TAin[inS .

/Vfurir"ffy

ExprRreNCrNG Musrc,
ExpREssrNc CULTURE

BoNNrp C. Waop

New York Oxford

Oxford University Press
2004
 Thinking about Time qb 57
CHAPTER 3

language writing. This has caused single words to have multiple mean-
ings; the term "meter," for instance, is applied to qualitatively different
Thinking about Time concepts about the organization of musical time. The implications of the
words "rhythrn" as opposed to "meter" and "pulse" as opposed to
"beat" are particularly confusing.
*
RHYTHM
It is useful to distinguish between rhythm in general and "a rhythm."
By "rhythm" I mean the aspect of music having to do with the dura-
In this chapter I explore the ways in which musicians organize time in tion of pitches in time-any succession of durations. "A rhythm," in
contrast, is a specific succession of durations.
music. Except when there is a constant drone, there is always rhythm
in musical sound, created by successions of durations. In a context filled Pulse. More often than not, musicians organize rhythm in some pur-
with sound, the absence of sound (i.e., silence) becomes significant as poseful fashion. Rhythm in dance music, for example, or in rap, is very
well. A consistent set of terms is used in talking about time in music, purposefully organized. V\4rether you call the steady, equal-length du-
including "rltythm," "pulse," "beat," "col)rrl," "leel," "groove," "rhyth- rations that organize rap "pulse" or "beat" or something else, it is clear
mic mode," "meter," and others. that organizing time is a defining characteristic of the rap style. Enun-
ciating steady, equal-lengthed durations is a basic unit in music with
organized time. I call this pulse, comparing it to the heartbeat; calling
it beat is common too.
A good way to focus on the organization of time in music is to try
to feel a pulse-steady, equal-length durations that are somehow enun-
ciated musically. It helps to move with the music-nod your head, pat
your foot, clap your hands, tap a finger discreetly, get up and dance.
Move! In giving this direction to move, I acknowledge that growing
up dancing or embodying a sense of rhythm in some other way is not
in everyone's experience. In some cultures young people are taught to
move their bodies as little as possible; whatever the reason-gender,
class, religious belief-that can affect their perception and practice of
rhythm. So I recommend strongly that you do a lot of beat-keeping to
music when you listen, even if it is a mental rather than physical
exercise.
In coordinating the definitions of terms as authors are using them in
the case studies ii this Global Music Series, I found the greatest differ-
ences in the way we understand the practices encompassed by terms
pertinent to the organization of time. That is because concepts of mu-
lical time differ gftatly in different traditions. Our teachers have ex-
plained the ideasin their own ways, and we ethnomusicologists assume
ihe task of translating them. In so doing, we draw on a vocabulary that
is small because relalively little attention has been paid to time in_Eu-
ropean art music-the solrce of most musical terminology in English-

56
 58 csc THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking about Time qr. 59

Irregular Durations. On the other hand, musicians sometimes pur- Rhythm for the Text Alone. In some music the rhvthm is the ser-
posefully leave rhythm unorganized, that is, with little or no sense of vant of the text. Recitative in western opera is one example of this. As
predictability about the organization of time. This could be due to the its name implies, recitative is singing that imitates and emphasiies in
expectations for a musical genre or perhaps an individual composer's both rhythm and pitch the naturafflow of speech. Arthough ihe melody
will. Musicians might be at liberty to let the rhythm be freely flowing, has been precomposed, an opera singer .u., hu.r" fun wiih the rhythm
and scholars speak of the resulting music in various ways: as being in as Carmen does in her four-line resp-onse to the soldiers who ,ru
ur-r*-
free rhythm or nonmetrical, as (pailando) rubato or pulseless free flow ious for her attention: "when will I love you? Rearly, I don,t know. per-
in time. Such a rhythmic style occurs in many musical practices around h_aps never, perhaps tomorrow. But not today. Thatiscertainr" (CD
track
the world. In some instances, it is a structural principle, an expected 21, from 0:32 to 1:01).
way of beginning a musical piece. On CD track 8, Central javanese game- Traditions o{ religious chant exist for the purpose of rendering sa-
lan music, the first eleven seconds are free rhythmically, though con-
1ed^l:xts, so the rhythmic setting of the texi is tf particular conle.n.
vention constrains the solo player to a certain extent. On CD track 11, on CD track 1, moments of recitation of the seconcl chapter (sura) of the
a brief excerpt at the beginning of a selection of North Indian sitar rrLu- Koran, express these words: "In the Name of God, the Merciiul, the
sic, the musician is expected in the style to improvise in free rhythm. Compassionate." Not only these devotees of the
eadiriya sufi broiher-
On CD track 23, an entire Thai pi phAt ensemble plays nonmetrical hood in Turkey but all Muslims everywhere adhere io rures for the
rhythm (not organized in regular units) to initiate a piece. Louis Arm- rhythm that were established to elucidite the text when reciting the sa-
strong chose to begin "West End Blues" (CD track 32) with a trumpet cred text revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.
solo in free rhythm.
Extending this principle, in much japanese syakuhati music the
rhythm of an entire selection (beyond an excerpt such as that on CD ORGANIZING TIME INTO UNITS
)' sl,
track 15) is nonmetrical, sustaining a meditative mood. The music is
precomposed to be that way, as is the nonmetrical beginning of CD
lrack25, Egyptian ensemble music. The selection on CD track 25 is the
In most of the world's music,rnusicians organize time into units longer
than one pulse/beat/count. Terms for thJ different sorts of units are
"meter," "rhythmic mode," "claae,,, and such. The basic defining fea_
instrumental introduction (muqaddima) and beginning o{ a song per-
formed by the legendary Umm Kulthum. Scott Marcus re{ers to this ini- ture of units of organized time is some total number of countsl The
tial ensemble section as "the rubato section," in pailando rubato. quantity can be anything-from two-beat samba meter to a south Indian
Coordinating through "breathing rhythm," the members of the con- tala cycle of 128 counts. In each case the unit functions to mark off mu-
ductorless lapanese gagaku ensenrble introduce the melodic mode of the sical flow through time.
selection they are about to play with an introductory preludelike netori. Beyond the number of counts, exploring what defines a unit in var-
Trying to find regular durations through CD track 26 is fruitless; breath- ious musical systems becomes comple* and fascinating. In the rest of
ing with it is a more appropriate idea. this chapter I provide examples of different sorts of uirits-meters of
several varieties, rhythmic modes, colotomic structure, and others. Firs!
I present a group of mete.rs thatmay be articulated in music in any num-
ber of ways-harmonically, melodically, percussively, orby bodily mo_
tions. Then I will discuss types of organization of time *hor" musical
articulation in performance is dictated.

Duple and Triple Meters. The simplest meters have two or three
counts; the former is called "duple,,,the latter is called ,,triple.,, Each
unit of two or three counts constitutes a measure or bar, terminology
 60 cs. THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking about Time ct, 61

from western music notation, which puts vertical bars (measure bars) usual than " cosnt" or "pulse.") Once a regular beat is firmly established,
between units (see figure 1.11). rhythmic interest can be added by putting an accent in an unexpected
Meter is usually d6fined as a pattern of strong and weak counts' That place. If you count 1 aNo 2 AND 3 AND 4 aNn, stressing the aNn, you
definition works well when the pattern is played out musicallY (artic- have got the sense ol "offbeat" syncopation. Another type of syncoPa-
ulated) with clear accentuation sb that it can be felt. In "Marieke" (CD tion consists of accenting a beat where stress is not expected: If, in a
track 53), most often associated with the late Belgian poet,-songwriter' regular grouping of four counts, you put stress on the "weak" counts
and cabaret performer |acques Brel, the triple meter is articulated clearly 2 and 4 rather than the "strong" counts 1 and 3, that is a kind of syn-
in the bass *itn u primary stress on 1 but a secondary stress on 3 that copation sometimes called a "backbeat." If, as in CD track 35, the back-
anticipates the nexl .or.ti 1. In addition, waltzes are in triple meter; if beat stress continues for very long, you can lose the sense of the "reg-
yo, harre danced a waltz, you have already embodied the feeling of
it' ular" beat. What defines the offbeat as offbeat is the framework that
" The stress pattern of triple meter (and other meters) is not always so locates the strong " on" beat; because of that, syncopated music com-
clearly performed, however. \A/hether or not to articulate the pattern monly combines strong downbeats with offbeat and backbeat stresses.
r:iiiirl,,.
ttte Waltz in C-sharp Minor by Syncopation is a basic ingredient in African and African diaspora mu-
..fri:f clearly is a musical option. CD track 34,
the potish composer Fr6d6ric chopin (1810-49), is a waltz meant for sics, but it occurs in many other musical traditions as well.
is
concert present^ation. Its speed is too fast for dancing and also there
consideiable ebb and flow in the pace of the counts, as aPProPriate in
ttle rubato performing style. If you were to listen to the entire piece, you
would rroiic" ,.romunts when the triple meter is hard to feel because it
is not being articulated by musical stresses; it is still there however-in
ACTMTY 3,5 To challenge your h,earing of ttiple and, duple
theory.
m,eters;'listen to CD,trwk 36, Dst,q Bruberk\ "Thrce,ta''''Gct
Meters with multiples of two counts are also considered to be duple
meters-units of foui counts, for instance: 1' 2 3 4l t Z S + l' It is com- medsufes.
)' mon for a four-count unit to feel like it comprises subunits (2 + 2), ow- ,,,Thi pietg begins,entirely' in ffiple m,gdsares t,'witlx foar,phra;es
ing to stress being put on count 3 in addition. to the expected strong of,'three measwres eaqh;,'to,r a"total',of; twelve rnensttves.,The,pia'na
stftss placed onc-ount 1 (the downbeat): | 3'
3' I 3' 3' l'
:lor,, tlir,biu t: hat @b aL, in,, fhe,..dlwn si:t);'being s trw& ffi e at, o n
counl 2.
PhrASe.l:' t',:|.J l:;,;,1 2,3 1" 2, 3,
q :' O^6tr. !;: ::7,,5 ,:j::,,1"':l::!,' J 7 ,:2'3
:,1:,,1
Phyase,3.:, 1,.2,;.,3 2,: 3 1,23,
phraie,' 4:,,.,1' ; 2'
j,,:];,:,t,, 2 : 1,.2 ,3
F,or,the,:sbcohd /at,:fram 0::: 1 2),. tht€ :dta',, 5,6',tdkci.the,melady,,
The rnetrit pattein ;:,changts ia,,,,,fhrasc,s,',of tw a,': me a:iurei " of tdp\e

plul,,:two,,miasures,,, duplg (4),fron:,:that point t:a,: thi: eh,,,,,,','

Phrase',, L :,, 1, 2,3,1' 1,: 2' 3 7,,2 3,'4 1,2 3, 4
Pluaset,,,2,: 1: '2
3':1,".1 t2.3 f'2,.i, 4 72;34
'Phr,ase
i: j
,X 1",: :;:l::,1::!: 1','2' :3,.'4 :l 2 ,3,,4
Duple meter offers a good context for introducinq the principle of Phvase '4:' X':2 i')l' I 2, j 1 2 3'4 1'2 3'4
rhythmic syncopation. (With syncopation, the word "beat" is more
 62 cS., THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking about Time ca. 63

Counts: 1, 234s11234s1123451
Pitches: 1 ..go11..$o11o.$ol
The bass player is given the musical role of keeping the metric pattern
through most of the piece, with that recurring 1-5 pitch pattem. It is re-
ln{orced by chord changes, at times on the piano' (Pitch-including
chords-is explained in chapter 4).
In his volume in this series, Tim Rice translates the principle behind
we di- Bulgarian additive meters using the word "count" to describe the basic
Simple and Compound Meters' In exploring syncopation' pulie and the word "beat" to describe the grouping of pulses within
vided each beat into two equal parts by counting "L and 2 and 3 and 4
into two parts this way are ih" -"utrt". In a five-count meter, a measure has five counts but only
and.,, Meters that divide eaih count or beat
or duple' already two beats, of unequal length: long (three counts) and short (two counts)'
called simple meters; simple meters may be triple as
Similarly, a measure of seven counts with subunits of 3 + 2 + 2 is per-
shown.
divi ceived as having three beats in the pattern long : short : short:
Compound meters divide each beat or count into three equal
may be a multiple
sions. Again, the number of beats in each measure Counts: 1234567
;i;, i8"pie) or three (triple)' A compound duple meter' then' looks oaaoaoo
as follows: Beats: long short short
3+ 2+ 2
SUbUnito"'o'
Beat: ' ' This is the meter on CD track 38, a melody for the makedonsko horo dance,
t:.',:,;;: ,:,,

In CD track 37, thelrish iigs "Tar Road to Sligo" (beginning

to 1:3L) played on a tambura (plucked lute). It is articulated by bowing on the
,4:til
! urlJ;'fuaay Clancy's" (from 1:32) are both in compound -duple meter'
,, ,no*.r *itn aoir above. The beats are stressed musically in perfor-
drone pitches.

;;;;, t; you should be able to feel them; saying (A "iiggity'iiggity" along

*iin in" riusic may help you feel the division, variant of the Irish
tft" ip it th" slip iig, in compound triple meter:
ld;., illustrated "r't each divided into three parts')
iliree beats per measure,
is a
Additiue Meters. \A/hen the total number of pulses in a measure
number such as 5,7,ot 11, rather than a multiple of 2ot 3' the meter
ir fif."fy to be called additive meter' Within each measure' the* pulses
tend to form asymmetrical groups or subunits-3 + 2' 2 2
* 3' and
in many musics' in jazz and
so forth. This organization o"f time occurs
in Russian and Balkan dances, for example'
,,Take Five"-a iomposition whose title gives
In paul Desmond,s r;;,',:Yls;,',,:

,!i{,,., away the total number of pulses in 9a.ch

measure-the meter is 3 + 2
but the Dave
{i1:l tCp',r, ck24).It is there in the initlal drum introduction, bass come in
,.:;:'i' ilrubeck Quartet performs it clearly when the piano and
withapitchpatte.rn(pitchesland5,seechapter4)thatarticulatesthe
subunits.
 64 qb THINKING MUSICALLY

Original pitch: B
',Then,p1at,an,,{lke':recordirtgs and,,listei ag;ain; Figure 3.'1, is a
partial tranxription of the makedonsko horo; ir might help you
hedl tne meler- (drone continues)

Sowth Indian Tila. South Indian tdla (rneter) shares with compound 9

meter and additive meter the importance of the quality of the subunits.
The subunits (aiga) may all contain the same number of counts, or they
may be uneven. There are three types of subunit: a 1-count subunit, a 13
.\
2-count subunit, and a subunit that can have either 3, 4, 5, 7, or 9 counts
(or, as Karnatak musicians order therr.,4,3,7,5,9, for a reason explained
in Allen and Vishwanathan's volume on South India in this series). Most
Karnatak idlas consist of particular combinations of those types. The to-
tal number of counts in a tdla structure, then, depends on the number
of counts called for in the subunits. The tdla rnost frequently drawn on 21.

{.'
for compositions is adi tala; its eight-count grouping is 4 + 2 + 2 (CD
track 39)-subunits of four, two, and two counts, respectively.
25

I ACTIVITY 3,.7 On CD'track 39 'T.,Vishwanathdn si.1gs n 29

portion oJ a song, clappingout adi rIIa so that you ran hear the
strongest counts. Counr it out as you listen. Thefrst line of text
is repeared several times, and you cdn gcl the talafrom it. Count
I of rhe rala falLs on "l-Jn" o-f "unnai."

Subunit 4 2 2
Countplacement . . o . . o . ..1
Text Unnai nambinen ayya caranam, nan
"I worshiped you, lord, I prostrated at your feet."

All of the types of meters discussed thus far-triple and duple, sim-
ple and compound, additive and South Indian tala-have this in com-
mon: When time in the music being performed is organized by one of
them, the musicians have options for how they might make listeners FIGURE 3.1 Bulgarian makedonsko horo. Performed by Tsvetanka Varime-
aware of the structures. Musicians can choose to mask the meter, or they zova. (Transcrlption by Angela Rodel)

can draw on one or more means-melody, harmony, instrumentation,

65
 66 +b THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking about Time cs- 67

drum pattern, dance pattern, hand clappinS, or something else-to ar- Because this same pattern is played over and over again through a
ticulate it. How the meter is performed is not part of what defines the meter. musical composition, it is considered to be cyclical. The pattern of
Now I move to structures in which a particular performance prac- strokes for a sixteen-count cycle is shown here, with letters indicating
tice is an essential part of what defines the system for organizing mu- which instrument plays at that point. The last count (here 16, but in Ac-
sical time. Including meter but exceeding it, this encompasses such sys- tivity 3.8, count 8) functions as both a beginning and ending count, so
tems as colotomic structure, rhythmic mode, and African polyrhythm. the structure is cyclical in two senses of the word.
Sowtheast Asian Colotomic Structure. A clear example of an es-
1.6 112345678910 11, 12 13 1.4 1"5 1.6
sential performance practice that articulates the metric structure is oQC
1

found in most Southeast Asian ensemble music: colotomic structure, in .. N o

which one or more instruments in an ensemble is consistently assigned
\ P N
.o. ptp P tp P t P P t P
the musical role of articulating the metric structure. In Central ]avanese
gamelan music, the instruments assigned to do this are pitched gongs.
Inthe gamelar music of Central Java, the number of counts in a met- Collapsed into a single line, you can easily see that the only count
ric unit wilt be duple-S or 16 or 32 or 64, and so forth. Interestingly, on which there is no stroke in the colotomic structure is count 4; a test
the last count of a grouping-count 8 or 16, fot instance-is the most occurs there. The only count where two strokes coincide is the last count
significant count. That beat is clearly marked by a stroke on the largest of the cycle, stressing its structural significance. A piece will end with
gong (ageng) in the ensemble; it literally holds together the metric a stroke on the gong ageng that is a little delayed, for climactic finality.
structure.
16 11234 567891011 12131415161
C ptP' ptpNp t p PptpG
i . ACTMTY 3,8 , Feeling the last rount 'as,tlte point of greate5t
I , 'eitrph:asis requires tonsiderahle rearientationfor thase ofus dt(us-
: ,tarn,qd' tg pla,ce:'the striss ow couwt'l. Witho'ut'lktetxitxg ta mu-
sic, rcunt our cycles oJ eight beats, giuing gredtest weighl to the ACTIVITY 3.9 Speak the Central Javanese,[anieia'n colo-
tomic strwctwrr,,oyiig "gong" for C, ;nong"-frr-N, i'tuk" 1as"
in "took") for t, "pul" ("as in "pool") [or P. You wi{l Jeil the
,:Also,',pu,tting d'slight ttresi'on beats 2, 4, and 6 as points of ' inrerlo*ing nature oJ it rf you do it withfriends, diutding the in-
strumental parts dmong you. "

When yow haue theJlow of it, inclwding the stress pattern, lis-
in count 8. ten to CD track 8, "Ketawang Pwspawarna," a'composition with S
that metric rycle of sixteefl rcunls. Yow should recognize the be-
ginningfrom- tisteiing to rhis selection beJore: the shoir nonmetricaL
The complete colotomic structure is as follows:
. The gong ageng (G) marks off the whole cycle (called a gongan).
. . The kenong (}y'), a large kettle gong, subdivides the gongan inio 0:14 The.firs, coNC stroke. From this point it will take d com-
two kenongan: the kempul (P), a hanging gong, marks the mid- plete cycle through the strurlure Jor the speed of the cout'tts to set-
point of the seond kenongan. 11, doin, and you may not be able roJeel the beat yet. Bur try. .
o o o Jhs kempul (P) and kethuk (t), two hanging gongs, subdi-

vide the kenongan.

 Thinking about Time 4b 69
68 <a. THINKING MUSICALLY

Because the gongs that perform the colotomic structure are

playing
pit.ft"t i" the #el#y, the marking of the important counts is greatly
lubmerged in the ensemble sound.-If you were sitting in the ensemble,
1ro*"r"?, you would be consciously listening to or automatically hear-
ing them.'This is discussed further in Benjamin Brinner's volume on
]ava in this series.
North Indiaru T-ala- North Indian tdla is anot}rer example of a met-
,l. ryttet" in which a given means of -articulatiol.lt.futt of what de-
fines a particular meter] Two North Indian tdlas wtth the same
number
of total counts and the same subunit structure will be distinguished by
a way they are articulated on the drum-through- a- one-cycle-long
stroking pitt"..t (a brief composition, really) called theka'
l F; J*'urnpt", the talawith a twelve-count cycle, with subunits,of 2 +
2 + 2 + 2 +i + 2 and articulated on the pakhawai (a modified barrel-
,hupud, double-headed drum) is a meter called chautdl' A tala with
a
but articulated on
t*&"icor.,t cycle, with the same subunit structure,
the tabla (drum pair) ts ektal. Furthermore , lwo tdlas with the
same struc-
ture played on the same drum-tTntdl and tilwada tfrla, each sixteen
.or.,i, 1tr + + + 4 + 4) played' on tabla, for instance-are distinguished
Middle Eastern Rhythmic Modes. The Arabic term iqi (usul tnTurk-
puriirtty by the theka ihrough which they.are articulated. (Tilwada is
Hindus- ish) is usually translated as "rhythmic mode" rather than "meter," sug-
Lsed foi sltw selections, whlle fintdl is used for any speed') A
gesting the qualitative nature of the rhythmic aspect of traditional Arab
tani musician, if asked to demonstrate a particular tdla will speak the
and Turkish music. A rhythmic mode is a metric structure that also
theka, using syllables to indicate the strokes that would be played
on
(though sometimes nol bears particular expressive qualities. (Mode, as related to mood, I dis-
the drum. The syllables have some relationship
cuss in chapter 4.)
much) to the sound that the stroke will produce on the drum'
So many rhythmic modes have the same total number of counts that
distinguishing them quantitatively makes no sense. Instead, each rhyth-
mic mode is defined by the way it is articulated, that is, performed on
a drum. (You can see in this how Hindustani drumming was influenced
by the concepts and practices taken to North India by immigrant mu-
sicians from West Asia over a period of several hundred years, climax-
ing in the seventeenth century.)
 70 cS. THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking about Time c* 77

In the Middle East there is a great variety of drums, each capable of much, perhaps, when accompanying a rousing dance' Options, too, are
producing a variety of sounds. Only fwo sounds, however, dumm and part of what makes rhythmic mode qualitative.
takk (Arabic language) are used to define the individual rhythmic Korean Changdan. Korean changdan are in some ways similar to
modes. Dumm is the deepest or lowest sound the instrument can pro-
Middle Eastern rhythmic modes. Changdan are rhythmic patterns that
duce. Takk is high-pitched, the sound produced when striking where
are drummed or in some other way articulated in musical performance:
the head meets the rim of the drum. "a series of accented and unaccented strokes or beats" (Hesselink 1996:
Each rhythmic mode is defined by a unique skeletal patternof dumms
152). Unlike any other time-organizing units I have presented here,
and talcks. Comparison of three different eight-count rhythmic modes
some of the rhythmic patterns (changdan) occur in nonmetrical music
should make this point clear: D indicates dumm, T indicates takk, and a and others in metered contexts.
dash (-) indicates a rest. The names of the modes here are those used The rhythmic patterns vary in length (total number of counts), but
in the eastern Arab world; they are called by different names in differ- the number of counts in a unit is not emphasized as a particularly im-
ent places.
portant distinguishing trait of a changdar. In this, the unit is more ap-
Count7234567 8 propriately called a "grouping" than a "mete{' (Lerdahl and Jackend-
MaqsumDTTDT off 1981).
Masmudisaghir D D T D T Two other defining characteristics of changda,? are new in this dis-
Sdidi DD DD T cussion of time. One is speed; changdnn are performed at specified
(though relative) speeds. (Speed is of some consideration in Middle East-
ern and North Indian talas but takes relatively less of a defining role
there tlran in changdan.) Secondly, the amount of repetition of a particu-
lar changdan that can occur in a musical selection is another defining
trait-free repetition or a set number of repetitions, for example. This
extremely elaborate system for the organization of time indicates the im-
portance of rhythm in Korean traditional music: most Korean ensem-
bles, like Middle Eastem and Indian ensembles, include a percussionist.
Within a changdan drumming pattern an aesthetic sense of tension
and release should be discernible. Kutkori changdan, for instance, is a
pattern of twelve counts in slow speed. The feel of the pattem isof four
g.orps of three counts each. Drummed on the double-headed hour-
glass-shaped drum chang-gu (figwe 3.2), you can feel gathering inten-
rlty f.om th" first six beats, climaxing during beats 7-9, and letting down
during the last three beats.

In performing music in a rhythmic mode, drummers can make some

substitutions or embellishments to the patterns in the interest of tim-
bral and expressive variety, but the mode's defining weighting needs
to be maintained. The extent of the embellishment should tastefully re-
flect the overall context in which the rhythm occurs-little, perhaps,
when accompanying a slowly moving section of a lyrical song, and
 YI

72 qb THINKING MUSICALLY 'l'hinking ahout Timc qb 73

Dak indimtes hitting the right head with a ti,tin, J\al stitk.,
Da is a lighter yersion ol dak, hitting with .iust the tip retther
than the flat pdrt 0f the *ick; [ ] indicates fil[er strokes.
Kung indicates hiuing lqft or right hta,d with n wooden mallet.
(Exerdse cluttesy o{ Donna Kwon)

As in Middle Eastern and Hindustani drumming, the drumming pat-

terns that articulate Korean rhythmic units can be varied in perfor-
mance. The extent and the ways in which a drummer can do that, of
course, are learned within each tradition.

African Polyrhythm. Polyrhythm as a defining musical trait is a gift

of African music makers to musicians throughout the world.
Polyrhythm is the musical texture of performing multiple rhythmic pat-
terns simultaneously. In much African ensemble music south of the Sa,
hara desert, different instruments have their own rhythmic patterns that
FIGURE 3.2 Korean percussion ensemble. From leJt to right: Peter Kim (puk are repeated many times, in effect multiple rhythmic ostinatos. (An os-
drum), Eunyang Kwon $ing gong), Patrick Chew (cha.ng-gu drum), Donee Lce tinato is a constantly recurring motive.) Each rhythmic pattern func-
(ggwaengwari gozg). (Courtesy of Don.na Kwon) tions to mark off time spans in the musical flow. The patterns are not
to be thought of jn terms of meter, however: each is a grouping of beats
without metrical accent.
One of two primary structuring principles of polyrhythmic music is
the interacting and coordinating of all the different patterns, and those
Npn be*d your,ktxees sat'tlxnt you:,drap dlwntsli4htly ai 7,
often coordinating with dance as well. Two elements hold it all together.
,aftd rise slowly,an'Z,,and,,3. Th,is rs ,ogum, deep up"a*d-down
One coordinatinp; element is a timeline of pulses-steady, equidis-
nxopement'at the,,bady,: goordi:tnated, with byeathing. Do this ex:
tant sounds, a reference point for the passage of time. Some instru-
ereise ag*in selleitt| tirnest, coaru.tiv,gf(om 1:to 12 bat kbeping ap,, mentalist is usually designated the role of articulating that timeline. In
tfu triple pattern, In:this.wdy :you iniil fcel the whole le*gth aJ her r.olume on West Africa in this series, Ruth Stone writes about the
kutkori changdan: well-known Nigerian timeline of twelve pulses.
Norp speak. the syllahles:fa|theitrakes ow tlre chang,-gu) lyo-' The second coordinating element is a rhythmic pattern played on a
deedins through tlte,,kutkori pa*effi to:feel'the sense'af,the aes-, double metal bell; the timbre of the bell is easily distinguishable from
,
the,tic cycle., ', i other instruments and thtrs can be clearly heard. Here I cite a bell pat-
tern of which Stone also speaks in her volume; it functions within the
twelve-pulse timeline, marking off beats as follows: 2 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 3.
Dong,,''',dafu,,Kung,'{da dal ;ob Kuwg dale Kung"da,k '
"Beat" here is analogous to the "beat" in Bulgarian music, with du-
rations of different length. 'Ihe pattern is spoken with mnemonic
syllables.
 74 cs. THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking abowt Time c€. 75

Pulse: oaaa aaaaaaao

Syllables: Kong kong ko - lo kong ko - 1o
Beat: 22 323
In ensemble practice, all the other musicians coordinate with the bell
pattern and with each other, using the underlying pulse as a reference
point. In performance, most of the musicians will repeat their pattern
until cued to switch; the performers whose pattern remains constant are
the players of the timeline and the double metal bell. In his volume on
Trinidad in this series, Shannon Dudley defines this rhythmic texture
r,1::r:'irt
as featuring "a constant rhythmic feel or 'groove' that is created by the '. 1 :,i,,' .,, ,.1,..lll t'tl::,.,lf'.i'..',, l.laouuteueu
interaction of repeating and contrasting parts."
.;.l l,,, , 'll,,'tt
.I I
.l.lJsupporttng
i
. l. ,:
The second primary structuring principle in this African polyrhyth-
mic music is that "contrasting part" mentioned by Dudley. In many
:.1'r i",1,,:'r ic rt .l.l drums played:
.:
,,l'''x x,,f''',', ',t
':
;;
:,1:: :*igtr: :'
r; 41tipU
African ensembles one individual is free to improvise; that person is 1,,.,

likely to be the most prestigious musician. In drumming ensembles, that

would be the master drummer (figure 2.76).He (it is usually a man) is
in charge; he will signal the other musicians when to switch rhythmic
patterns in the course of playing. His organization of time through im- Ruth Stone identifies this rhythmic practice as one manifestation of
provised rhythmic patterns is relatively freer than that of the other mu- an aesthetic idea, a love of what she calls "faceting." Each participant
sicians, but he, too, feels that underlying pulse and interacts with the contributes a facet (a segment) to the whole.
multiple ostinatos, including the bell pattern. As I talked to Kpelle musicians about what kinds of performance they
I most valued, they told me that the highest form was when musicians
combined short sound segments to create the slmchronized whole.
Such faceting is considered to be quite wonderful and much to be val-
ued over everyone singing or playing in unison. When a ruler, such
as a chief, appears at an official function, his presence and bearing are
enhanced by what is played. A few chiefs have horn ensembles, and
the audience that observes this spectacle has come to value the horns
creating a composition that requires split-second timing and symbol-
izes the ultimate in cooperation between multiple players. So the most
valued form of music is attached to the political leader who uses these
sounds to reinforce his status.

Strikingly, this most performative practice for the organization of mu-

sical time reveals ways in which people make music meaningful and
useful in their lives.

Mwsic in the African Diaspora. A number of musical genres of the

African diaspora organize time at least partially through the constant
unchanging articulation of a rhythm pattern that is a grouping rather
 76 qb THINKING MUSICALLY Thinking about Time qb 77

than a metric strucfure. In Caribbean and Latin American dance genres

such as salsa, rumba, tango, and cha cha, the bell pattern is transformed
to clave. In Caribbean and Latin American music, claoe is the term for
a*rtvtrY '3:,7'4 Cowrpare ih* p,*i'of'the basir beat of y,ssy
a rhythmic pattern that is repeated constantly and without change as a fauoritre dqrurey or,other,'.typetlf mu5ic;',1ffh,61,it the slowest? Wat
rhythmic foundation for a musical selection; it organizes the rhythmic {s'the,faqtest7,,Ta answer thii yau hnie,,,,to,:,go back to that basic
feel of the music. In her volume on the united states in this series, Reyes poinr: jnd the bearl
discusses clarte as a musical marker of ethnic identity: "Heard by itierf
or as part of an ensemble, it is immediately identified as Latino, or more
specifically, Afro-Caribbean." Once a speed is established for the basic beat, both acceleration
A number of musical genres of the African diaspora-among them (speeding up) and deceleration (slowing down) might be used in the
salsa-feature polyrhythmic organization of time. S,alsa, with itJthree- structuring of time in a musical selection. You have already learned about
drum percussion coordination plus other instruments, displays a thick- rubato-ebb and flow in the pace of the basic beat. But tradition dictates
ening of the rhythmic texture beyond claoe. Each instrument'has a dis- that North Indian classical instrumentalists will gradually accelerate the
tinctive rhythm or rhythms (ritmo) to play. Ritmo refers to the quality beat of a selection; never falling back, they sometimes attain a breath-
of each one of them and also to the overall effect when they coordinate. taking speed that requires incredible virtuosity. Conversely, gradually
The quality is defined by timing, volume, timbre, and the manner of slowing down, ritardando, to end a piece occurs in many styles.
blending with other rhythms. Perhaps most significantly, rhythmic In the performance of "Marieke" on CD track 33, the effect of chang-
thinking is crucial for everyone, because both melodic and periussion ing the pace of the basic beat is quite dramatic. Rather than slowing at
instruments are approached like drums. Musicians talk about playing the end, the speed accelerates. "Marieke" invokes images of World War
afincao (i.e., locked together), meaning that if the rhythms are not fiap- I (1914-18) in the songwriter jacques Brel's native Belgium. As a way
pening "together," the music is "not happening." The quality of the of bypassing French defenses and attacking Paris directly, German
rhythmic ensemble, which ultimately is all the ensemble, is of utmost forces marched across the fields of Flanders, resulting in some of the
importance (Marisol Berrios-Miranda, personal communication, 2001). bloodiest fighting of the war. Buildings, roads, nature were completely
Revealing a slmthesis of different musical ideas about the organiza- destroyed, leaving only mud and leveled land. In the churned-up soil,
tion of time, Afro-Caribbean and Afro-North and South American wild poppies began to grow. Heralded in the poem "In Flanders Fields"
polyrhythm is not held together by the African timeline; rather, its by the Canadian poet john McCrae, published shortly thereafter, the
rhythmic groupings work within the context of meter. Salsa is in duple poppies came to symbolize the tragedy and sacrifice of the war: "In
meter with measures of four counts, but it is a two-measure long claae Flanders fields the poppies blow/Between the crosses, row on row." In
pattem that really identifies it. On CD track 4, moments from i salsa, "Marieke" the loss of a loved one (a woman) is mourned (expressed in
the claue can be heard played on the wooden idiophone called clave, English), as is the damage to "my fatherland" (in Flemish), with its once-
whose timbre stands out from the drums and other instruments and flourishing cities of Bruges and Ghent (in French) (figure 3.3). As if run-
voice. ning to escape both memories, "the day is done" comes faster and faster
With the evidence of just the systems discussed in this chapter, it is until the song ends in shrill hopelessness.
clear that the organization of time in music reveals the remarkable mu- The second way to achieve a sense of greater speed is by increasing
sical imagination of humankind. I shall now move to another element the subdivisions of the beat. In the performance of South Indian music,
having to do with musical time-tempo, or speed. for instance, the pace of the basic beat, once established, should not
change. For variety in the element of speed, therefore, musicians play
SPEED with subdividing the basic beats. What changes is the rhythmic density;
the speed of what fills each beat increases.
Musicians manipulate speed by two basic means: they focus either on South Indian musicians speak rhythmic syllables (mnemonics,
the pace of the basic beat or on subdividing the basic beat. solfdge) in patterns that can be used conveniently to demonstrate this
 Thinking about Time * 79

"MARIEKI" En schuurt het zand over mign land. And scours the sand o'er my land,
Ay, Maieke, Marieke, the Flanders sun mijn platte land, mijn Waanderen land. My leueled land, my Flemish land.
shuns the sky, since you are gone.
Ay, Marieke, Marieke, come back again
Ay, Maieke, Maielee, in Flanders Fields come back again, the day is done.
the poppies die since you are gone.
Ay, Marieke, Marieke, Reuiens le temps
Zonder liefde, warmede lieJde Without loue, warm loue, Reuiens le temps
wait de wind de stomme wind. wails the wind, the speechless wind. Bring back the days of Bruges and Ghent
Zonder liefde, warmede liefde Withowt love, warm love, de Bruges et Cand
weent de zee, de grijze zee. Moans the sea, the grizzled sea Ay, Marieke, Marieke, come back again
Zonder lieJde, warmede liefde Without love, warm loue, Your love alone, the day is done
Lijdt het licht, het donker licht. Sffirs the light with darkening sky Ay, Marieke, Maieke, your loue alone
En schuurt het zand ouer ruign land. And scours the sand o'er my land Come back again, the day is done
Mijn platte land, mijn Waanderen land. My leueled land, my Flemish land. Come back again, the day is done
Ay, Maieke, Maieke, the stars look down Come back again, the day is done
So soon, so soon, the day is done
the day is done
Ay, Maieke, Marieke,
The Flanders moon won't light your way, the day is done
The day is done.
FIGURE 3.3 "Maieke." words and music by Eic Blau, Jacques Brel, Gerard
Zonder liefde, warmede lieJde Without loue, warm loue Jouannest. @ Copyright 1968 Uniyersal-MCA Music Publishing, a Diuision of (Jniuersal Stu-
t wait de wind, (c'est fini) Wails the wind (it's ouer) dios, Inc. (ASCAP) International copyight secured. All ights reserved. (Translation courtesy of
Zonder liefde, warmede liefde Without loue, warm loue Suzanne Lake)
Weent de zee (ddjd fini) Wails the sea (already ended)
Zonder liefde, warmede lieJde Without loue, warm loue
practice of increasing the rhythmic density within a single beat, spoken
Lijdt het licht (toute est fini) Sufers the light (all is ouer)
as "Ta." In the list below, items 2-4 constitute the basic subdivisions,
En schuurt het zand ouer mign lanil And scours the sand o'er my land
then 5-9 use those again, in combinations. Capital T's make that clear.
Mijn platte land, mijn Vlaanileren lanil. My leueled land, my Flemish land
1. Ta
Ay, Marieke, Marieke, the bells have rung
the echoes sound. The day is done 2. Taka
Ay, Marieke, Maieke. In Flanders fields 3. Takita
The echoes sound, the day is done. 4. Takadimi
Zonder lieJde, warmede lieJde Without loue, warm loue 5. TakaTakita (2 + 3)
Lacht de duiuel, de zwarte duiuel. Laughs the deuil, the dark black deuil. 6. TakaTakadimi (2 + 4)
Zonder liefde, warmede liefde Without loue, warm loue,
7. TakitaTakadimi (3 + 4)
Brandt mijn hafi, mijn oude hart. Burns up my heart, my aging heart.
Zonder liefde, warmede lieJde Without loue, warm loue, 8. TakitaTakitaTaka (3 + 3 + 2)
Sterft de zomer, de dyoeue zomer. Dies the summer, the pitful summer. 9. TakaTakitaTakadimi (2 + 3 + 4)

78
 80 -b THINKING MUSICALLY

ACTIVITY 3:15' 'To exptriente this'prindple af intreasing'tLlt

ihythwic;' deisity,' set, a l)e:ry't1o*, steady beat (.), and'cl*p, to
Then start speal<ing these patt€rns, .i0
gg,1a1xfl' {x;;,,61,1't:, in, thefill
bea,tsi,' 'kee$i'ng the:"yace'of the beat steady.'$ you feel really aru-
bitilw$, carry,it throagh the nine patterfis.
a.' t t
.,:
7'a Ta Ta Ta

,TE ;
ka Ta ka Ta ka Ta ka I treat th
,,, .

r.r.. i reasons:
,Ta ki ta I
Takita, T* ki ta Ta ki ta and idei
Ta ka di mi T, ka di mi Ta ka di mi melody
Ta,kadi nti
I will ste
Ta:kaTakita Ta kaTakita Ta kaTa kita Ta kaTakita formatic
in melo<
This me
ern stafl
Through subdivisions of the beat, musicians in an ensemble can play harmoni
different instruments at different speeds, with all parts linked by a com- In its
mon basic pulse. Music played on the Central Javanese gamelans dern- pitches
onstrates this clearly. The register (see chapter 4) on each instrument forms. It
correlates with the rhythmic density of its musical part: the higher the atively I
pitch, the denser the part. When you hear an extremely slow basic (CD tra<
::,t:):., melody in this music, listen
for extremely fast playing on some instru- solos of
6rr:rr::'ments (CD track 8). CD trac
In this chapter on the organization of time I have presented some with the
ideas and practices by which musicians mark the passage of time In its
through musical selections. Those ideas range from successions of un- simultar
equal durations in freely floating rhythm, to a single regular unit-a stood di
pulse-to various kinds of meters, and to colotomic structute, rhythmic
mode, and polyrhythm. Finally, I considered the element of speed, the
pace of moving through time. In chapter 4 I take up the musical ele-
ment of pitch.