Bibliographic Information
Carter, E. (1997). Harmony Book. New York: Carl Fischer.
In this book, Elliott Carter introduces the concept of interval modulation, emphasizing tonal shifts
achieved through intervallic relationships rather than traditional functional harmony.
Summary
Interval Modulation is a way of modulating between tonalities. Unlike transposition (a uniform
shift), it uses specific intervallic relationships to move from one key to another.
Musical Example
C major: C–E–G
E major: E–G#–B → From C major to E major Carter, E. (1997).
Bibliographic Information
Kernfeld, B. (Ed.). (2002). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, 2nd edition. Macmillan.
In jazz rhythm and improvisation studies, odd-note grouping is described as the technique of
distributing an odd number of notes (e.g., 3, 5, 7) evenly across one or more beats, creating
rhythmic displacement and tension.
Summary
Odd-Note Grouping is a rhythmic device where odd numbers of notes are intentionally fitted into
fixed beat structures, generating rhythmic tension and variation.
Musical Example
For example, in 4/4 time
Bibliographic Information
London, J. (2012). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter, 2nd edition. Oxford
University Press.
London defines polyrhythm as the simultaneous presence of two or more incompatible rhythmic
structures within the same time frame, allowing listeners to perceive multiple metric layers at
once.
Summary
Polyrhythm refers to two or more rhythmic structures occurring simultaneously in the same
musical time. Listeners experience layered pulses, producing tension and contrast.
Mucial Example
Bibliographic Information
Levine, M. (1995). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher Music Co.
Levine introduces the concept of the target note: in jazz improvisation, performers often choose
chord tones or important melodic notes as goals, and then use passing tones or neighbor tones
to approach, decorate, and resolve into them.
Summary
Target Note refers to deliberately chosen “landing points” in improvisation.
Usually chord tones (root, 3rd, 5th, 7th) since they define harmonic function.
Improvisers set the target and lead into it using passing tones, neighbor tones,
suspensions, or chromatic approaches.
Bibliographic Information
Levine, M. (1995). The Jazz Theory Book.
Levine emphasizes the importance of phrase connection in improvisation—achieving smooth
transitions between phrases through pitch, rhythm, and harmonic continuity.
Summary
Phrase Connection is the natural linking of one phrase’s ending to the beginning of the next.
Pitch connection: via passing tones, stepwise motion, or common tones
Rhythmic connection: lengthening or shortening notes
Harmonic connection: common tones or voice-leading into the next chord
Musical Example
Chord progression: | Cmaj7 | Dm7 | G7 | Cmaj7 |
Bibliographic Information
Levine, M. (1995). The Jazz Theory Book.
Levine explains motif development: choosing a short melodic idea and expanding it through
repetition, variation, or extension, creating unity and coherence.
Summary
Motif Development involves manipulating a short idea in improvisation to form an organic,
cohesive structure.
Repetition: motif reappears at different pitches or rhythms
Variation: altering rhythm, pitch, or direction
Extension: adding passing or ornamental notes.
Musical Example
Bibliographic Information
Levine, M. (1995). The Jazz Theory Book.
Levine also describes rhythmic displacement, where motives or phrases are shifted forward or
backward in time, creating new rhythmic effects without altering the pitch material.
Summary
Rhythmic Displacement is moving a phrase to begin at a different beat or subdivision.
Pitch remains the same; only timing changes
Common approaches: shift by half a beat, delay by half a beat, or cross-barline
displacement
Musical Example
Bibliographic Information
Bergonzi, J. (1994). Inside Improvisation Series, Vol. 1: Melodic Structures. Advance Music.
Bergonzi systematically discusses motifs, structures, and harmonic extension in improvisation,
highlighting superimposition as a key device for tension and color—especially over dominant
chords and extended tonalities.
Summary
Superimposition is temporarily introducing different scales, chords, or tonal material over the
current harmony, producing “outside” effects before resolving back.
Common techniques:
1. Tritone substitution (♭II7 over V7)
2. Using parallel minor or related modes
3. Arpeggios stacked in 3rds or 4ths
Bibliographic Information
Monson, I. (1996). Saying Something: Jazz Improvisation and Interaction. University of Chicago
Press.
Monson explores interaction in jazz improvisation, emphasizing call and response as a common
expressive device, both between musicians and within a single performer’s solo.
Summary
Call and Response, rooted in African musical traditions, is widely used in jazz.
A “call” phrase is answered by a “response,” forming musical dialogue
Can occur between different players (e.g., saxophone vs. piano) or within one soloist
Responses may imitate, vary, or contrast the call
Musical Example
Bibliographic Information
Gridley, M. C. (2006). Jazz Styles: History and Analysis (9th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
Gridley highlights the chromatic scale as a fundamental resource in jazz language. Although it
lacks tonal center, it is often used to connect chord tones, smoothing melodic lines and adding
tension.
Summary
Chromatic Scale: 12 consecutive semitones within an octave.
Contains all pitches—no whole/half step restrictions
Tonally ambiguous, creating tension
Often used in jazz as decorative or transitional material
Bibliographic Information
Piston, W. (1978). Harmony (4th ed., revised by M. DeVoto). W. W. Norton & Company.
Piston discusses parallel motion, where two or more voices move together at a fixed intervallic
distance. In jazz, it is used to add timbral thickness and harmonic color.
Summary
Parallel Motion means two or more notes moving in the same direction while maintaining a
constant interval (e.g., 3rds, 6ths, 5ths).
Intervallic relationship remains constant
Common forms: parallel 3rds, 6ths, or 4ths
In jazz, used for harmonizing melodies or creating thicker textures
Bibliographic Information
Jerry Coker, Elements of the Jazz Language for the Developing Improvisor Coker mentions “Back
Door Progression As A Substitute For V7 often preceded by IV-7 to VII7 instead of the usual V7
chord.”
Summary
Backdoor ii–V = ivm7 → ♭VII7 → Imaj7
This borrows chords from the parallel minor key, adding another color to the return of the tonic
chord.
Musical Example
BackDoor in Cmajor : Fm7 | Bb7| Cmaj7
