Computer Network (3150710) 240673107017

SAL Institute of Technology & Engineering

Research

CE/CSE Department

Computer Networks (3150710)

Laboratory Manual

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Practical: 1
Aim: - Introduction to Data Transmission in Network.
Data transmission is the process of sending and receiving data between two or more devices
through a communication medium, such as cables (wired) or radio waves (wireless). It plays a
key role in computer networks, telecommunications, and digital communication systems.

 Introduction Of
Computer Network:
Interconnection of two or more computing devices (like mobile, tablet, computer, laptop etc.) Such that they can
communicate with each other and allow sharing of resources and information e.g. computer network, mobile
network, internet etc.
Need of Networks:
The following are the potential needs for computer networks.
 File sharing: Networking of computers helps the network users to share data files.
 Information exchange: To exchange data and information between different individual users, it is necessary to
interconnect the individual users’ computers.
 Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard drives etc.
Without computer networks, device sharing is not possible.
 Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to implement client/server
applications.
 User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups, and videoconferencing
etc.

 Types Of Network:
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1. LAN (Local Area Network):

 A local area network (LAN) is a system in which computers and other devices connect to each other in one
location. While PANs connect devices around an individual, the scope of a LAN can range from a few
meters in a home to hundreds of meters in a large office. The network topology determines how devices in
LANs interconnect, such as a ring or mesh topology.
 LANs use both wired and wireless connectivity options. Wireless LAN (WLAN) has surpassed traditional
wired LAN in popularity, but wired LAN remains the more secure and reliable option. Wired LANs use
physical cables, such as Ethernet, and switches. WLANs use devices such as wireless routers and access
points to interconnect network devices through radio frequency waves.

 Wired LANs are

usually more secure
than WLANs because
they require a physical
cable to form a
connection and are less
susceptible to
compromise. However,
network administrators
can implement security
protocols and
encryption standards
to secure wireless
networks.
• Advantages:
1. Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
2. Easy to set up and manage.
3. Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
4. Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.

 Disadvantages:
1. Limited geographical coverage.
2. Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to accommodate growth.
3. May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
• Applications:
1. LAN is used for school environment, offices, hospitals etc as it allows sharing of resources like sharing
data, scanners, printing and internet.
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2. LAN serves users at home to access internet.

3. LAN’s are widely used in manufacturing industries where a central server coordinates the activities of
other machines.
4. High speed LANs are typically used to connect many slower networks together.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

• MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a smaller area
as compared to WAN.
• MAN has a range of 5-50km.
• It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities.
• It
covers a
large

geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).

• MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity.
• Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps.
• It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network
• Advantages:
1. Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
2. Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
3. Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
• Disadvantages:
1. Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
2. May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage. May have limited
fault tolerance and security compared to LANs

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• Applications:
• Following are some of the uses of Metropolitan Area Network
1. University Campus
2. Airports
3. Public libraries
4. Hospitals
5. Different branches of schools and colleges
6. Cable Television

3. WAN (Wide Area Network):

• WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area, although
it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country.

• WAN has a range of above 50 km.

• A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and
may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public.
• The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive
• There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN.
• WAN is difficult to design and maintain.
• A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance transmission,
the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
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• The speed of WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps).
• Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves, and Satellites.
• An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point
WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.
• Advantages:
1. Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
2. Provides connectivity to the internet.
3. Offers remote access to resources and applications.
4. Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
• Disadvantages:
1. Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
2. Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
3. May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer distances and multiple
network hops.
4. May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
• Applications:
1. Satellite systems
2. Network providers
3. Companies and offices
4. 4G mobile broadband systems
5. Internet
6. Telecommunication companies
7. A Network of bank cash dispensers

 Transmission Media :
A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the path along which
data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

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Guided Media :
Guided media in computer networks also known as wired transmission media, uses physical cables to transmit
signals.
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include Twisted-Pair Cable,
Coaxial Cable, and Fiber-Optic Cable.
• Coaxial Cable
• Twisted pair cable
• Fiber optic cable
Coaxial Cable:
 Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. Copper is
used in this as Centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded by PVC
installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, barid or both.
 Coaxial cables are another type of guided media used primarily in television networks and broadband internet
connections.
 The structure of coaxial cables includes a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an
outer plastic covering.

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 Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which completes the
circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic cover
which protects the whole cable.
 This layered design provides excellent protection against external noise and interference, making coaxial
cables suitable for high-frequency applications.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable :

• Bandwidth is high
• Used in long distance telephone lines.
• Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
• Much higher noise immunity
• Data transmission without distortion.
• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to
twisted pair cable
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable :
• Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
• Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
• If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.
Applications of Coaxial Cable :
• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single coaxial network could carry
10,000 voice signals.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used
coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
• In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and consequence high data rate, coaxial cable was
chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial
cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10Mbps with a range of 185 m.

Twisted Pair Cable :

• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as ground
reference.
Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable :

 It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which
consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic insulator. Identification is the
reason behind colored plastic insulation.
 UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable
use RJ-45 connector.
 These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other sulation.

 They reduce the external interference due to the presence of insulation.

 They are arranged in pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever required. The DSL or telephone
lines in our houses have one extra pair in them.
 When UTP are arranged in pairs, each pair is coded with a different color as defined by the 25-pair color
code.
 The Electronic Industries Association divides UTP into 7 categories based on some standards. Categories
are based upon cable quality where 1 is the highest quality and 7 is the lowest quality. Each cable in a
category is put to a different use as needed.
Advantages of UTP:
 Low cost and widely available.
 Simple and quick to install.
 Suitable for short-distance communication.
 These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their compact size.
 They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice and data.
 It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.

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Disadvantages of UTP:
 Susceptible to external interference, especially in noisy environments.
 Limited to shorter distances compared to other types of cables.
 The connection established using UTP is not secure.
 They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to be installed in pieces of up to 100
meters.
 These cables have limited bandwidth.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in the form of
a copper braid covering.
 This covering provides strength to the overall structure of the cable. It also reduces noise and signal
interference in the cable.
 The shielding ensures that the induced signal can be returned to the source via ground and only circulate
around the shield without affecting the main propagating signal. The STP cables are also color-coded like
the UTP cables as different color pairs are required for analog and digital transmission.

Advantages of STP:
 They are generally used for long-distance communication and transmission and are installed underground.
 The protective shield prevents external electromagnetic noise penetration into the cable.
 They have a higher bandwidth as compared to UTP.

Disadvantages of STP:
 These cables are very expensive.
 They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.
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 These can be installed underground only.

 The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.
Applications of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable:

• In telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The DSL lines that are used by the telephone
companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded
twisted-pair cables.

Fiber Optic Cable:

• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density
of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the
cladding instead of being refracted into it.

Advantages
of Optical
Fiber
Cables:
●

Extremely high bandwidth, capable of transmitting massive amounts of data.

● Immune to electromagnetic interference, making them suitable for environments with high levels of
electrical noise.
● Lightweight and capable of long-distance communication without significant signal loss.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables:
● Expensive to install and maintain.
● Fragile and prone to damage if not handled carefully.
● Difficult to splice and repair if damaged

Unguided Media
 Unguided media, also known as wireless or unbounded media, refers to transmission paths where
electromagnetic signals are transmitted through the air without the need for physical cables.
 This type of media is used for wireless communication over long distances and in areas where installing
cables is impractical or impossible.
 There are three types of Unguided Transmission Media:

Radio Waves
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• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
• A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional
property has disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference
by another antenna that may send signal suing the same frequency or band.
• Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM radio can
receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just
inside or outside a building.
Advantages of Radio Waves
 It is used in WAN (Wide Area Network).
 Used in mobile Cellular phones.
 Radio wave spread in large area so they can penetrate the wall.
 It's provide a higher transmission rate.
Applications of Radio Waves
• The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting in which there is
one sender but many receivers.
• AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.

Micro Waves
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 to 300 GHz are called micro waves. Micro waves are
unidirectional.
 When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned.
 The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering
with another pair of aligned antennas.
Types of Microwaves

There are two types of microwaves:

1. Terrestrial Microwave :
Terrestrial Microwave are microwaves that transmits the beam of a radio signal from one ground
based antenna to another ground based antenna.

2. Satellite Microwave Communication :

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A satellite is a object that revolve around the earth. A satellite microwave is a type of communication
technology that uses microwave radio waves to transmit data between a ground-based station and an
orbiting satellite.
Applications of Micro Waves
• Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast(one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
• They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
• Used for long distance telephone communication
• Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time
Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
• It is very costly

Infrared Waves
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.

• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another, a short-
range communication system in on room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.

• we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.

• It's used for short-range communication like data transmission between two cell phones, TV
remote control operation, and data transfer between a computer and a mobile phone in the same
confined area.

• Infrared waves are regarded as a far safer form of unguided transmission medium.

Applications of Infrared Waves

• The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
• The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves,
has established standards for using these signals for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight
propagation.
Advantages
The advantages of infrared transmissions are as follows –
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 It is a very high speed transmission.

 It has a large bandwidth.
 It is very cheap.
 It can be simple to create.
 It provides a wireless connection between two systems.
 There is no license needed to facilitate it.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of infrared transmissions are as follows –
 It cannot permeate the barrier.
 It cannot use it for long-range communication.

EXERCISE:
1) Write a program to convert character into binary and binary digits into character.

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Output

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QUIZ:
Answer the Followings:
1) Write ASCII range for A-Z, a-z, 0-9.
2) In the second program why does the “for loop” appear in reverse order?
3) Give the difference between ISO and OSI.
4) What is Protocol?
5) Differentiate “Node to Node Communication” and “End to End
Communication”

EVALUATION:

Problem Understanding Timely Mock Total

Analysis & Level Completion
Solution (3) (2) (2) (10)
(3)

Signature with date: _______

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____________

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Practical-2

Aim: - Implement and study on the Cisco Packet Tracer.

Introduction about Cisco Packet Tracer:

Cisco Packet Tracer is a powerful network simulation tool developed by Cisco Systems. It
allows users, especially students and networking professionals, to design, configure, and
simulate complex networks without the need for physical hardware. This tool plays a crucial
role in learning and practicing networking concepts, particularly those
covered under Cisco's certification programs like CCNA (Cisco Certified Network
Associate).

With a user-friendly graphical interface, Packet Tracer enables users to create network
topologies using virtual routers, switches, PCs,
servers, and various other network devices. Users can apply
configurations using the Cisco IOS command-line interface (CLI), just like they would on
real devices.
Overall, Cisco Packet Tracer is an essential tool in the field of
computer networking education, offering hands-on experience in a virtual environment
that mirrors real-world network infrastructure and operations.
Components of Cisco Packet Tracer: -

A. Routers
B. Switches
C. Hubs
D. Wireless Devices
E. WAN Emulation
F. End Devices
G. Connection
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1. Routers: -
o Routers are network devices that connect multiple
networks together and direct data packets between them. They operate at
Layer 3 (Network Layer) of the OSI model and use IP addresses to determine
the best path for
forwarding data. In Cisco Packet Tracer, routers are used to simulate inter-
network communication, routing
protocols (like RIP, OSPF, EIGRP), and to configure features such as NAT, DHCP,
and ACLs.

o 4331, 1941, 2901, 2911: Common Cisco Integrated Services Routers (ISRs)
known for their modularity and versatility.
o 819IDIX, 819HGWS, 829: Compact or industrial routers.
o 1240: An older router model, possibly representing an Aironet access point
acting as a router.
o PT-Router, PT-Empty: Generic Packet Tracer router models, useful for
basic simulations without specific hardware constraints.
o 1841, 2621XM, 2811: Legacy Cisco router models often used in networking
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labs for fundamental concepts.

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2. Switches: -
o Switches are used to connect multiple devices within the same network (LAN) and
forward data based on MAC addresses. They operate at Layer 2 (Data Link Layer),
although some models support Layer 3 switching. In Packet Tracer, switches are
essential for building LANs, configuring VLANs, trunking, and spanning tree
protocols.

o 2960: A common Cisco Catalyst 2960 series switch, typically a Layer 2 (data link
layer) switch used for connecting devices within a local area network (LAN).
o PT-Switch, PT-Empty: Generic Packet Tracer switch models, useful for basic switch
functionalities without specific hardware configurations.
o 3560-24PS, 3650-24PS: Cisco Catalyst switches, often with Power over Ethernet
(PoE) capabilities, used for more advanced LAN functionalities, sometimes including
Layer 3 (routing) capabilities.
o IE 2000: Cisco Industrial Ethernet 2000 series switch, designed for harsh
environments.
o PT-Bridge: A generic Packet Tracer bridge, an older device type that connects
network segments and forwards traffic based on MAC addresses.
o 2950-24, 2950T: Older Cisco Catalyst 2950 series switches.

3. Hubs: -

 Hubs are basic networking devices that connect multiple Ethernet devices, making
them act as a single network segment. Unlike switches, hubs operate at Layer 1
(Physical Layer) and broadcast all incoming data to all ports, which can cause
network congestion. Hubs are rarely used in modern networks but are available in
Packet Tracer for educational purposes.
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o PT-Hub: A generic Packet Tracer Hub. Hubs are basic network devices that
broadcast all incoming data to all connected devices. They operate at the physical
layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and don't make decisions about forwarding
traffic.
o PT-Repeater: A generic Packet Tracer Repeater. Repeaters are used to regenerate
and retransmit signals to extend the length of a network segment.
o Coaxial Splitter: A device used to split a coaxial cable signal, typically for
connecting multiple devices to a single coaxial line, like in cable TV or older
network setups.

4. Wireless Devices: -
o Wireless Devices allow devices to connect to a network without physical cables
using radio waves. They enable wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) connectivity and are essential
in simulating mobile networking environments in Packet Tracer.

o Meraki, LAP-PT, 3702i, WLC, 3504, 2504: These are various types of wireless
access points (APs) and Wireless LAN Controllers (WLCs). APs provide wireless
connectivity to end devices, while WLCs manage multiple access points centrally.
o Home Router: A common device found in homes that combines routing,
switching, and wireless access point functionalities.
o AP-PT, AP-PT-AC, AP-PT-N: Generic Packet Tracer Access Points, supporting
different Wi-Fi standards (e.g., 802.11ac, 802.11n).
o WRT300N: A specific model of wireless router.
o Home Gateway: Similar to a home router, combining multiple functions for home
networking.
o Cell Tower: A representation of a cellular base station, used for simulating
mobile network connectivity.
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o CD Server: A server potentially related to content delivery or network services

for wireless devices.

5. Wireless Devices: -
o Wireless Devices allow devices to connect to a network without physical cables
using radio waves. They enable wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) connectivity and are essential
in simulating mobile networking environments in Packet Tracer.

 Meraki, LAP-PT, 3702i, WLC, 3504, 2504: These are various types of wireless
access points (APs) and Wireless LAN Controllers (WLCs). APs provide wireless
connectivity to end devices, while WLCs manage multiple access points centrally.
o Home Router: A common device found in homes that combines routing,
switching, and wireless access point functionalities.
o AP-PT, AP-PT-AC, AP-PT-N: Generic Packet Tracer Access Points, supporting
different Wi-Fi standards (e.g., 802.11ac, 802.11n).
o WRT300N: A specific model of wireless router.
o Home Gateway: Similar to a home router, combining multiple functions for home
networking.
o Cell Tower: A representation of a cellular base station, used for simulating
mobile network connectivity.
o CD Server: A server potentially related to content delivery or network services
for wireless devices.

6. WAN Emulation: -
o WAN Emulation devices are used to simulate Wide Area Network (WAN)
connectivity in Packet Tracer. These devices act as intermediaries between local
networks and the internet or remote networks.

o Cloud-PT: Acts as a simulated ISP or internet cloud.

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o DSL Modem: Used to simulate DSL broadband connections.

o Cable Modem: Used for cable internet simulation.

7. End Devices: -
o End Devices are the clients or nodes in a network that use or consume network
services. These devices generate and receive data and include computers, phones,
servers, and more.

o PC: A personal computer.

o Laptop: A portable computer.
o Server: A dedicated computer that provides services to other devices on the network
(e.g., web server, file server).
o Netal Server: Likely a specific type of server or a server with Network Attached
Storage (NAS) capabilities.
o Network Controller: A device used to manage and automate network devices.
o Printer: A network-enabled printer.

o IP Phone: A telephone that uses Voice over IP (VoIP) technology.

o VoIP Device: A generic Voice over IP device.
o TV: A network-enabled television.
o Tablet: A tablet computer.
o Smart Phone: A smartphone.
o Generic Wireless: A generic wireless end device.
o Generic Wired: A generic wired end device.

8. Connections: -
o Connections represent the physical or logical cabling used to connect devices in a
network. Each type of connection in Packet Tracer is color-coded and must be used
appropriately based on the devices being connected.
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o Console Cable (Blue): Connects PC to router/switch for CLI access.

o Opper Straight-through Cable (Black): Used between different devices (e.g., PC
to switch).
o Copper Cross-over Cable (Red): Used between similar devices (e.g., switch to
switch).
o Fiber Optic Cable (Purple): Used for high-speed connections between fiber-
compatible devices.
o Serial DCE/DTE Cable (Light Blue): Used for WAN connections between routers.
o Phone Cable (Gray): Used for analog voice setups or DSL modems.
o Coaxial Cable: Used with cable modems.

Commands used in connection of Network: -

1. Hostname: -
a. A hostname is a label or name assigned to a device (host) on a computer
network. It is used to identify the device uniquely on a network and is often
used in place of IP addresses to make systems easier to locate and
communicate with.
b. IP addresses are hard to remember (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
c. Hostnames (like laptop01, server.local, www.google.com) are more human-
readable.
d. Hostnames are mapped to IP addresses using DNS (Domain Name System).

2. Ping: -
a. Ping (Packet Internet Groper) is a network utility used to test the
reachability of a host (such as a computer, router, or website) over an IP
network. It also measures the round-trip time (RTT) for messages sent from
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the origin to the destination and back.

b. It is one of the most basic and commonly used diagnostic tools for checking
the health of a network connection.

3. Ipconfig
a. This networking commands is used to the IP configuration details.
This command provides you the details like IPv4 address ,Subnet
Mask or Default Gateway.
b. Subnet mask-It can be understood as the boundary of our internet
connection.
c. Default Gateway-It is the address of the router to which our
computer first hits when the device we want to connect is out of
our local network.
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4. ipconfig /all
a. This command can be understood as the updated version of the
ipconfig command. This command tells us the physical address of
our device. It tells us various details of our computer such as
IPv4,IPv6 default Gateway ,subnet mask
,also it tells to which devices our device is connected
,configuration details of the devices to which are devices are
connected.

b. It also tells us about the DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol)-The main use of DHCP is to automatically assign IP
addresses to our devices .

5. Nslookup
a. This command is use to transform the given searched words into
their corresponding IP addresses. Such as if i
search for geeks for geeks website then our browser don't search for
geeks for geeks. It search's the corresponding IP address associated
to the geeksforgeeks site.
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6. Tracert
a. This command can be understood as trace root. Which tells that our
computer reaches or hits which-which server for reaching the
particular root. Here again we will search for geeksforgeeks site and
it tells us the path taken by our computer to reach the root server. It
tells us in maximum of 30 hops (30 node to node delivery).

7. Netstat
a. It is a command line tool that is identify and display the
connections and ports connected to our computer when we write
netstat command on CLI(Command Line Interface).
b. It tells us active connections with our computer and it tells us local address
,foreign address and the state of the device.
c. In local address first 8 digits specify the local address of our
computer and and last 5 digits tells the port number to which our
computer is connected.
d. In netstat command there are various subcommands such as
netstat -n, netstat -a,netstat -b, netstat -f.
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EVALUATION:

Problem Analysis Understanding Timely Mock Total

& Solution Level Completion
(2) (10)
(3) (3) (2)

Signature with date:-

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Practical-3: -

Aim: - Introduction to all Network Topologies in Computer Networks and

implement with Cisco Packet Tracker.
Introduction about Topologies:
A computer network topology refers to the arrangement or layout of computers, cables,
switches, and other network devices in a network. It defines how devices are interconnected
and how data flows between them. The topology affects the performance, reliability, and
scalability of a network.

Types of Topologies: -

There are mainly 7 types of Topologies that we have to learn here: -

1. Point-to-Point Topology
2. Bus Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Ring Topology
7. Hybrid Topology
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1. Point-to-Point Topology: -
a. Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of
the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes,
in which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to- Point
provides high bandwidth.

b. Advantages: -
i. Simple to establish and configure, as it involves a direct connection
between two devices.
ii. High data transfer speed because data travels on dedicated link
without any interference.
iii. Easy to detect and troubleshoot errors since only two devices are
involved.
c. Disadvantages: -
i. Not scalable, as it supports only two devices directly.
ii. Limited in application, unsuitable for large network or multiple device
connections.
iii. If the link fails, the entire communication between the two devices
is lost.

2. Bus Topology
a. Bus topology carries transmitted data through the cable because data
reaches each node, the node checks the destination address (MAC/IP
address) to determine if it matches their address. If the address does not
match with the node, the node does nothing more. But if the addresses of
nodes match to addresses contained within the data then they process
knowledge. In the bus, communication between nodes is done through a
foremost network cable.
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b. Advantages: -
i. Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus- based networks
that support up to 10 Mbps.
ii. The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it
is used to build small networks.
iii. Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
c. Disadvantages: -
i. A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of
cabling.
ii. If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
iii. Security is very low.

3. Star Topology
a. In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables
are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet
LAN protocols are used as CD (Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

Advantages: -
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
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 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Disadvantages: -
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.

4. Mesh Topology
a. In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel. Every device is connected to another via dedicated
channels. These channels are known as links. In Mesh Topology, the protocols
used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

b. Advantages: -
i. Communication is very fast between the nodes.
ii. Mesh topology is robust.
iii. The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
c. Disadvantages: -
i. Installation and configuration are difficult.
ii. The cost of cables is high as bult wiring is required, hence suitable for
less number of devices.
iii. The cost of maintenance is high.
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5. Tree Topology
a. Tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom or bottom to
top hub. It is a multi- point connection and a non-robust topology because if
the backbone fails the topology crashes.

b. Advantages: -
i. We can add new devices to the existing network.
ii. Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
iii. It allows the network to get isolated and also
prioritize from different computers.
c. Disadvantages: -
i. If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
ii. The cost is high because of the cabling.
iii. If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

6. Ring Topology
a. In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighbouring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring Topology with
a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to last
node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters
are used in network.
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b. Advantages: -
i. The data transmission is high-speed.
ii. The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
iii. Cheap to install and expand.
c. Disadvantages: -
i. The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire
network to fail.
ii. Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
iii. Less secure.

7. Hybrid Topology
a. Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we
have studied above. Hybrid topology is used when the nodes are free to take
any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology
or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each
individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

b. Advantages: -
i. This topology is very flexible.
ii. The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
c. Disadvantages: -
i. It is challenging to design the architecture of the hybrid network.
ii. Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
iii. The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot
of cabling and network devices.
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Implementation of different Topologies with the using of Cisco Packet Tracer: -

Bus Topology
S.No. Device Model-Name
1. PC PC
2. Switch 2960-Switch

IP Addressing Table:
S.No. Device IPv4 Address Subnet Mask
1 Pc0 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
2 Pc1 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
3 Pc2 10.0.0.3 255.0.0.0
4 Pc3 10.0.0.4 255.0.0.0
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Star Topology

S.No. Device Model-Name

1. PC PC
2. Switch 2960-Swtich

IP Addressing Table:
S.No. Device IPv4 Address Subnet Mask
1 Pc0 1.1.1.1 255.0.0.0
2 Pc1 1.1.1.2 255.0.0.0
3 Pc2 1.1.1.3 255.0.0.0
4 Pc3 1.1.1.4 255.0.0.0
5 Pc4 1.1.1.5 255.0.0.0
6 Pc5 1.1.1.6 255.0.0.0
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Mesh Topology

S.No. Device Model-Name

1. PC PC
2. Switch PT-Switch
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IP Addressing Table:
S.No. Device IPv4 Address Subnet Mask
1 Pc0 1.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
2 Pc1 1.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
3 Pc2 1.0.0.3 255.0.0.0
4 Pc3 1.0.0.4 255.0.0.0
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Tree Topology

S.No. Device Model-Name

1. PC PC
2. Switch PT-Swtich

IP Addressing Table:
S.No. Device IPv4 Address Subnet Mask
1 Pc0 2.2.2.1 255.0.0.0
2 Pc1 2.2.2.2 255.0.0.0
3 Pc2 2.2.2.3 255.0.0.0
4 Pc3 2.2.2.4 255.0.0.0
5 Pc4 2.2.2.5 255.0.0.0
6 Pc5 2.2.2.6 255.0.0.0
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EXERCISE:

1) Create and draw the LAN of 10 computers using Class C Address.

2) Connect and draw two LAN (Each of having 6 Computers) with each other using class B
Address.

3) List out different types of transmission media with all its subcategories and explain each
in brief.

EVALUATION:

Problem Analysis Understanding Timely Mock Total

& Solution Level Completion
(2) (10)
(3) (3) (2)

Signature with date:-

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