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crime victims
AN INTRODUCTION TO VICTIMOLOGY

TENTH EDITION

ANDREW KARMEN
John Jay College of Criminal Justice
City University of New York

Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States

Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology, © 2020, 2016, 2013 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Tenth Edition
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Andrew Karmen
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
 Brief Contents

PREFACE xviii

Chapter 1 What Is Victimology? 1

Chapter 2 The Rediscovery of Crime Victims 41

Chapter 3 Victimization in the United States: An Overview 80

Chapter 4 A Closer Look at the Victims of Interpersonal Crimes of Violence

and Theft 109

Chapter 5 The Ongoing Controversy over Shared Responsibility 146

Chapter 6 Victims and the Police 200

Chapter 7 Victims’ Rights and the Criminal Justice System 231

Chapter 8 Victimized Children 273

Chapter 9 Victims of Violence by Lovers and Family Members 319

Chapter 10 Victims of Rapes and Other Sexual Assaults 363

Chapter 11 Additional Groups of Victims with Special Problems 424

Chapter 12 Repaying Victims 466

Chapter 13 Victims in the Twenty-First Century: Alternative Directions 506

G L O S S A R Y 555
R E F E R E N C E S 567
NAME INDEX 639
SUBJECT INDEX 655

iii
Contents

PREFACE xviii

1 What Is Victimology? 1
An Introduction to Victimology 2
Studying Victimization Scientifically 2
Focusing on the Plight of Crime Victims 2
What Kinds of Studies Do Victimologists Carry Out? 5
What Victimology Isn’t 18
Victimology versus Detective Work 18
Victimology versus Victim Services 19
Victimology versus Victimism: A Political Point of View 21
Comparing Victimology to Criminology 23
The Many Parallels between Criminology and Victimology 24
Some Differences and Issues about Boundaries 25
Differing Political Approaches within the Discipline 26
Why Study Victimology? 27
Why Place Such an Emphasis on Carrying Out Research? 27
Different Types of Research Studies in Victimology 28
Different Disciplinary Approaches when Researching Victim Issues 28
Sometimes Research Findings Can Be Surprising! 29
How to Structure a Victimological Investigation 31
Summary 39
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 39
Questions for Discussion and Debate 40
Critical Thinking Questions 40
Suggested Research Projects 40

2 The Rediscovery of Crime Victims 41

The Discovery, Decline, and Rediscovery of Crime Victims 42
The Process of Rediscovery 43
iv
 CONTENTS v

Victimology Contributes to the Rediscovery Process 43

Rediscovering Exemplary Behavior under Extremely Difficult Circumstances 44
Rediscovering Survivors Whose Resilience after a Vicious Attack Is Inspiring 47
“Survivorology”: Toward a More Upbeat Focus within Victimology 48
Rediscovering the Importance of Bystanders Who Intervene 50
Other Groups Propel the Rediscovery Process Forward 53
Social Movements: Taking Up the Victims’ Cause 53
Elected Officials: Proposing and Enacting Pro-Victim Legislation 58
The News Media: Portraying the Victims’ Plight 61
Commercial Interests: Selling Security Products and Services to Victims 64
Rediscovering Additional Groups of Victims 64
The Rediscovery Process in Action, Step by Step 67
Stage One: Calling Attention to an Overlooked Problem 67
Stage Two: Making Progress, Implementing Reforms 68
Stage Three: Emergence of an Opposition and Development of Resistance to
Further Changes 69
Stage Four: Research Findings Generate Useful Evidence 70
Summary 77
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 78
Questions for Discussion and Debate 78
Critical Thinking Questions 78
Suggested Research Projects 79

3 Victimization in the United States: An Overview 80

Victimization across the Nation: The Big Picture 81
Making Sense of Statistics 82
The Two Official Sources of Data 84
Facts and Figures in the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime
Report (UCR) 84
Facts and Figures in the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS) 87
Comparing the UCR and the NCVS 91
A First Glance at the Big Picture: Estimates of the Number of New
Crime Victims Each Year 92
A Second Look at the Big Picture: Watching the FBI’s Crime Clock 93
Delving Deeper into the Big Picture: Examining Victimization Rates 94
Tapping into the UCR and the NCVS to Fill in the Details of the Big
Picture 96
Searching for Changes in the Big Picture: Detecting Trends in Interpersonal
Violence and Theft 98
Taking a Longer View: Murders in the United States over the Past
Century 101
The Rise and Fall of Murder Rates Since 1900 103
Putting Crime into Perspective: The Chances of Dying Violently—or
from Other Causes 104
Summary 106
vi CONTENTS

Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 107

Questions for Discussion and Debate 107
Critical Thinking Questions 107
Suggested Research Projects 108

4 A Closer Look at the Victims of Interpersonal Crimes of Violence

and Theft 109
Addressing Some Troubling Questions 110
Identifying Differential Risks: Which Groups Suffer More Often
Than Others? 111
Focusing on Murders and Near-Death Experiences 111
Where It Is Much Safer or Far More Dangerous: Making International
Comparisons 111
Murder Rates in Various Big Cities around the Country 115
A Victimological Investigation of Murders in the United States 117
Who Gets Killed by Whom? How, Where, and Why? 118
Differential Risks: Who Faces the Gravest Threats of Being Murdered? 119
Near-Death Experiences: Trends in Aggravated Assault Rates 122
Focusing on Robberies 125
Robbers and the People They Prey Upon 126
Robberies: Who, How Often, How, Where, When 126
Changes over Time in Robbery Rates 127
Checking Out Whether More Robberies Are Turning into Murders 128
Differential Risks: Which Groups Get Robbed the Most and the Least
Often? 128
Focusing on Burglaries 131
Trends and Patterns in Burglaries 133
Differential Risks: Whose Homes Are More Likely to Be Burglarized? 134
Focusing on Motor Vehicle Theft 135
Stealing Cars for Fun and Profit 135
Trends in Motor Vehicle Theft 136
Differential Risks: Which Motorists Should Be Most Concerned When
Parking? 137
Predicting the Chances of Becoming a Victim Someday: Projecting
Cumulative Risks 141
Summary 144
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 144
Questions for Discussion and Debate 145
Critical Thinking Questions 145
Suggested Research Projects 145

5 The Ongoing Controversy over Shared Responsibility 146

How Some Victims Contribute to the Crime Problem 147
Repeat and Chronic Victims: Learning from Past Mistakes? 148
The Entire Spectrum of Possibilities: Recognizing Complete Innocence and
Full Responsibility 149
 CONTENTS vii

Who or What Is to Blame for Specific Incidents? 150

What Is Victim Blaming? 151
What Is Victim Defending? 154
What Is System Blaming? 154
Mistakes Individuals Make: Victim Facilitation 156
How Many Identity Thefts Were Victim-Facilitated? 156
How Many Burglaries Were Victim-Facilitated? 169
How Many Vehicle Thefts Were Victim-Facilitated? 172
Victim Precipitation and Provocation 175
How Many Violent Crimes Were Precipitated or Provoked? 177
Transcending Victim Blaming and Victim Defending: System Blaming 180
Blaming the System for Violent and Property Crimes 182
Blaming the System for the Problem of Identity Thefts 183
The Importance of Determining Responsibility in the Criminal Justice
Process 184
Theorizing about Risk Factors: Figuring Out Why Certain Groups Suffer More
Often than Others 186
Applying Deterrence Theory to Victims 187
Why Various Groups Experience Differential Risks: Routine Activities
and Specific Lifestyles 188
Some Victims Were Criminals: The Equivalent Group Explanation 191
What’s the Difference between Crime Prevention and Victimization
Prevention? 193
Reducing Risks: How Safe Is Safe Enough? 195
Ambivalence about Risk Taking 197
Summary 197
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 198
Questions for Discussion and Debate 198
Critical Thinking Questions 198
Suggested Research Projects 199

6 Victims and the Police 200

Victims Interacting with the Criminal Justice System: Cooperation or
Conflict? 202
What Would Be Ideal? 202
What Do Victims Want: Punishment? Treatment? Restitution? 204
Make “Them” Suffer 204
Make “Them” Get Treatment 207
Make “Them” Pay for Losses and Expenses 207
Victims and the Police 208
Reporting Incidents 208
Responding Quickly 212
Handling Victims with Care 213
Challenging the Victim’s Version of Events 214
Investigating Complaints and Solving Crimes 219
Arresting Suspects 224
viii CONTENTS

Recovering Stolen Property 226

Measuring Progress toward a Victim-Oriented Police Department 228
Summary 229
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 229
Questions for Discussion and Debate 229
Critical Thinking Questions 230
Suggested Research Projects 230

7 Victims’ Rights and the Criminal Justice System 231

Victims and the Juvenile Justice System 232
Toward Greater Formal Legal Rights within the Criminal Justice System 233
The Quest for a Constitutional Amendment Guaranteeing Victims’ Rights 235
The Achievements of the Victims’ Rights Movement 236
Rights Gained at the Expense of Offenders 237
Rights Gained at the Expense of the Criminal Justice System 238
Rights Gained at the Expense of Offenders, the System, or Both 239
Victims and Prosecutors 241
Assisting Victims and Other Witnesses for the State 243
Protecting Victims Who Serve as Witnesses for the Prosecution 245
Dismissing Charges and Rejecting Cases 249
Negotiating Pleas 250
Victims and Defense Attorneys 251
Postponing Hearings 252
Cross-Examining Witnesses during Trials 253
Victims and Judges 255
Granting Bail 255
Sentencing Offenders 256
Appealing to the Supreme Court 259
Victims and Juries 259
Victims and Corrections Officials 263
Keeping Track of Offenders and Receiving Reimbursement from Them 263
Influencing Parole Board Decisions 264
And Justice for All? 266
Recognizing “Second-Class” Treatment 266
Summary 271
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 271
Questions for Discussion and Debate 271
Critical Thinking Questions 272
Suggested Research Projects 272

8 Victimized Children 273

The Ongoing Debate between Maximalists and Minimalists 274
Maximalists versus Minimalists 274
Missing Children 275
The Rediscovery of the Plight of Kidnapped Children 276
Fears and Confusion Prevails in the Absence of Data 277
 CONTENTS ix

Estimates of the Incidence and Seriousness of the Disappearance Problem 280

Hunting for Children Who Have Vanished 283
The Amber Alert System 285
Protecting Children from Kidnappers 287
Physically and Sexually Abused Children 288
The Rediscovery of Child Abuse 288
How Children Suffer 291
Estimates of the Incidence, Prevalence, and Seriousness of Child Abuse 293
Maximalist versus Minimalist Approaches to the Seriousness of the Problem 294
Differential Risks Children Face of Being Maltreated 298
The Suffering of Sexually Abused Children 299
The Furor over Recalling Repressed Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse 301
Strange Allegations of Child Sexual Abuse during Rituals 306
Abused Children and Legal Proceedings 308
Taking into Account the Best Interests of the Child 309
The Credibility of Children as Witnesses 310
Devising Child-Friendly Practices 312
Proactive versus Reactive Strategies 314
Additional Forms of Exploitation and Mistreatment of Young People 315
Sibling Abuse 315
Abuse of Adolescents by Parents 315
Statutory Rape of Minors 316
Summary 317
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 317
Questions for Discussion and Debate 318
Critical Thinking Questions 318
Suggested Research Projects 318

9 Victims of Violence by Lovers and Family Members 319

Violence within Romantic Relationships and Families 320
The Rediscovery of “Wife Beating” 321
Victim Blaming versus Victim Defending 323
How Victims Suffer 324
Estimates of the Incidence, Prevalence, and Seriousness of Intimate Partner
Violence 325
Recognizing Warning Signs 331
Fatal Attractions: Slayings of Intimate Partners 332
Explaining Intimate Partner Violence: Why Doesn’t She Just Leave Him? 335
Enabling Victims Who Feel Trapped to Escape 337
Battered Women and the Criminal Justice System: Violence Is Violence—or
Is It? 339
The Rediscovery of Battered Husbands and Boyfriends 344
Victim Provocation and Murder: When Is the Slaying of a Wife Beater
Justified? 346
Intimate Partner Homicides and the Criminal Justice System 346
Arguments Stressing that the Brutal Man Did Not Deserve to Die 347
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x CONTENTS

Arguments Emphasizing that the Brutal Man Provoked the Lethal

Response 349
Legal Questions 350
The Rediscovery of Other Victims of Beatings 351
Dating Violence 352
Abuse of Parents by Adolescents 354
Elder Abuse 354
Battering within Same-Sex Relationships 358
Preventing Domestic Violence 359
Summary 360
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 361
Questions for Discussion and Debate 361
Critical Thinking Questions 362
Suggested Research Projects 362

10 Victims of Rapes and Other Sexual Assaults 363

Sexual Assaults and Rapes: The Social Reaction 364
The Rediscovery of the Plight of Rape Victims 365
The Consequences of Being Sexually Assaulted 367
The Problem of Pregnancies Arising from Rapes 368
The Controversy Surrounding Questions of Shared Responsibility 369
“Real Rapes” as Compared to “Acquaintance Rapes” and “Date Rapes” 369
Victim-Blaming Viewpoints 371
Victim-Defending Perspectives 374
Estimates of the Incidence, Prevalence, and Seriousness of Rape and Sexual
Assault 377
Maximalist Perspectives 377
Minimalist Perspectives 379
Who Faces the Gravest Dangers? Differential Risks of Being Sexually Assaulted
and Raped 380
How the Criminal Justice System Handles Rape Victims 382
The Controversy over Unfounded Accusations 386
The Accuser versus the Accused 390
Unwanted Publicity and Negative Media Portrayals 391
Rape Shield Laws 393
Issues Surrounding Force and Resistance 394
The Need for Corroboration 395
Rape Victims and the Police 395
Rape Victims and Prosecutors 399
Crisis Centers: Providing Emergency Assistance 402
The Rediscovery of More Victims of Rapes and Sexual Assaults 403
Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assaults 403
Sexual Assaults on Campus 406
Maximalist versus Minimalist Perspectives 407
Sexual Assaults within the Military 415
Sexual Assaults between Males 416
 CONTENTS xi

Sexual Assaults behind Bars 417

Sexual Assaults within Marriages 419
Three Competing Approaches to Reducing the Problem
of Rape and Sexual Assault 420
Summary 422
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 422
Questions for Discussion and Debate 422
Critical Thinking Questions 423
Suggested Research Projects 423

11 Additional Groups of Victims with Special Problems 424

Particular Groups that Face Special Problems which Require Special
Solutions 425
Passengers Harmed while on Cruise Ships 425
Individuals Menaced by Stalkers 426
Stalking: A New Word for an Old Problem 426
The Scope of the Problem 428
Cyberstalking: A New Word for a New Problem 430
Victims of Crimes Committed at School 432
Threats Facing Middle and High School Students 432
Threats Facing College Students 435
The Controversy over Hazing on Campus 440
Casualties of Workplace Violence 441
Differential Risks of Being Wounded or Murdered while on the Job 443
Targets of Hate Crimes 445
Rediscovering a Very Old Problem 445
How Many Outbursts of Hatred? 447
Patterns and Trends in Victim–Offender Relationships 448
Criminal Justice System Reforms 449
Violence between Prisoners 451
Discovering Differential Risks of Getting Slain behind Bars 451
Law Enforcement Officers Injured and Slain in the Line of Duty 453
Who, Where, When, and How? 455
Showing Solidarity 456
Casualties of Politically Inspired Violence and Terrorism 457
Assessing the Threat of Terrorism 458
Assistance and Recovery 461
Summary 464
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 464
Questions for Discussion and Debate 464
Critical Thinking Questions 465
Suggested Research Projects 465

12 Repaying Victims 466

The Costs of Victimizations 467
Gaining Restitution from Offenders 468
xii CONTENTS

Back to Basics 468

The Rise, Fall, and Rediscovery of Restitution 469
Divergent Goals, Clashing Philosophies 471
Opportunities to Make Restitution 472
Obstacles Undermining Restitution 475
Winning Judgments in Civil Court 479
The Revival of Interest in Civil Lawsuits 479
The Litigation Process 479
Collecting Damages from Third Parties 483
Achieving Reimbursements from Insurance Companies 488
Crime Insurance 488
Patterns of Loss, Recovery, and Reimbursement 490
Recovering Losses through Victim Compensation Programs 491
The History of Victim Compensation by Governments 491
The Debate over Compensation in the United States 492
How Programs Operate: Similarities and Differences 494
Monitoring and Evaluating Compensation Programs 496
Confiscating Profits from Notorious Criminals 500
Trying to Make Sure that Crime Doesn’t Pay 500
Summary 503
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 503
Questions for Discussion and Debate 504
Critical Thinking Questions 504
Suggested Research Projects 504

13 Victims in the Twenty-First Century: Alternative Directions 506

Toward Countering Criminal Violence with Forceful Responses: Would
Victims Be Better Off If They Were Armed? 507
The Legitimate Use of Force in Self-Defense 508
Justifiable Homicides Carried Out by Victims and by Law Enforcement
Officers 510
Acquiring Firearms for Self-Protection 513
Gun Laws Directly Affecting Victims 515
Gun Ownership in the United States 518
Arguments Advanced by Proponents of Arming for Self-Protection 520
Counterarguments Advanced by Critics Opposed to Arming for Self-
Protection 525
The Potential Contributions of Victimological Investigations 538
Toward Restorative Justice 540
A Brief History of Restorative Justice 542
The Peacemaking Process: How Reconciliation Programs Work 544
Evaluating Efforts at Reconciliation 548
Pros and Cons from the Victim’s Point of View 549
The Future of Restorative Justice 550
Summary 552
Key Terms Defined in the Glossary 552
 CONTENTS xiii

Questions for Discussion and Debate 553

Critical Thinking Questions 553
Suggested Research Projects 553
GLOSSARY 555
REFERENCES 567
N A M E I N D E X 639
S U B J E C T I N D E X 655
 Boxes, Tables,
and Figures

BOXES
Box 1.1 A Sampling of the Wide Range of Box 2.4 A Calendar of Events That
Studies about the Interaction Raise Awareness about the
between Offenders and Problems of Various Kinds of
Victims 7 Victims 57
Box 1.2 What the Police Mean by the Box 2.5 Examples of Pro-Victim Policies
Term Victimology 19 and Laws 59
Box 1.3 Victimologists Ask Different Box 2.6 The Rediscovery Process Goes On
Questions than and On 65
Practitioners 20 Box 2.7 An Illustration of the Four
Box 1.4 Some Striking Examples of Stages in the Rediscovery
“Victimology Bashing” 22 Process: The Plight of Victims
Box 1.5 Some Questions and Issues to of Human Trafficking 71
Address in a Comprehensive Box 3.1 The FBI’s Instructions about
Victim-Centered Research How to Classify Certain
Project 32 Complicated Crimes: Guidelines
Box 1.6 An Illustration of How to from the Uniform Crime
Analyze a Specific Type of Reporting Handbook 99
Victimization: Road Rage 34 Box 4.1 A Statistical Picture of
Box 2.1 Highlights in the History of Murders in the United States,
Major Developments in 1980–2008 121
Victimology and Victim Box 4.2 “Your Money or Your
Assistance 45 Life!” 129
Box 2.2 Questions to Spur the Box 4.3 Carjacked Drivers 132
Development of Box 5.1 Early Expressions of Support for
Survivorology 50 Inquiries into the Victim’s
Box 2.3 The Social Reaction to Role 153
Victimization: A Look at the Box 5.2 Early Criticisms of the
Interplay between Victims, Notion of Shared
Offenders, and Bystanders 52 Responsibility 155
xiv
 BOXES, TABLES, AND FIGURES xv

Box 5.3 The Perils of Identity Theft: Box 8.1 Highlights of the Rediscovery
What to Do and What Not to of the Missing Children
Do, According to the Problem 278
Experts 168 Box 8.2 How Often Are Children
Box 5.4 Advice from Security Experts Kidnapped, and What Happens
about Burglaries 172 to Them? 283
Box 5.5 Advice to Motorists about Box 10.1 The Controversy Surrounding
Preventing Vehicle Theft 174 Widely Held Rape Myths 377
Box 5.6 Robbery: What the Experts Box 10.2 The System’s Shortcomings
Recommend 181 from a Victim’s Point of
Box 5.7 Prof Calls for Crackdown on View 383
Crime Victims 186 Box 10.3 The Problem of Untested Rape
Box 6.1 Notable Criticisms of How the Kits 400
Criminal Justice System Handles Box 10.4 Best Practices Guidelines for
Victims 203 the Proper Handling of
Box 6.2 Which Individuals Who Claim Allegations of Sexual
to Be Victims of Auto Theft Misconduct on Campuses 414
Might Be Suspected of Box 11.1 A Timeline of Some of the
Engaging in Fraud by Law Worst Campus Shootings 439
Enforcement and Insurance Box 12.1 Challenges Facing Burglary
Investigators? 217 Victims Who Seek Insurance
Box 7.1 Inspiring Examples of Victim Reimbursement 489
Activism 234 Box 13.1 What Armed Citizens under
Box 7.2 Legislation Introduced in Attack Must Consider
Congress Sponsored by the before Pulling the
Crime Victims Caucus 242 Trigger 512
Box 7.3 Supreme Court Decisions Box 13.2 The Debate over Guns on
Directly Affecting Campus 514
Victims 260 Box 13.3 Questions That Could Be
Box 7.4 Which Victims Get Better Addressed by Victimological
Treatment? 268 Investigations 539

TABLES
Table 2.1 Possible Indicators That a Table 4.2 Murder Rates in Selected Cities
Person Is a Trafficking around the World, 2016 115
Victim 77 Table 4.3 Yearly Estimates of Murders
Table 3.1 Estimated Nationwide Committed during Robberies,
Victimization Rates from the 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010,
UCR and the NCVS, 2016 97 2015 129
Table 3.2 Comparing the Risks of Death Table 4.4 Robbery Rates for Various
Posed by Crime, Accidents, Groups, 1993 and 2016 130
and Certain Diseases, 2015 Table 4.5 Which Vehicle Owners Suffered
and 2016 105 the Most Thefts? 137
Table 4.1 Murder Rates across the Table 4.6 Vehicle Theft Rates in Selected
Globe: Selected Countries, U.S. Metropolitan Areas,
2016 113 2016 139
xvi BOXES, TABLES, AND FIGURES

Table 4.7 Chances of Becoming a Victim Table 7.2 Victims’ Rights Gained at
over a Lifetime 142 the Expense of Criminal
Table 5.1 How Victims of Identity Justice Agencies and
Theft Were Harmed, Officials 239
United States, Selected Table 8.1 Accomplishments of the
Years 162 Amber Alert System,
Table 5.2 States Where Residents 2005–2016 286
Faced the Highest and Lowest Table 11.1 Victimization Rates per
Risks of Identity Theft, 1,000 Students, 12 to 18
2016 164 Years Old, at School
Table 6.1 Trends in Reporting Crimes Compared to Away from
to the Police, Selected Years, School, 1992–2016 432
1973–2016 209 Table 11.2 Crimes Committed on College
Table 6.2 Trends in Clearance Rates, Campuses, United States,
United States, Selected 2001–2015 437
Years, 1953–2016 220 Table 12.1 Percentages of Convicted
Table 6.3 Clearance Rates for Homicide Felons Sentenced to
Cases (Murder and Restitution as an Additional
Manslaughter) in Major Penalty in the 75 Largest
U.S. Cities, Selected Years, Jurisdictions Nationwide,
2003–2016 222 Selected Years,
Table 6.4 Stolen Property Recovery 1996–2006 476
Rates, United States, Table 12.2 Percentage of Convicted
Selected Years, Felons Placed on Probation
1996–2016 226 Who Have Restitution Obliga-
Table 7.1 Victims’ Rights Gained at the tions in the 75 Largest Juris-
Expense of Suspects, dictions Nationwide, Selected
Defendants, Convicts, Years, 1994–2009 477
Prisoners, Probationers, and Table 13.1 Comparing and Contrasting
Parolees 238 Retributive and Restorative
Justice 545

FIGURES
Figure 3.1 The FBI’s Crime Clock, Figure 4.2 Trends in Aggravated
2016 93 Assaults, United States,
Figure 3.2 Trends in Violent 1973–2016 123
Victimization Rates, United Figure 4.3 Trends in Robberies, United
States, 1973–2016 100 States, 1973–2016 127
Figure 3.3 Trends in Property Crime Figure 4.4 Trends in Burglaries, United
Rates, United States, States, 1973–2016 133
1973–2016 101 Figure 4.5 Trends in Motor Vehicle
Figure 3.4 An Historical Overview of Thefts, United States,
Homicide Rates, United 1973–2016 136
States, 1900–2016 103 Figure 5.1 Trends in Identity Theft,
Figure 4.1 Murder Rates in Major Cities, United States,
United States, 2016 116 2001–2016 159
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Learning Objective 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 7: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 2: Best practices and recommendations
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 11: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 13: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 16: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 19: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Module 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 26: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 4: Literature review and discussion
Example 30: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 31: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 37: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 47: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 56: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 57: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 7: Practical applications and examples
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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