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Challenges on machining characteristics of natural fiber-reinforced

composites – A review

Article in Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites · July 2020

DOI: 10.1177/0731684420940773

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Original Article

Journal of Reinforced Plastics and

Composites
Challenges on machining characteristics 0(0) 1–29
! The Author(s) 2020
of natural fiber-reinforced composites – Article reuse guidelines:
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A review DOI: 10.1177/0731684420940773
journals.sagepub.com/home/jrp

Sonia S Raj Raj1, J Edwin Raja Dhas2 and CP Jesuthanam3

Abstract
The emerging “green” economy is based on energy efficiency, renewable food stocks in polymeric products, industrial
processes that reduce carbon emissions, and recyclable materials. Natural fiber is a type of renewable source and a new
generation of reinforcements and integrators for polymer-based materials. Because of its advantages over synthetic
fibers, the use of natural fibers as reinforcements in composite materials has become important in recent years. To meet
certain design criteria, natural fiber-reinforced composites impose certain secondary operations during assembly.
Limited literature is available only in connection with the processing of natural fiber-reinforced composites.
This paper analyzes a comprehensive review of the natural fiber-reinforced composite processing literature along
with the challenges during processing.

Keywords
Natural fibers, composites, conventional machining, unconventional machining

Introduction
has begun to pollute the environment. Therefore, the
The use of composite materials dates back to centuries renewed interest in natural fibers has led to a large
ago and it all started with natural fibers. In ancient number of changes to make it equivalent and even
Egypt about 3000 years ago, clay was reinforced with higher than synthetic fibers.5
straw to build walls and buildings. Subsequently, more The managing of plastic waste globally is a severe
durable building materials such as metals were intro- disquiet as plastic products do not decompose easily.
duced; natural fiber has lost much of its interest. Our capacity to adapt to plastic waste is as of now
Composites are materials made by combining two or overpowered.6 As it were 9% of the nine billion tons
more natural or artificial elements with different phys- of plastic the world has ever created has been reused.
ical or chemical properties that are stronger as a team Most winds up in landfills, dumps, or in the earth.
than as individual players. The component materials To tackle the roots of the problem governments have
(matrix and reinforcement) do not mix completely or restricted plastic items and finance more research and
lose their individual identities; they combine and con- development of alternative materials and advancing the
tribute with their most useful features to improve the utilization of biocomposite as a substitute for plastic
result or the final product.1 Currently, composite composites.7 Furthermore, they are used as a substitute
materials play a key role in the aerospace industry,
the automotive industry, and other engineering appli-
cations as they have excellent weight resistance and 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Noorul Islam Centre for Higher
weight/weight ratio.2 Education, Nagercoil, Tamilnadu, India
2
Department of Automobile Engineering, Noorul Islam Centre for
Reinforcing with natural fiber is not a new concept.
Higher Education, Nagercoil, Tamilnadu, India
To satisfy the basic need for shelter, food, and clothing, 3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Narayanaguru College of
natural fibers are used 70 years ago by humanity.3,4 Engineering, Nagercoil, Tamilnadu, India
Because of the superior dimensional properties of the
Corresponding author:
polymer, the polymers have slowly replaced the natural Edwin Raja Dhas J, Noorul Islam University, Thuckalay, Nagercoil 629180,
fibers in the main avenues. This leads to the accumu- Tamil Nadu, India
lation of dangerous synthetic by-products and waste Email: edwinrajadhas@rediffmail.com
2 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

for metal and alloys in automotive nonstructural parts high.19 The United Nations and the United Nations
which help in decreasing the overall weight of a vehicle Food and Agriculture Organization declared 2009 the
and to increase the safety of passengers. This increases international year of natural fibers. Its aim is to create
the demand of natural fiber-based composites global- global awareness of the importance of natural fibers,
ly.8,9 The combination of environmental regulation and not only for manufacturers and industry, but also for
industrial demands motivates researchers to explore the consumers and the environment. Natural fibers are cur-
potential for using natural fibers in new areas in indus- rently used in the automotive industry for backrests,
tries. Despite this, the research in this area is still new windscreens, dashboards, door panels, package trays,
and the need for further investigation is recommended pavilion linings, and wall coverings.20–22
by many recent reports.10–12 Natural fibers are classified as primary and second-
Machining is a subtractive process to remove the ary based on their use. The primary plants are those
unwanted materials to maintain the required shape which are cultivated for their fiber content, while the
and dimension for the finished parts. Due to the het- secondary plants are plants in which the fibers are pro-
erogeneous nature of composites the machining of duced as a by-product. Jute, hemp, kenaf, and sisal are
composites is a complex process.13 The existing litera- included in primary plants and pineapple, palm oil, and
ture has demonstrated that the machinability of com- coconut fiber are secondary.
posite materials is not the same as that of homogeneous Figure 1 shows a special taxonomy of natural fibers
materials.14 Tool material and geometry have a large supported their origin, like plants, animals, and miner-
influence on damaged caused during machining com- als.23–26 The fibers obtained from plants are the most
posites.15 The solid interest for biocomposite materials abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the
requires profound examinations concerning their production of biofuels, composed of carbohydrate pol-
assembling procedures to optimize their production ymers (cellulose, hemicellulose), and an aromatic poly-
particularly during machining activity. In the scientific mer (lignin). Because of this plant fibers are known as
literature, several authors dealt with machining of com- lignocellulose fibers. Lignocellulose fibers’ area unit is
posite materials, which is still nowadays critical due to used for high-tech applications because of the abun-
their low machinability behavior. dance, flexibility, lightness and respect for the setting,
This review offers a detailed research on current low price, and respectable mechanical properties.27
trends on both NF and natural fiber-reinforced com- Sisal, flax, hemp, jute, bamboo, kenaf, and wood
posites (NFRCs) and the different machining processes fibers are largely used as fibers in biocomposite.
for NFRC to date and the challenges during the Amphibole may be a present fibrous mineral. The
machining system. This article also discusses the influ- unique characteristics such as flame retardant,low ther-
ences of machining parameters and optimum condi- mal conductivity,good sound absorption,high tensile
tions for machining of NFRCs. strength and resistance to thermal,electrical and chem-
ical damage it has been traditionally used in a wide
variety of products where resistance to heat has been
Natural fibers used in NFRCs of crucial importance.28,29 Super molecule fibers
In past few years, increasing awareness of non- obtained from giant natural sources, like animals and
renewable resources become limited and a predictable insects, play a very important role as elementary parts
dependence on renewable resources has been triggered of life. They promote quality, elasticity, system, stabi-
due to environmental and sustainability issues. Natural lization and protection of cells, tissues, and organisms.
fiber is also synonymic to renewable resource as they Protein-based animal fibers are often divided into two
have been regenerated by nature and human ingenuity groups: a-keratin fibers (hair, wool, and feathers) and
for sustainable development. They are also zero emis- fibroin fibers (silk and cobweb).30 Figure 2 shows the
sions: they absorb the same amount of carbon dioxide chemical configuration of a lignocellulosic fiber and
produced.16 During processing, they mainly generate asbestos fiber.30
organic waste and leave waste that can be used to gen- The stipulation of natural fibers is increasing in
erate electricity or produce environmentally friendly recent days thanks to its accessibility of natural sour-
material for housing. And at the end of their life ces, down density, less harmful to the setting, accept-
cycle, they are 100% biodegradable.17 The use of nat- able specific resistance properties and, above all, have
ural fibers has many advantages over the use of syn- low cost per unit volume.31 The properties of natural
thetic fibers.18 They are economic because of their bulk fibers vary significantly reckoning on the chemical
quantity; are sustainable; are flexible during processing, composition and structure that are associated with
with less wear and tear on the machine; minimizes the sort of fiber and growth conditions, cultivation
health risks; are low density; have a desirable fiber time, extraction methodology, treatment, and storage
aspect ratio and have a tensile modulus relatively procedures. Five days after the harvesting time the
Raj et al. 3

Fibres

Natural Synthec

Animal Mineral Organic Inorganic

Silk Kevlar Glass

Wool Polyethylene Carbon

Hair Cellulose Polyester Boron

l b

Bast Leaf Seed Fruit wood Stalk Grass/reeds

Jute Sisal Kapok Coir So

Rice Bamboo
wood
Flax Banana Coon Oil palm Wheat Bagasse
Abaca Hard
Hemp Loofah wood Barely Corn
PALF
Ramie Milkweed Maize Sabai
Henequen
Kenaf
Oat Rape
Roselle
Esparto

Canary

Figure 1. Classification of natural fibers.23

Figure 2. Chemical composition of a lignocellulosic fiber and asbestos fiber.30

strength reduced by 15%.32 The elemental reason for Table 1 shows the most fibers used commercially
the low surface transfer performance of natural fibers in composites that is currently spawned throughout
could reside in their thermoelastic property and not the world.31
primarily in chemical interactions at the natural fiber–
polymer interface.33 The world market size of NFRC
was valued at $4.46 billion in 2016. It is in all likeli-
Importance of NFRCs
hood that it will report an 11.8% CAGR between The foremost constituents of NFRC are natural hydro-
2016 and 2024.34 philic fibers and the hydrophobic thermoplastic or
4 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

thermosetting matrix. Various natural fibers have been fibers results in partially biodegradable composite
used as fibers that give strength and rigidity to the materials. Figure 3 shows the various biodegradable
composite. Non-biodegradable materials such as unsat- and non-biodegradable polymers and the types of com-
urated polyester, polyethylene, and polypropylene have pounds derived from these two types of polymers.
been commonly used as a matrix that supports and Life cycle assessment is also termed as LCA. It is a
transfers the charge to the fibers.32,35 According to scientific approach to quantify the environmental effect
the type of matrix, NFRCs can generally be classified of a component or process throughout its life cycle. It
into two categories: partially biodegradable and starts from the acquisition of raw materials up to pro-
completely biodegradable compounds. Biological fiber duction, use, treatment at end of life, recycling, and
with biodegradable polymeric reinforcement results final disposal, which is called the “cradle to grave”
in completely biodegradable composite materials, approach.36 Figure 4 shows the general phases of the
while the reinforcement of the traditional non- NFC life cycle
biodegradable petroleum-based polymer with natural The Lucintel report predicts that the world market
for natural fiber composite materials will grow at an
Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.2%
Table 1. World production of biofiber.31 between 2015 and 2020. The main driver for the
Source of fiber World production (103 t) growth of this market is the increase in demand for
lightweight and environmentally friendly composites in
Sugar cane bagasse 75,000 various applications, for example in the automotive,
Bamboo 30,000 construction, and other sectors.37 The auto industry is
Jute 2300
growing up to the largest CAGR in the global NFC
Kenaf 970
Flax 830
market. Figure 5 shows the global trend of the NFC
Grass 700 market. The reasons behind the growth of the automo-
Sisal 378 tive industry are the increase in population and the
Hemp 214 increase in people’s disposable income. People require
Coir 100 more innovation in cars, both in terms of style, comfort,
Ramie 100 or functionality.
Abaca 70

Starch Plasc

Biodegrad Aliphac Fully

able esters biodegrada
polymers
ble
Natural reinforced Cellulosic
composite
fiber with esters
reinforc Soy based
ed
composi
tes Epoxy

Non- Nylon
Parally
biodegrad
Polyester Biodegrada
able
ble
polymers Ketone composite
reinforced
ih Polystyrene

Polyethylene

Figure 3. Types of polymers ans composites.

Raj et al. 5

Figure 4. Life cycle of NFCs.36

Figure 5. Global NFC market trend.37 (a) Sample: Global NFC market (M lb) trend by end use application and (b) Sample: Global
NFC market ($M) forecast by end use application.

Due to the good properties and superior advantages • Porosity

of plant fibers over synthetic fibers,the researchers and • Manufacturing process of composites
academicians get attracted towards natural fibers. The • Fiber scattering
main parameters influencing the mechanical character- • Fiber alignment.
istics of NFRC are listed below.38
The physical and mechanical properties of natural
• Choosing of matrix or renewable fibers vary from fiber to fiber. Among
• Fiber choice—type of fiber, yield time, extraction plant fibers like abaca, jute, and sisal, compounds rein-
method, aspect ratio, processing, and fiber content forced with abaca show better mechanical properties.
• Strength of interface Flexural properties are better for jute and sisal
6 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

hardness.39 Hybrid NFRCs show better strength prop- automotive, aerospace, packaging, and alternative
erties such as tensile, bending, shear, and better resis- industrial applications, whereas wood plastic compo-
tance from impact load compared to glass fiber- sites (WPCs) were most well-liked by construction
reinforced composites alone under mechanical makers.46,47 An entire indulgence of thermoelastic prop-
loads.40,41 Natural fibers like jute, kenaf, sisal, coconut erty of natural fibers is additionally crucial to rationally
fiber, rice shells, dates, and products derived from palm predict their potential performance in numerous fields of
oil, sugar cane, and organic waste play crucial role in application.34 The NFC market was priced $3.36 billion
effect of the tribological properties of polymeric com- in 2015 and is anticipated to succeed in $6.50 billion in
pounds reinforced with natural fibers. Factors such as 2021. It is expected to register a CAGR of 11.68%
fiber treatment and its orientation, fiber volume frac- between 2016 and 2021. Natural fibers have end up
tion influence the tribological properties of NFRCs.42 vital in technical composite programs because of the
Polymer composites with continuous banana fiber call for sustainable materials. Figure 6 shows U.S. nat-
as a reinforced polypropylene polymer coupling agent ural fiber composite marketplace size with the aid of raw
and grafted with maleic anhydride are used for many material in years 2013–2024.
applications like automobile components, aircraft, The demand for NFCs should be high in automotive
goods for sporting, and the construction sector.43 and construction applications due to
Treatment done with chemical improves vibration
characteristics of natural fibers of sisal and banana • Consciousness toward the ecological product and
fibers reinforced with polymeric compounds. Thanks greater adequacy
to the improved chemical process of treatment which • Need of economic and lightweight components
improves the interfacial bond between the material and • Reduce global warming effect
the matrix layer.44 Acoustic, mechanical, and thermal • Support from government establishments
properties of composite materials strengthened with • In electrical and electronics and sporting goods, nat-
betel nut fibers have been improved according to the ural fiber composites applications are new, but have
surface treatments of the fibers due to higher adhesion great possibilities to win a good marketplace in the
and polar interactions at the fiber interfaces.45 near future. Figure 7 shows the emerging natural
fiber composite in automotive applications.
Applications of NFRCs Ecological jute-based composites would also be suit-
The composite could be a special sort of material able for basic structural applications, like internal
during which its properties are often distorted by vary- housing elements, temporary outdoor usages like eco-
ing the constituents. The appliance of NFRC is unnat- nomic housing for defense and rehabilitation.48
ural to cost of the composite materials and their Biocomposite materials, in particular plant oil and nat-
properties. Automotive and construction were the ural fiber-based resins, beams and structural panels
most important phase of all natural fiber composite have been designed, produced, and tested.49 NFPCs
applications. Fibers of raffia, such as flax, kenaf, are also used in the electrical and electronic, aerospace,
hemp, etc., were the fabric of selection for the sports, recreational and leisure industries, ships, and so

Figure 6. Natural fiber composite market size by raw material.34

Raj et al. 7

Figure 7. Some natural fiber composites for automotive applications.37

Table 2. Characteristics and applications of thermoplastic composites with natural fibers as reinforcement.52

Thermoplastics Characteristics Applications

Acrylics Exceptional resistance to long term exposure Swimming pools, sinks and washbasins, skylights, and
to sunlight and good light transmission on tail lights on automobiles
ABS (acrylonitrile– Outstanding impact strength and high Automotive parts, shower heads, door handles, and
Butadiene–styrene) mechanical strength automotive front grills
Nylon High stability and adaptability Automotive parts, packaging, electrical and elec-
tronic applications
Polycarbonate Excellent electrical insulating characteristics, Electronics and electrical applications
strong, and rigid
Polyethylene Rigid and moisture resistant Packaging films, house wares, toys, pipes, and
coatings
polypropylene Lightweight material and good insulation Automotive parts, packaging, radio and TV housings
properties
Polyamide Better mechanical, thermal, and chemical Aerospace, heavy equipment, and automotive
resistant properties applications

on. Natural fiber based polymeric compounds have lots high quality applications. Based on the polymer
of attraction because of their particular properties such matrix used in the preparation of composite materials,
as low specific weight,economy in production,fatigue they are categorized into thermosetting composites and
and corrosion resistance, ecological and better mechan- thermoplastic materials. Tables 2 and 3 show the appli-
ical characteristics.50,51 cation of some thermoplastic and thermosetting com-
Composite polymeric matrix reinforced with natural pounds reinforced with natural fibers.52
fiber has many advantages, such as being cheaper,
more resistant, environmentally friendly, low density,
and less abrasive. They are used in construction appli-
Recent trends in natural fiber composites
cations,automotive sector,marine applications,trans- Over the last few years,bio fibers have become one of the
port sector,medical field,sports and recreational most interested research areas. In this world, when the
equipment,furniture door panels,trunk liners,shelving availability of natural fibers is considered, there are many
for packages,upholstery,racks for backpacks,parts of varieties of natural fibers but few have been exploited and
seat cushions,consumer goods,economic housing and recognized as potential reinforcement materials for
8 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

Table 3. Characteristics and applications of thermosetting composites with natural fibers as reinforcement.52

Thermoset Characteristics Applications

Epoxy Resistance to high impact and high temperatures, Adhesives, protective coatings in appliances,
chemical and fungus resistant, and no molding industrial and aircraft components
shrinkage
Phenolic Excellent mechanical, dielectric strength and dimen- Adhesives, casting resins, electrical and elec-
sional stability, resistance to wear and heat, and tronic applications
low moisture absorption
Polyimides Good thermal stability, good chemical resistance, Medical tubing, adhesives, gears, covers,
excellent mechanical properties, low creep, and piston rings, and valve seats
high tensile strength
Urea formaldehyde Very hard, scratch resistant material with good Chemically resistant coatings, decorative
chemical and heat resistance products, electrical and electronic products

polymer composite applications.53–55 The foremost finish and can cause damage to the tools.89,90 In
apprehension of biofibers is their inherited hydrophilic machining of composites there is no chip alternatively,
nature and they are highly flammable which restricts the material removal mechanism is probably higher
their success in polymer reinforcement.56 This results in represented as shattering. Instead of releasing the mate-
poor fiber distribution, high affinity to moisture, and low rial, the impact of hard fibers fractures edge. In the
fiber matrix adhesion. To make natural fibers more com- process, the cutting edge undergoes considerable abra-
patible with its matrix medium,various surface modifica- sion that leads to rapid wear.91,92
tion research studies are going on.57–60 The review study There are several traditional and unconventional
shows that a remarkable achievement has been made on strategies for machining composite substances as
the surface treatment of natural fibers to advance the shown in Figure 8. The particular challenges include
flame resistance of the composite materials.61–64 setting machining of complex geometry pieces, as well
Over the past 10 years many researchers focused on as selection of tools for cutting hard material.
enhancing the properties of fiber reinforced polymer by Processing of a composite material depends on the
means of hybridization.65,66 The properties of a hybrid characteristics and relative of reinforcing materials
composite mainly depend upon the fiber content, and matrix, and their reaction of to the machining pro-
length of individual fibers, orientation, extent of inter- cess. Furthermore, the miscellany of that specific tech-
mingling of fibers, fiber to matrix bonding, and nique always relies up on the mentioned features: type
arrangement of both the fibers.67,68 Such composites of work, the shape and the dimensions of the piece,
offer more design freedom than non-hybrid compo- finishing and precision requirements, the number of
sites.69,70 The hybrid composites market is projected parts, assortment of parts, convenience of right
to grow from USD 436 million in 2018 to USD 876 machine and cutting tools, availability of internal tech-
million by 2023, at a CAGR of 15.0% during the fore- nology, current work practices, fund requirements and
cast period.71 The market is growing because of the clarification for new equipment, environmental and
high demand from the automotive and transportation, safety considerations.57
wind energy, and sporting goods end-use industries.8,72 The term machinability refers to the benefit with
A lot of research works were going since 2013 in hybrid that a metal is often machined, permitting the fabric
composites, especially in the area of natural fiber- to be removed with a satisfactory end at low value. The
reinforced hybrid composites. Table 4 shows the cur- workability of a composite depends on the matrix and
rent studies on natural–synthetic, natural–natural, fiber also the reinforcement.93 The traits of the reinforce-
hybrid composite. ment used will determine the easiness of machining a
composite material. The cutting forces developed
during the composite machining build damages in the
Processing of NFRCs form of imperfections. A number of the defects are the
The composite materials are heterogeneous (material fiber breakout, fiber pull out, the shearing and cracking
properties vary from one point to another) and isotro- of the matrix, the formation of small holes within the
pic (properties are independent of direction). Thus the matrix, the formation of cavities and voids within the
processing of composite materials creates challenges as matrix, etc.94 Workability is often measured in several
compared to the processing of traditional materials. ways. The output parameters studied as a degree of
Furthermore, the abrasive nature of the artificial fiber workability are the delamination issue, the roughness
causes wearing of the cutting tool and rough surface of the interior and external surface, the cutting forces,
Raj et al. 9

Table 4. Recent studies on natural fiber hybrid composite.

Fiber 1 Fiber 2 Matrix Applications Reference

E-glass Jute/kenaf woven fabric Epoxy In the automotive and Sanjay et al.73
marine applications
Sisal Coir, banana þaluminum Epoxy – Sumesh and Kanthavel74
oxide nano powder
Ramie Hemp Phenolic resin Non-asbestos organic Kumar et al.75
brake material
Weave woven flax fabrics Woven glass fabrics Epoxy Marine applications Calabrese et al.76
Oil palm empty fruit bunch Kenaf fiber mats Epoxy Automotive structural and Hanan et al.77
semi-structural
applications
Banana fiber Fly ash as filler Polyester – Venkateshwaran et al.78
Woven aloe vera, flax, Barium sulfate filler Epoxy Arulmurugan et al.79
and hemp fibers
Ramie fiber Flax fiber Polyester Green engineering Narasimham and Veeresh
application Babu10
Sisal fiber Jute fiber Epoxy – Sivakandhan et al.80
Kenaf fiber Sisal fiber Bioepoxy and Semi-structural Yorseng et al.81
hardener applications
Banana fiber and jute fiber Glass fiber Epoxy –
Bamboo filler Graphene nanoplatelet Epoxy Application of thermal Gouda et al.82
interface material, cir-
cuit board, electronic
packaging, etc.
Banana fiber Copper nano powder Epoxy Automotive applications Godwin Antony et al.83
Flax fibers Glass fiber Vinyl ester Structural applications Paturel and Dhakal84
Human hair fiber Solid glass microspheres Epoxy – Nanda and Satapathy85
(SGMs) as filler
Flax fiber Carbon fiber Epoxy – Kureemun et al.86
Banana fiber, conch Aluminum sheet Epoxy Ballistic application Kumar et al.87
shell powder
Palm fiber Glass fiber Epoxy Automobile applications Raju and Balakrishnan88

Machinng
Methods

Conventional Unconventional
Machining Machining

Water jet
Turning machinng Ultra sonic
Machinig

Drilling Laser
Electron beam
Machinng machining

Milling Electric Electro

discharge chemical
machining machining
Grinding

Figure 8. Machining of composite material.57 Figure 9. Articles published on the machining and machinability
of polymeric composites based on natural fiber.18

the torque, the power, the tool wear, the useful lifespan roughness (Ra),cutting forces,material removal rate,
of the tool, etc.95 From figures 9 and 10 ,it is clear that power,specific cutting force,specific cutting pressure
the literature available on the machinability of NFRCs and machining power is less than the machinability of
materials in terms of tool wear,tool life,surface fiber reinforced composites.18
10 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

Figure 10. Comparison of the number of articles published on the machinability of polymeric composites based on natural and
synthetic fibers.18

The machinability of NFRC is predominantly slots for passing liquids and splinters to be moved. The
prompted by the type of fibers, their orientation, the drill consists of a peak, a body, and a tip as shown in
type of resin used, and their mechanical and thermal Figure 11.101
properties. The analysis of damages and failures asso- The quality of the worked hole determines the effi-
ciated with the processing of natural composites will ciency of the bolted joints or rivets. However, some
help to select the optimal conditions for processing specific characteristics of composite laminates, such
and also the optimal proportion of composite compo- as in homogeneity, anisotropy, the layered structure,
nents to improve workability.96 The limited workabil- and the extreme abrasiveness of fiber reinforcements
ity of NFRC is due to the lack of interlocking between represent a considerable challenge for machining oper-
the matrix and the fiber. This is due to the poor bond ations, such as drilling.
between the hydrophilic nature of the plant fiber and Figure 12 shows parameters such as tool geometry,
the hydrophobic matrix.97,98 To avoid this, the fiber tool material, and feed and cutting speed influence the
surface must be modified to promote adhesion and quality of a drilled hole.102 Compared to the processing
thus improve the workability of composite materials.54 of metallic materials, the composites show a series of
The other factors that influence workability are the damages induced by processing, such as delamination,
specimen material, the processing conditions, the tool damaged surface, fiber extraction, fiber bridging, chip-
material, and the tool geometry.96 ping, and cracking of the matrix. The input parameters
have a greater effect on the output parameter or on the
Conventional machining drilling factors in the composite drilling.103 Figure 13
Drilling of FRCs. One of the most reasonable process of shows the main design considerations during the dril-
shaping of a material is drilling. A drill cutting creates ling of the NFRC.
holes through boards, metals, and other materials. The There is a lack of research work focused on the dril-
main characteristic that distinguishes it from other pro- ling of completely biodegradable composite materials
cesses is the collective cut and the extrusion of metal compared to the concentration on the drilling of con-
on the edge of the chisel in the center of the drill ventional composite materials. The main donations
(Figure 11 ). The drill is pressed against the work relating to the research into the drilling of composite
piece and rotated at hundreds to thousands of revolu- materials made of natural fibers and non-degradable
tions per minutes.This forces the cutting edge against matrices, such as polyester or epoxy resin, are briefly
the work piece , cutting off chip from the hole as it examined in the following paragraphs.
drilled.99 . It is a more profitable process than other Athijayamani et al.104 conducted a series of experi-
processing processes. Some of the factors that affect ments using HSS drill bits in hybrid roselle/sisal com-
drilling operations are spindle speed, feed, and drill posite and compared thrust and torque via artificial
geometry and material properties.100 neural network (ANN) and regression models (RMs).
A drill is a final cutting tool or machine with a rotat- Thrust force and torque were taken as output variables
ing cutting tip or reciprocating hammer or chisel, used and feed, cutting speed, and drilling dimensions were
for making holes. It has one or more cutting edges and taken as explanatory variables. The outcome shows
Raj et al. 11

Figure 11. Characteristics of a typical double fluted drill.101

Drilling of Composite

Drilling of conventional Drilling of multi material Drilling of nanopolymer

composites composites composites

Machining and Tool parameters

Tool Parameters
Machining parameters
1.Tool geometry
1.Feed
2.Tool Material
2.Spindle speed
3.Tool type

Monitoring Parameters
Offline Parameters
Online Parameters 1.Delamination factor
1.Thrust Force Circularity
2.Torque 3.Surface Roughness
4.Tool wear

Figure 12. The schematic representation of drilling of composite materials.102

that the ANN model is more realistic in the prediction Jayabal and Natarajan106 applied drilling operations
of output variables. Bajpai and Singh105 by experimen- on coconut fiber-strengthened composite with high-
tation ascertained the impact of two forms of drill speed steel drill to optimize the impact of the bit diam-
geometries (solid and hollow shapes) on the drilling eter, the spindle speed and feed on the thrust force,
behavior of PP composite materials strengthened with torque, and wear of the tool by RSM technique.
sisal fiber. The other parameters are cutting speed and They observed that the metal removal rate and the
feed. They understand that the cutting mechanism of hole accuracy were the major factors affecting the fail-
the solid and hollow drill bits was completely different, ure of tool. Chandramohan and Marimuthu107 predict
therefore it has impact on the defects and forces devel- the effect of thrust force and torque on feed and cutting
oped during machining. speed in polymeric composites reinforced with natural
12 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

Ramesh et al.112 experimentally assessed the damage

Tool induced by drilling and thrust force for different feed
material &
Geometry rates using brad and spur point drill bit in hybrid
sisal-fiber-reinforced polymer compounds using an
automatic drilling machine. They discovered that the
tool material is an important parameter that has more
effect on the thrust force and on the damage induced by
Cutting
Drilling Of
Part
drilling. Venkateshwaran and ElayaPerumal113 studied
Natural fiber
Parameters
composites
performance the delamination behavior of the epoxy composite-
strengthened banana with epoxy composite, based on
the parameters of the drilling process using the artificial
vision technique. Experimental results revealed that the
feed rate is the more influential factor on delamination
Drilled than spindle speed.
hole
quality Dilli Babu et al.114 studied the factors influencing
the delamination and tensile strength of unidirectional
hemp fiber-strengthened composite during drilling.
Figure 13. Design considerations during drilling of NFRCs. To get minimum delamination and most strength,
the Taguchi and multivariate analyses were used. The
fibers of sisal, banana, and roselle with the RM. They result shows that feed and cutting speed have an excel-
concluded that at low feed values the cutting speed has lent influence on delamination and strength. Alsaeed
a negligible effect on thrust force. Also the torque and Yousif115 assessed the processability of date palm
diminishes with growing cutting speed. epoxy composites compared with synthetic composite
Jayabal and Natarajan108 have developed a mathe- in terms of different process parameters. The results
matical model for thrust force and tool wear to corre- obtained revealed that date palm-reinforced composite
late necessary machining elements like drill bit showed higher processability in terms of hole accuracy,
diameter, spindle speed, and feed rate in drilling of failure mode at exit and entry, specific cut-off pressure,
composite reinforced with coconut fiber. The optimiza- surface roughness, and energy consumption. The pro-
tion was performed by Nelder–Mead and genetic algo- cess parameters during the latest studies on drilling of


rithmic program. D
ıaz-Alvarez et al.109 analyzed the NFRCs are shown in Table 5.
influence of cutting parameters and geometry of drill From the literature survey conducted on drilling of
on drilling induced damage in biocomposites with NFRCS,thrust force,torque and delamination are the
key parameters affecting the performance. The experi-
woven cotton, flax, and jute fibers combined with poly-
ments can be extended by adding other potential natural
lactic acid matrix. They found that the progress in cut-
fibers, by changing the fiber orientation and fiber con-
ting speed and feed rate caused a decrease in damage.
tent and their mechanical and machining characteristics
Jayabal and Natarajan110 evaluated the elastic and
may be analyzed. Further experimental and numerical
inelastic behavior and machinability features of the
studies needed to find out optimum machining condi-
developed coconut fiber and polyester composite.
tions on drilling of NFRCs.
Taguchi optimization methods were used to develop
regression equations for drilling composite. They Milling of NFRCs. Outstanding flexibility, milling is the
made an end that the short coir–fiber strengthened most universal form of processing, a material removal
composites exhibited the higher tensile, flexural, and process, which can create a diversity of features in one
impact strengths. According to Chegdani and part by cutting off excess material.126 Milling is used as
Mansori111 tribological and mechanical behavior of a final machining task or to produce high-quality
the polypropylene resin reinforced with bidirectional defined surfaces such as holes, slots, pockets, and
linen fiber is influenced by the change of the tool coat- even three-dimensional surface contours.127 Milling is
ing at different scaling levels during drilling operation. also used as a machining operation of fiber-reinforced
Tools coated with titanium diboride and diamond and composites. Due to the inhomogeneous, anisotropic,
uncoated tungsten carbide were used to conduct the and abrasive nature of the components, these materials
experiment. They perceived that the multiscale behav- are difficult to process. The type of fiber, the reinforce-
ior is correlated to the intrinsic frictional properties of ment architecture, and the volume fraction of the
each coating nature which influence the tribo contact at matrix are the most important factors that govern the
the interface between the edge of the cutting tool and selection of the selection tools and processing
the composite surface. parameters.92
Raj et al. 13

Table 5. Various process parameters used by several researchers on recent studies on drilling various NFRCs.

Drilling parameters

Fiber Matrix Drill geometry Spindle speed Feed rate Reference

Bamboo fiber Polylactic acid 8-facet, dagger, and slot 710, 1400, 8, 16, and Choudhury and
drill 2000rev/min 22.4 mm/rev Debnath116
Jute fiberþ graphite Isophthalic Tungsten carbide tool, 1000, 2000, 20, 30, 40mm/ Vibhute117
powder polyester HSS, cobalt—8 mm dia 3000rev/min min
Sisal and E-glass fiber, Epoxy HSS twist drill bit of 700, 900, – Saraswati et al.118
fly ash, and graphene diameter of 12 mm 1200rev/min
are used as the filler
materials
Screw pine fiber Epoxy 3, 4, 5 mm dia 600, 852, 0.1 mm/rev Malakar et al.119
1260rev/min
Sisal fiber Polyester High-speed steel (HSS 500, 100, 10, 15, 20 mm/ Chaiki Malakar120
M2) drills of 8 mm 1500rev/min min
diameter with three
different
point angle of 90 , 104 ,
and 118
Hemp fiber Polyester 4 mm drill dia 800, 2800, 0.07, 0.17, Patel et al.121
4800 rev/min 0.27 mm/rev
Rice husk Epoxy HSS drill bit 500, 800, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06 Jayaprakash et al.122
1250rev/min m/min
Jute fiber Polyester Brad and spur drill tool dia 355, 710, and 50, 108, Belaadi123
5, 7, and 10 mm 1400 rev/min 190 mm/min
Camellia sinensis and Epoxy Drill bit of 6 mm 300, 600, and 0.02, 0.04, Gokulkumar
Ananas comosus, 900 rev/min 0.06 m/min et al.124
glass fiber
Sisal–glass fibers Orthophthalic Drill diameter 6, 9, 12 mm 1000, 2000, 100, 200, Panneerselvam
polyester 3000 rev/min 300 mm/min et al.125
NFRC: natural fiber-reinforced composite.

Figure 14. Milling of NFRCs.128

During the milling of the NFRC, the contact and fibers have paid considerable attention to interchange
friction actions between the composites and each of the artificial fibers such as glass and carbon fibers.102
cutting teeth of the milling tool rotate and shearing of Limited literature is available only for NFRC milling.
the fiber occurs. The high rigidity of the fiber Conventional and CNC machines have been used to
allows easy shearing of the fiber in composites mill NFRCs. Conventional milling leads to a variation
reinforced with natural fibers. Figure 14 shows the mill- in the performance of the machined components,
ing of the NFRC.128 which is due to damage such as delamination,
Many researches are currently underway on the micro-fractures, fiber extraction, and burning of the
machining of synthetic composites, in particular the matrix and, ultimately, can cause changes in composite
milling of composites. In modern industry, natural performance.129–131 Several studies focused on the
14 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

milling process to optimize the surface finish and pro- speed exceeds a critical cutting speed, a polymeric soften-
duction time.132,133 ing in polymer-based composite materials occurs.
Dilli Babu et al.114 did milling experiments in unidi- Therefore, the surface finishes obtained from the process-
rectional NFRCs to determine the machining parame- ing of polymer-based composite materials are different
ters and the influence of the different fiber in from those obtained in metal machining.136
delamination and roughness of surface. The optimum Vinayagamoorthy et al.137 explored the defects and
machining parameters were found out by Taguchi forces during machining related to the drilling of poly-
design of experiment method. The result shows that ester composites strengthened with Vetiveria zizanioides.
the feed rate and speed are considered the most impor- They conducted a series of drilling experiments on fab-
tant for the delamination factor and the surface rough- ricated composite. Speed feed, spindle speed, tip angle,
ness. Chegdani et al.128 studied the tribological effects and tool diameter were considered as input variables
of coated tools in the surface finish of plastic reinforced while delamination at entry and exit, thrust force, and
with flax fiber during profile milling. The up-milling torque were output variables.
configuration is more suitable than the down milling The surface compatibility between natural fibers and
configuration for milling UDF/PP profiles at low and also the matrix considerably influences the machined
medium feed rates. surface of the NFRCs. The low adhesion between the
Balasubramanian et al.18 prepared a composite fibers will cause the surface contact to interrupt
material with isophthalic polyester resin and jute fiber between the elementary fibers throughout edge during
and performed a series of milling operations. Using milling.138 The limited properties of the fiber have a
Taguchi method they found out the relationship strong influence on the cutting performance of NFRP
between input factors such as speed, feed, and depth in terms of delamination and roughness of the surface.
of cut and output factors such as thrust force and Chegdani et al.128 examined the influence of natural
torque. They concluded that all the input factors have
fiber varieties such as bamboo, sisal, and miscanthus
great influence on thrust force as well as torque in
reinforced with polypropylene on tribological behavior
which greater speed with minimum depth of cut and
during milling. They reported that bamboo-
power is optimum for torque. Zurayyen et al.129 stud-
strengthened composite shows better surface texture
ied the processing parameters that favored the delam-
after machining. Table 6 shows the summary of param-
ination of polyester compounds reinforced with banana
eters considered during milling of NFRCs during
fiber. They observed that by increasing the speed of
recent studies.
advancement, the size of the delamination also
The experiments can be extended by using different
increases. A higher cutting speed shows a sudden
decrease of the delamination factor. tool inserts with wider geometries and increasing the
Patel et al.57 investigated the impact of milling factors number of machining parameters, such as tool geome-
such as speed, feed, and depth of cut on the thrust, try, tool materials, by using different tool inserts with
torque, and delamination in polyester composites wider geometries, etc.
strengthened with hemp fiber. Optimality conditions
were analyzed with analysis of variance and RM. They Turning of NFRCs. As mentioned above, the NFRCs have
reported that feed has more impact on thrust than depth widespread application in various fields such as
of cut. Vinayagamoorthy and Rajmohan134 made a airplanes, helicopters, spaceships, cruisers, offshore plat-
detailed review of several factors of machining and its forms, vehicles, sporting belongings, and civil infrastruc-
measurement, the influence of machining parameters on ture, such as structures and bridges, etc. Therefore, it is
machinability, and optimal conditions during processing critical for manufacturing emphasis on aspects of
of biocomposites. NFRCs’ workability and processing to achieve high
Machining performance, such as surface roughness, product quality and satisfactory work performance.
is directly influenced by the milling parameter. Bin Machining and workability performance of NFRC
Harun et al.135 studied the importance of grinding fac- materials are reasonably ambiguous compared to con-
tors on the surface roughness of kenaf fiber- ventional metal processing.99 Processes such as turning,
strengthened plastic composite using the Taguchi milling, and drilling must recover the surface finish, ease
method. The optimization is performed to determine of assembly, and joining surfaces. They did enough
the optimal condition for the range of milling parame- research for processing composite materials using
ters under examination in order to minimize the CFRP, GFRP, and MMC, but the literature revealed
surface roughness (Ra). High cutting speed and low that it did not work hard to transform the NFRC.
feed rate results low surface roughness while milling Turning is a form of machining process that involves
of kenaf fiber reinforced composite. If the cutting the removal of unwanted material of the surface to
Raj et al. 15

Table 6. Machining parameters used for milling of NFRCs.

Milling parameters
Reference
End-mill
diameter Spindle speed Feed rate Depth of
Matrix Natural fiber Tool material (mm) (r/min) (mm/rev) cut (mm)

Polyester Hemp, jute, Carbide end mill 5 Cutting speed 0.1, 0.2, 0.3mm/ Babu et al.130
banana, glass (m/min): 16, rev
24, 32
Epoxy Jute TiAlN-coated 8 25, 50, 75m/min 0.04, 0.08, 2 Çelik et al.139
cemented car- 0.12mm/rev
bide (WC) end
mill
Isophthalic Woven natural 7 mm, 4-fluted end 7 210, 660, 0.04, 0.06, 1, 1.5, 2 Balasubramanian
polyester jute mill made of 1750rev/min 0.15mm/rev et al.18
high-speed steel
Epoxy Kenaf fiber HSS 509, 1019, 204, 713.5, 2 Azmi et al.140
764 rev/min 1223 mm/min
Polypropylene Bamboo, sisal Helical carbide end 12 47 m/min 0.04, 0.08, 1 Chegdani
and mill 0.12mm/rev et al.141
miscanthus
Epoxy Jute fiber 125, 180, 16, 25, 40, 2, 4, 5, Sankar et al.142
250, 355, 25, 40mm/ 6, 8
500 r/min min
Polypropylene Flax fiber Double-crossed 100, 200, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 1 Chegdani and
helix (DCH) 300 rev/min 0.1mm/rev Mansori143
Polyurethane Banana stem Carbide end mill 10 2000, 5000, 200, 300, 2 Ellenberger
fiber 8000 rev/min 400 mm/min et al.144
Epoxy Flax fiber A high-speed steel 1000, 2000, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3mm/ Mustafa et al.145
(HSS) end mill 3000rev/min rev
NFRC: natural fiber-reinforced composite.

Table 7. Machining parameters used for abrasive water jet machining of NFRCs.
Machining parameters

Standoff
Abrasive mass distance Transverse rate (mm/s)/
Fiber Matrix Pressure (MPa) flow rate (g/s) (mm) Traverse speed (mm/min) Reference

Jute fiber þKevlar Epoxy resin 172, 241, 310 5, 7.5, 10 2, 3, 4 0.5, 1.5, 3 mm/s Madara et al.163
49 (fiber)
Hemp fiberþ Kevlar Epoxy resin 200, 230, 260 2–3 1, 2, 3 0.33, 0.5, 0.667mm/min Jani et al.164
149 woven fiber
Wood dust Epoxy 150, 225, 300 3, 5, 7 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 0.20, 0.29mm/min Jagadish et al.165,166
Pineappleþ sisal fibers Epoxy 150, 200, 250 – 1, 2, 3 0.3, 0.5, 0.83mm/min Sumesh and Kanthavel167
Wood dust Epoxy 150, 200, 250 2, 4, 6 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 2, 2.83, 3.67mm/min Manjunath Patel et al.168
Banana fiber Polyester resin 96, 120, 144 – 2, 3, 4 1.67, 3.33mm/min Patel and Shaikh169
Banyan tree saw dust Polypropylene 150, 300 3.33 – 250, 350, 450 mm/min Sania Akhtar et al.170
Flax fiber þ carbon fiber Epoxy 300 3 4 20, 40, 60 and 80 mm/s Dhakal et al.171
Banana fiber Polyester resin 22, 24, 26 – 1, 2, 3 20, 30, 40 mm/min Prabu et al.172
Pineapple leaf filler Epoxy 100, 125, 150 1, 2, 3 100, 200, 300 mm/min Jagadish et al.173
Kenaf/E-glass fibers Polyester resin 227, 241, 4.4, 4.5, 1.5, 1.9, 0.24, 0.26, 0.28, 0.30mm/min Jayakumar174
255, 269 4.6, 4.7 2.3, 2.7
Jute fiber Polyester resin 150, 200, 250 – 1, 2, 3 20, 30, 40 mm/s Kalirasu et al.175
Glass-bead B159þshort Epoxy resin 380 3 250 mm/min Muller et al.176
fibers of false banana
Coconut sheathþ Polyester resin 150, 200, 250 1, 2, 3 20, 30, 40 mm/s Kalirasu et al.177
glass woven mat

NFRC: natural fiber-reinforced composite.

16 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

Table 8. Influence of constituents of composite on mechanical and machining properties.

Feature Properties Observations on machining

Fiber High strength and high modulus Strength increases with abrasiveness of fiber
Length of fiber – Short fibers delaminates easier which
creates machining difficulties
Diameter of fiber Tensile strength decreases with Tensile strength decreases with diameter
increase in fiber diameter while cutting forces increases
Type of matrix Toughness –
Percentage volume Improves mechanical properties Undesirably affects machinability
of fibers
Alignment of fiber Influences the degree of anisotropy Delamination is severe in unidirectional
of properties alignment of fibers

Unconventional machining
Due to the sustainability and ecofriendly nature the
demand of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites
increases in various application segments such as pre-
cision engineering, scientific, aerospace, automotive,
tool and die making, and household applications.149
The machining in the conventional technique creates
long-lasting problems such as fiber pull out during dril-
ling, poor surface roughness, improper cutting, low
productivity, etc. due to their intermolecular structure.
Also in the view point of cutting tool requirements, the
machining of fiber fortified polymers is a challenging
Figure 15. Turning of NFRCs.146
process.150 Cutting tools with large positive rake angle,
high hardness, and toughness are often required to get
obtain required dimensions and surface quality using a better surface finish. Tool materials which can meet
cutting tool of a single point (Figure 15). these demands are only a limited choice.151 Also con-
The turning process deliberates on different con- ventional processes generate various forms of wastages
straints such as feed rate, speed, and cutting depth as in the form of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastages which
machining parameters; metals, composite materials, result in serious occupational health and environmental
and polymers as work materials; and tool material issues during the machining process. Hence, environ-
and tool geometry as cutting tool parameters as mental friendly non-conventional machining processes
shown in Figure 15.146 are essential.152
In NFRC turning, only a few research documents Lot of innovative metal cutting technologies devel-
are available. Zajac et al.147 discovered the effect of oped in the previous century.This was a big achieve-
rotation speed and feed (cutting depth taken as con- ment compared to the past centuries. A comparable
stant) on the roughness of the surface during the turn- development has occurred with the power sources
ing of the WPCs. The results show a greater radius of and machine tool technologies also. Newer
the tool tip, higher cutting speeds, and lower feed rates manufacturing processes also known as nontraditional
recommended for processing this material. The homo- processes, suitable for material removal, forming, and
geneity of WPCs is reduced by using finer wood flour joining, are also introduced in order to meet the chal-
otherwise by increasing the amount of coupling agents. lenges raised by the difficult to machine materials.
Sivakiran et al.148 studied the consequence of the In the machining of natural fiber composites, most
parameters such as velocity, feed, and cutting depth of the studies focused on traditional methods than non
on metal removal rate and surface irregularity during traditional methods.
conventional processing of hybrid polymer composite Nontraditional machining processes include abra-
strengthened with chopped banana. The experiment sive water jet (AWJ), Laser Beam Machining(LBM),
design was performed using the response surface ultrasonic machining (USM), and electrical discharge
methodology. Figure 16 shows the incipient factors machining (EDM).153 The machining of green compos-
that can influence the processing characteristics of ite in EDM is not applicable due to the nonconductive
turning process. property of the material. Further, due to more ductility
Raj et al. 17

Turned part
quality

Cutting Cutting
Cutting Tool Workpiece enviornme
parameter Parametr parameter nt

1.Type of Material 1.Dry

1.cutting speed 1.Tool material
2.Mechanical 2.Wet
2.Feed rate 2.Type of cutting Properties 3.Cooled
3.Depth of cut 3.Tool Geometry 3.Diameter

Figure 16. Factors affecting machining characteristics in turning of NFRCs.

and low hardness of the natural composites, USM is material based on the principle of erosion.156 The water
also not possible. In this literature review, more con- in the jet acts as the coolant and carries both the abra-
centration is given for most recent advancement in sive material and eroded material to clear of the work.
nontraditional machining methods of natural fiber- A pressure of approximately 400 MPa is applied to
based composites. form the water jet and then it is expelled through a
diamond nozzle (0.1–0.4 mm in diameter) to form a
Abrasive water jet Machining (AWJM). Sustainable fine water jet at a speed that approaches 900 m/s.157
manufacturing is the most important aspect to be con- Figure 17 shows a typical AWJM layout.
sidered by all production engineers, not because it is a Although AWJM is the most viable and effective
fad but a necessity as an obligation to the world we live machining process for polymer composites its perfor-
in. Conventional machining creates lots of problems mance depends on several process variables such as
such as fiber pull out, delamination, poor surface hydraulic pressure, work material, nozzle distance,
finish, etc.102 Apart from this the dusts generated abrasive type, size, mass flow rate, etc.159 The AWJM
during conventional machining process create health process parameters are classified as hydraulic, work
and environmental issues. Green manufacturing is the material, abrasive, and cutting parameters. Figure 18
renewal of production processes and the establishment shows various parameters influencing the process. The
of environmentally friendly operations within the selection of appropriate machining conditions for the
manufacturing field.154 various researchers worked on AWJM process is based on the analysis relating the
the machining of polymer composite by AWJM but various process parameters to different performance
very few researchers on machining of green composites. measures.160
AWJM is one of the most commonly used nontradi- Considerable amount of literature is readily avail-
tional machining processes. In contrast with conven- able on use of AWJM for improving the machinability
tional and non-conventional machining process, of metal matrix composites and ceramic matrix com-
AWJM can machine almost all engineering materials posites with very limited work on natural filler/fiber-
such as ceramics, glass, and rocks, irrespective of mate- reinforced polymer composites. The viability study of
rial properties and material thickness.155 AWJM applicability of AWJM for milling of fiber-reinforced
becomes the ideal machining technique, in particular plastics (FRP) was first carried out by Hocheng et al.161
where accuracy must be maintained. While machining Vigneshwaran et al.162 presented a broad study on
composite materials, AWJM technology has received AWJM of fiber-reinforced polymer composites and
extensive consideration from industries because of its they made a conclusion that AWJM is the most
specific advantages such as lack of heat activated zone viable and effective machining process for polymer
(HAZ) and thermal damage, low tool wear, small cut- composites. The recent studies on AWJM of natural
ting forces, high productivity, etc.155 fiber-based composites and the influence of process
Abrasive water jet machining(AWJM) is a budding parameters on machinability are shown in Table 7.
machining process in which high velocity jet of abrasive AWJM has a number of machining variables
slurry is impacted on the work surface.It removes the influencing different machining characteristics both in
18 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

combined and separate action. From the literature parameters are classified as beam characteristics and
review it was concluded that selection of machining laser characteristics.182 Quality characteristics, geomet-
parameters is highly important in AWJM to avoid for- rical characteristics, and metallurgical characteristic
mation of burrs, cracks, and delamination and for come under performance parameters.
good surface quality, as well as kerf behavior.178 The Several studies have been conducted on convention-
parameters such as standoff distance, hydraulic pres- al machining as well as laser machining of polymer
sure, transverse speed, abrasive type, mass flow rate, composites and their optimization of process parame-
and feed rate have prominent impact on delamination, ters was performed.184,185 Tamrin et al.186 conducted
surface roughness, kerf geometry, and material remov- experimental and numerical investigation on multipass
al rate.163,164 AWJ can virtually cut any material with- laser cutting of cotton fiber laminate. The optimum
out any significant heat damage or distortion. Thus, levels of all input parameters were found out by anal-
AWJM is more effective and a preferable technique ysis of variance along with Taguchi design. They made
while machining of NFRC material. a conclusion that effect of cutting speed on kerf width
and HAZ was found to be the most significant and for
Laser beam machining (LBM). LBM is a non-conventional dimensional accuracy, the effect of laser pass number
machining process, which offers an attractive alterna- was more pronounced. Tewari et al.187 focused on the
tive to all other non-conventional methods due to it is a investigation of the effects of laser power and cutting
non-contact, abrasion less technique which eliminates speed on hole quality characteristics in laser-drilled
tool wear, deflection of machine tools, vibrations, and kenaf/high-density polyethylene composites. The
cutting forces. It can be applicable to all types of mate- results show that CO2 laser is capable of drilling natu-
rials.179 Due to the low cost, short processing time, and ral composite and optimum laser drilling parameters
end product quality, laser cutting of composite has can yield improved quality of the drilled holes. They
wide applications in industry. Laser machining uses also mentioned that the thickness of the composite
high energy, directional coherent monochromatic workpiece has a significant effect on kerf taper angle
beam which is focused on a very small spot of about and width of the HAZ.
0.1–1.0 mm diameter. This melts and vaporizes the Concluding the entire literature survey indicates that
material throughout the depth. The laser beams are an ample amount of studies has been conducted on
widely used for cutting, drilling, marking, welding, sin- advanced machining of synthetic fiber-based compo-
tering, and heat treatment.157 Figure 19 shows the sche- sites and laser machining of natural fiber-reinforced
matic diagram of LBM.180 polymeric composites has been less investigated. All
Owing to lots of advantages over traditional of the studies are of the same opinion that the laser
machining, laser machining is recommended for FRP machining for composite material is far more complex
composites. Laser cutting is a thermal process and is due to the generation of a heat affected zone and com-
not influenced by the strength and the hardness of the posite constituents usually have different thermal con-
work material. Therefore, it is best suited for cutting ductivity, heat capacity, and vaporization temperature.
heterogeneous materials composed of different phases This causes surface deterioration and finally leads to
with contrasting mechanical properties.181 It provides polymer burnout.149,188 Optimization of the process
high machining rates, thin kerf width, and flexibility to parameters, with particular reference to laser power,
cut complex contoured shapes. The type of laser to be pulse energy, and overlapping factor, can reduce the
used for machining a given composite depends on the HAZ extension: moreover, the use of cryogenic param-
work material properties. There are two normally uti- eters seems to be a promising process development.
lized lasers in the industry today. Nd:YAG laser and
CO2 laser were commonly used for cutting composites.
Nd:YAG laser is operated in pulsed mode and can be
Challenges in machining of NFRCs
used to cut metal matrix composites and CO2 laser is The aerospace industry has used composite materials in
operated in continuous mode and can be used for cut- a variety of applications, including flight surfaces and
ting glass fiber-reinforced composites.182 The efficiency some interior cabin parts for years. The properties of
of the laser machining depends on the ability of the these composite materials heavily depend on the type,
material to absorb the energy emitted by the laser amount, and orientation of fiber reinforcement, type of
beam. The absorption of a material depends on the resin and polymerization process. This creates major
wavelength of the laser beam so for the laser machining challenges during machining (Table 8)). Composite
of composites, the correct type of a laser source has to materials are made of a soft and durable matrix with
be selected.183 strong stiff reinforcements. These components have a
The important process and performance parameters great influence on the mechanical and processing prop-
in LBD process are shown in Figure 20. The process erties of composite materials.
Raj et al. 19

There are many similarities between the challenges adhesion strength between the fibers and the resins is
associated with the processing of FRPC and NFRC. In less than any strength of the reinforced fiber.189
addition to the risk with FRPC, the wide variety of Therefore, during the drilling process, damages such
natural fibers available makes it difficult to understand as burrs, delaminations, breakage of the matrix, and
their workability. Fiber pull out is one of the biggest breakage of the matrix generally happen.190 In indus-
problems in the processing of composite materials; the trial applications, the damage caused during processing
processing cycle can generate stresses in the composite is of major importance. Figure 21 shows the delamina-
materials and cause the separation of the layers and tion during drilling process. Rejection of components
compromise the integrity of the material. due to poor hole quality is estimated as around 60%.191
Drilling is the most commonly used machining oper- In drilling, the helical tip has an efficient cut in the
ation for fiber-reinforced materials due to the need to outside diameter of the drill and less in the middle.
assemble structures. Multi-directional FRPC drilling During drilling, the edge and the lips near the center,
with long fibers is very difficult compared to metal dril- which have a negative angle of inclination of the drill
ling. Due to the high strength and stiffness of the fibers, tip, push the material toward the center as it enters the
it is difficult to break than resins. Furthermore, the hole. The thrust force to push the drill bit through the
work is very high and the heat is generated at the edge
of the tip chisel which leads to wear and delamination
of tools.192 Figure 22shows the removed material and
the damage induced by the edges during the drilling
operation.
Delamination damage is a major concern because of
its serious structural reliability problem when the piece
is used in assembly. During drilling, delamination is
introduced by the mechanisms, i.e. peeling of the top
layer and drilling of the uncut layer to the output.193
Figure 23 shows the mechanism of delamination.
Numerous studies were done in drilling of NFRCs.
The summary of challenges during the drilling of
NFRCs is as follows:
Figure 17. Abrasive water jet machining.158

Figure 18. Process parameters in an AWJM.

20 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

• The drilling of the NFRC causes the fibers to be Knowing these will facilitate to diminish delamina-
discontinuous, which affects the performance of tion at the ends throughout process. Drilling perfor-
the machined part. mance can be enhanced by optimizing the machining
• NFRCs are of an anisotropic nature, therefore parameters.
dimensional deviations can occur during the Slotting is another necessary process operation to ease
machining and this generates a variation in the ther- assembly operations. Milling is the most generally accept-
mal expansion coefficients. ed machining operation thus far. Challenges in conven-
• If the temperature during the drilling process increases, tional milling of NFRCs include the damages in the form
it may cause the material to integrate or affect areas of delamination ,micro cracks,fiber pull out and matrix
around the surface of the hole. Therefore, the cutting burning and it cause variation in the performance of the
temperature must be within the limits. component. As mentioned above, the NFRCs generate a
• When working with polymer-based composites, if series of issues during machining, like surface roughness
the temperature at the cutting point is above the (Ra) and surface failure, related to the characteristics of
melting temperature of the polymer, the instrument the fabric and also the cutting parameters.195 For
becomes clogged when the resin melts. decreasing these issues we have to optimize the impact
• The feed and the bit diameter are accepted as the of the cutting factors on the surface roughness (Ra) and
most important factors influencing the thrust force. delamination.
Greater thrust is produced for larger diameter tools Limited studies were done in milling of NFRCs.
and higher feed rates.194 The summary of challenges during the milling of
• The torque increases with feed and fiber volume. NFRCs is as follows:
• The design of the tool is with respect to the failure
modes observed. Positive geometry of the drill bit is • Rough surface roughness is one of the criteria for
essential to minimize the stresses that can cause determining the quality of the component based on
delamination. Likewise, sharp geometry is essential the surface structure. By increasing the speed of
for cutting fibers with localized induced stress. advancement, the surface roughness decreases.
• The thermal conductivity of the composites is very • Cutting characteristics, such as feed, cutting depth,
poor, therefore heat can build up at the cutting edge and speed, affect the roughness of the surface in the
of the tool during machining. milling process.
• The tool life might be reduced due to the abrasive • The loss of adhesion between the layers of natural
nature of the composites. composites leads to a critical damage known as
• The sequence in a laying compound and orientation delamination. In milling, delamination increases
are very important factors during processing. with increasing feeding speed.

Figure 19. Layout of LBM.180.

Raj et al. 21

• In addition, tool life is reduced by increasing the heat, which melts the matrix and burns the fiber, which
cutting speed, which results in higher torque. causes the failure of materials in the form of delamina-
tion and fiber peel out. Cutting fluids can be used to
Turning is another important machining process remove the heat generated during machining, but
used in composite materials, where process takes sometimes leads to another problem, such as moisture
place due to the relative movement between the tool absorption.
and the workpiece; the material is sheared along the Traditional processing methods, such as mechanical
cut part forming a chip. Similar to other machining milling and drilling, can result in chipping, heat damage,
operations, NFRC turning has many challenges. delamination, fiber pull out, and severe wear to the tool.
Figure 24shows the turning of NFRCs. The defects Nontraditional machining offers certain advantages
observed are usually fiber pull out and formation of over traditional machining. It also has its own limita-
cracks and pitting on the worked surface. tions. The machining of natural fiber-based composite
During the machining of the NFRC, the most unde-
sirable factor is that the lack of homogeneity that
directly affects the roughness of the surface and also
the wear of the tool. By optimizing constraints like tool
radius, feed rate, cutting speed, etc., finer surface
roughness may be achieved. The lack of homogeneity
of the composite may be eliminated by the utilization
of additives or coupling agent. The selection of the
proper tool material relies upon the type of application
of the composites. In fiber-reinforced composite mate-
rials, HSS and tungsten carbide tools are widely used;
however, it is not desirable for NFRC as a result of its
tool wear.197
Nowadays, different natural fibers are available and
the variable properties of these fibers create another
challenge in machining.99 Another important challenge
during the turning of the NFRC is the generation of Figure 21. Delamination in drilling of composites.191

Figure 20. Performance characteristics in laser beam machining.182

22 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(0)

Figure 22. Materials removed and damages induced by different cutting edges.192 a—nominal radius of hole and b—damages radius.

Figure 24. Turning of fiber-reinforced composites.196

angle, and properties of the target surface.149 The major

challenges in AWJM can be minimized by optimal selec-
tion of process parameters.
Laser machining primarily utilizes heat for material
Figure 23. Mechanisms of delamination: (a) peel-up at entrance removal. The main factor affecting the machining of
and (b) push-out at exit.193 FRP is the very different properties of the reinforcing
fibers, compared to the polymer matrix. The laser power
that is required to vaporize the fiber is much higher than
such as AWJM is a preferable method than convention-
al methods because the process offers many benefits that needed for the polymer. It causes undesirable alter-
such as no heat generation, impose low stress on the ations to the local microstructure and properties of the
workpiece, higher adaptability and higher flexibility, material adjacent to the cut and burning of the edges of
and less environmental pollution.198 AWJM process per- holes in laser drilling.187,188 The results suggest that the
formance depends on several process variables such as type of assist gas used can have an overall effect upon
hydraulic pressure, work material, nozzle distance, abra- the quality of the holes. The FRP that had been proc-
sive type, size and mass flow rate, etc.155 AWJ pressures essed with the CO2 assist gas showed an improved sur-
incident on the workpiece cause delamination and var- face quality. This result is due to the superior cooling
iations in the jet pressure cause waviness in the cut kerf. quality of the CO2.199,200 This is the reason it is very
The dominant mechanism of material removal is deter- important for high quality laser processing that the
mined by the shape of the impacting particle, the impact heat input to the material is carefully managed.
Raj et al. 23

Conclusions Proceedings of ICIME 2019. ( S. S. R. . S. V. L.

Narasimham, A. Veeresh Babu, Ed.). springer.
Many review articles have examined the machining of 11. Taban E, Khavanin A, Faridan M, et al. Comparison
fiber-reinforced composites from various aspects, but of acoustic absorption characteristics of coir and
limited data are available for machining of natural date palm fibers: experimental and analytical study of
composites. This paper examined recent research green composites. Int J Environ Sci Technol 2020; 17:
focused on conventional and non-conventional proc- 39–48.
essing methods of NFRCs, including challenges and 12. Mansor MR, Nurfaizey AH, Tamaldin N, et al.
defects found during machining. It is hoped that this Natural fiber polymer composites. Amsterdam: Elsevier
review will be very useful for researchers looking for Ltd, 2019.
13. Chegdani F and Mansori ME. New multiscale approach
indications in the selection of cutting parameters, cut-
for machining analysis of natural fiber reinforced
ting conditions, tool geometry, and tool material suit-
bio-composites. J Manuf Sci Eng Trans ASME 2019;
able for the different machining of the NFRC. 141: 1–24.
14. Khan A, Kim N, Shin JK, et al. Damage assessment of
Declaration of conflicting interests smart composite structures via machine learning: a
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with review. JMST Adv 2019; 1: 107–124.
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this 15. Ahmad F, Manral A and Bajpai PK Machining of
article. Thermoplastic Composites 2019: 107–123. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-981-13-6019-0_8
16. Friedrich K. Multi-functionality of polymer composites:
Funding
challenges and new solutions. Norwich: William Andrew
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, Publishing, 2015.
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biodegradable polymers and biocomposites: an over-
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J Edwin Raja Dhas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5903-5166
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