations of other international bodies.

INTERTANKO works closely with organizations such as IMO,

OECD, the Worldscale Association, and UNCTAD.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The International Maritime Organization is the specialised agency of
the United Nations concerned solely with maritime affairs. Its
interest is mainly in ships used in international services.
 IMO is a forum where members can exchange information on, and
endeavour to solve, problems. Its aims are to facilitate co-operation
among governments on:
 technical and legal matters affecting shipping
 safety at sea
 prevention of marine pollution from ships.

IMO administers numerous international conventions and codes.

Current IMO developments include measures related to cargoes,
stability and load lines, ship design and equipment, radio-
communications, the prevention of pollution by oil and other
substances, the promotion of technical assistance, and many others.

The Worldscale Association

The Worldscale Association keeps track of freight rates. The
Worldwide Tanker Nominal Freight Scale is a schedule of freight
rates applying to tankers carrying oil in bulk. The term nominal
indicates that the freight rates that Worldscale provides are intended
only as a standard of reference or guideline.

The Worldscale freight rates

It is the custom to express market levels of freight as a direct
percentage of these published scale rates instead of as a plus or
minus percentage. Thus:
 Worldscale 100 (W100) means the rate as calculated and
published
 Worldscale 250 (W250) means 250% of the published rate
 Worldscale 40 (W40) means 40% of the published rate.

An owner assesses the likely costs involved on a particular voyage

and decides whether or not the level of Worldscale on offer has any
attraction, bearing in mind the loading and discharging options
required by the charterer.
The principal advantage of using a scale system is that it can greatly
simplify the negotiation of tanker charters. A single reference in the
charter is sufficient to cover all the voyages that are possible within
the designated trading areas of that charter.
 Extensions to the rates
Worldscale has developed various extensions in freight rates, such
as :
 rates for voyages between one loading and one discharging port
 rates for multiport voyages
 rates involving transshipment areas (These are places, often
many miles out at sea, where large ships transfer all or part of
their cargo to smaller vessels.)
 a list of demurrage rates between 10 000 and 550 000 tonnes dwt
in 120 size ranges.

Comparisons of fixtures in different trades can be readily made.

The basic voyage and standard vessel

The rates are calculated on the basis of a round voyage from loading
port or ports to discharge port to ports and back to the first loading
port. The rates are by reference to a standard vessel of 19 500
tonnes dwt having a speed of 14 knots and a daily bunker
consumption of 28 tonnes of fuel oil.
The main calculation elements of each rate are as follows:
 the fixed hire element of US$1800 per day—this element does
not change and represents the stable continuity factor of the
scale
 bunker costs—based upon bunker prices over a stated period
 port costs
 lay time allowance of 72 hours for loading or discharging
 port time (not counting as lay time) of 12 hours for each port
involved in the voyage.

International Cargo Handling Co-ordination Association (ICHCA)

ICHCA is a professional coordinating body unique in the
international transport world. It is non-political, non-commercial,
and non-profit making. Its membership spans the entire spectrum of
professions and occupations that have an effect on, or are affected
by, technological changes in the physical distribution of goods
through world transport. ICHCA also acts as a forum for passing on
important research findings.
The Baltic and International Maritime Conference (BIMCO)
BIMCO is world’s largest private shipping organization. It groups
ship owners, ship brokers, protection and indemnity clubs, defence
associations, national associations of ship owners and national
association of ship brokers in many countries.
BIMCO provides an unparalleled shipping forum in which members
from both developed and undeveloped countries can discuss
problems of mutual interest on an equal footing.
Because BIMCO is both non-political and non-governmental, its
opinions are widely respected in the international world of shipping
and commerce in general, and the organization has consultative
status with international bodies such as UNCTAD and IMO.

BIMCO documentation
A very large percentage of the total world transportation of goods
take place on the basis of charter parties and other documents
prepared by the Documentary Council of BIMCO, or on charter
party conditions which have been recommended by BIMCO.
Throughout its existence, BIMCO has endeavoured to prepare
modern, reasonable and balanced documents that are acceptable to
all parties. All these documents use standard, precise terminology in
an effort to avoid or reduce disputes over interpretation.
BIMCO documents are available for transportation of:
 general cargoes
 ore, coal, and timber
 liquid gas, and chemicals
 vegetable oils
 fertilizers.

BIMCO information services

Providing detailed information for its members has been an integral
part of BIMCO’s activities since its foundation. Equipped with what
is possibly the finest collection of data on port conditions and
charges, the Information Bureau in the BIMCO office feeds a
constant stream off data to its members by internet, telephone, mail,
and fax, or through its regular publications.
International Labour Organization (ILO)
ILO was set up in 1919 to bring governments, employers, and trade
unions together for joint action in the cause of social justice and
better living conditions.
ILO activities in the field of shipping includes the adoption of the
following international labour standards:
 minimum standards in merchant ships—ratifying countries have
the right to report on sub-standard working condition on board
ships calling at their ports and the right to have poor conditions
rectified in ships which are ―clearly hazardous to safety and
health‖
 minimum annual leave with pay for seafarers—this is set at 30
calendar days after one year of service
 a recommendation for national policies to encourage the
provision of continuous, regular employment for qualified
seafarers as far as is practicable
 recommendations for the protection of seafarers aged less than
18 (excluding those in warships, fishing vessels, or training
vessels)—in such matters as health, morals, and safety, and to
promote their vocational guidance and training.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

The aims of the OECD are to promote economic and social welfare
throughout the OECD area. It tries to:
 assist members’ governments in the formulation and co-
ordination of appropriate policies
 stimulate and harmonize members’ efforts on behalf of
developing countries.

The OECD’s activities relating to the shipbuilding and shipping

industries are conducted through Council Working Party No. 6 on
Shipbuilding and the Maritime Transport Committee.

Working Party No. 6 on Shipbuilding

Working Party No. 6 on Shipbuilding is the forum for discussions
between governments on short-term and long-term policies and
problems affecting the shipbuilding industry.
One short-term problem considered is that of the world distribution
of ship orders. Discussions are aimed at avoiding an unfair
 concentration of the few new orders available in one country or
group of countries.
Long-term policies relate to the needed restructuring of the industry
to take into account changes in the market. They seek to avoid the
burden of crisis being shifted to one country or group of countries.
Monitoring the understanding on export credits for ships is also a
task of the working party.

International Chamber of Shipping (ICS)

The ICS is an organization of national ship owners’ association in
many countries, representing shipping interests that operate on the
basis of free enterprise. Its members represent some two thirds of
the world’s merchant tonnage.
The aims of ICS are to promote the interests of its members by:
 providing a forum for the discussion of a wide range of matters
of mutual concern
 seeking to co-ordinate members’ views
 representing those views nationally and internationally.

ICS has consultative status with a number of inter-governmental

bodies, notably the IMO, and has close ties with many other
international organisations at industry level.
The work of ICS encompasses containers and multimodal transport,
facilitation and trade procedures, marine insurance, marine
pollution, marine safety, maritime law and oil tanker, chemical and
gas carrier operations.
ICS has produced a number of publications, chiefly in the fields of
safety, pollution, and facilitation. Several of these have been
prepared in conjunction with the Oil Companies International
Marine Forum.

Classification societies

The American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)

ABS is a ship classification society that certifies the soundness of
merchant ships and other marine engineering structures. Its
hundreds of surveyors include specialists in all aspects of the design,
building and engineering operation of ships and offshore structures.
They discuss original ideas, submit specific proposals for vessels,
 monitor the ship throughout its construction, and ensure that the
Bureau’s rules are carried out. The Bureau is authorised to assign
Load Lines and Safety of Life at Sea Certificates.

Bureau Veritas (BV)

BV is an international organisation with offices in many countries.
It exists to ensure that materials and equipment used in ships,
buildings, industrial activities, electrical, electronic or nuclear
projects, etc., reach the required standards.
The BV periodically issues rules for the guidance of engineers and
construction companies. These rules take into account the progress
made in various fields and the experience of the Bureau’s Inspection
Department.

Lloyd’s Register of Shipping

Classification by Lloyd’s Register of Shipping is accepted by
owners, underwriters, charterers, and national authorities as a
guarantee of structural and mechanical efficiency. The Lloyd’s
Register employs thousands of full-time engineers, naval architects,
metallurgists, and other professionals all over the world to provide
technical inspections and advisory services. It is used primarily for
ships but increasingly for engineering projects of many kinds,
marine and non-marine.
Besides designing ships to meet its classifications, and then ensuring
they are built in a proper manner, Lloyd’s also
 classifies ship machinery
 surveys vessels both on the high seas and in dry dock
 publishes a detailed register of shipping with monthly
supplements giving details of alterations, additions, new vessels,
and survey records
 classifies and certifies the state of offshore facilities,
submersibles, buoys, and diving complexes
 industrial surveys, giving impartial assessments of all sorts of
industrial complexes
 is represented on many national and international committees.
Protection and indemnity (P&I) clubs and marine insurance
P&I clubs are mutual insurance clubs which ship owners have
formed to meet the financial liabilities that they could not insure
with Lloyd’s or with any of the large insurance companies.
If a ship sinks, the marine insurance will pay up to the value of the
ship but the ship owner is left with the responsibility of perhaps
having to remove the wreck. This would be paid for by the P&I
club. P&I insurance also covers the ship owner for:
 damage done by his ship to docks, piers and other fixed objects
 claims made by the crew for loss of life, personal injury, hospital
and medical expenses while abroad, and all repatriation
expenses
 extraordinary medical expenses such as an outbreak of the
plague
 many of the fines that might be imposed by governments
 claims for loss, short delivery, pilferage or damage to cargo.

In other words, P&I clubs cover claims and losses incident to the
business of ship owning which the committee considers come within
its scope.

The London Pool

The majority of the clubs work together in what is known as the
London Pool. All large individual claims go into the pool and are
shared. The pool is in turn reinsured at Lloyd’s for any large
catastrophic claims.