Observation
2) OBSERVATIONL METHOD
Definition;
For certain research problems, an alternative to self-reports
is observation of people’s behavior or characteristics.
Observation can be done directly through the human
senses or with the aid of technical apparatus, such as
video equipment.
- Observational methods are techniques for acquiring data
through the direct observation of phenomena.
– observational technique varies along a continuum from
tightly structured procedures to loosely structured and
unstructured procedures.
- Whenever people cannot be expected to describe
adequately their own behaviors, observational methods
may be needed ex. Manifesting preoperative symptoms
of anxiety.
Suitable data for observational methods;
Observational methods can be used to gather a
variety of information, including information on;
1. Characteristics and conditions of individuals for
example, the sleep/wake state of patients
2. Verbal communication behaviors such as
exchange of information at change of shift
report.
3. Nonverbal communication behaviors such as
facial expressions;
4. Activities and events such as geriatric patients'
self grooming activities.
5. Environmental conditions such as architectural
barriers in the homes of disabled people.
6. Skill attainment and performance; that attainment
of nurses daily skills is often manifested
behaviorally and observational assessment is
appropriate. e.g., nurse observe the ability of
diabetic patient to test their urine for sugar and
acetone.
Some observational problems????
There are some ethical difficulties and distorted
behavior on the part of study participants when they are
aware of being observed as reactivity
Reactivity can be eliminated if the observation are
made without people’s knowledge through some type of
concealment, however it make difficult to obtain truly
informed consent.
Another problem is observer biases???????
There are a number of factors interfere with objective
observation as:
- Emotions, values and attitudes of observers may result in
faulty inference
- Personal interest & commitment may color what is
seen in the direction of what observers want to see
- Anticipation of what is to be observed may effect
what is observed
- Hasty decisions before adequate information is
collected may results in error classification or
conclusions
Observational biases probably cannot be eliminated
completely, but they can be minimized through
careful training.
The role of the observer;
The observer could be a participant or a non-
participant observer.
a. Participant observer; the researcher her
becomes a member of the group or institution that
is under investigation. The objective here is to
obtain a depth of the experience that is not
available by watching only. Later on the researcher
makes a process of recording
The role of observer-participant role:
The observers role evolves through a sequence of
four phases;
1. Primarily observation: the initial phase in which
the researcher observe and listen to those under
the study to obtain abroad view of the situation.
This phase allow both observer and observed to
"size up", more comfortable in interacting.
2. Primarily observation with some participation;
observation is enhanced by a modest degree of
participation. As the researcher participate more
actively in the activities of the social group the
reaction of people to specific researcher behavior
can be more systematically studied.
3. Primarily participation with observation: the
researcher strive to become more active
participant, learning by the actual experience by
doing rather than just by listen and watching .
4. Reflective observation: the researcher reflect on
the total process of what transpired and how
people interacted with the researcher.
b. Non-participant observer: here the researcher
stay away from participation and observe only
without any interaction with those who are being
observed. The objective here is to obtain more
objective data.
In both cases the observed persons may or may
note be a ware.
Types of observational methods;
The observational methods can vary in the
degree of structure the researcher imposes. There
are structured and unstructured observational
techniques.
a. Unstructured observational method
Definition; it is an observation that proceeds
without a previous structure for recording and
encoding the observed information. Consequently it
involve the collection of extensive amount of
data (descriptive information) that is analyzed in a
qualitative rather than quantitative fishier.
The aims unstructured observational method :
1. The aim of qualitative research to understand the
behavior and experience of people as they occur
naturally in naturalistic setting.
2. The aim of the researcher is to observe and
record information about people and their
environment with a minimum structure and
researcher interference.
Gathering Unstructured observational data:
1. In the initial phase of naturalistic observational
inquiry.
2. It is also useful to gather some written and
pictorial descriptive information that provide overview
of the environment. e.g., in an institutional setting obtain
organizational chart or annual report in community studies
use of "map".
3.The next step is identifying a meaningful way to sample
observation and to select observational location.
- Sampling by time and by event are common
strategies for observational sampling.
In selecting observational location it is useful to
use a combination of positioning approach ( single
position, multiple position, mobile position).
Single position: means staying in a single location
for a period to observe behavior and transaction in
that location.
Multiple position: involve moving around the site to
observe behavior from different location.
Mobile position: following a person throughout
giving activity or period because participant
observer can not spend a life time in one site and
because they cannot in more than one place at a
time.
Observation is almost always supplemented with
information obtained in unstructured interviews or
conversation. e.g., an informant may be asked to
describe what were on a meeting that the observer
was unable to attend or asked for the event that
occurred before the observer enter the field. In this
case the informant function as the observer
observation.
Methods:
Participant observation; in this technique as
mentioned before the researcher participates in the
functioning of a group that is to be observed.
During that he must keep detailed mental notes that
can be later put on paper or recorded on tape
(recording process).
Aspect that the participant observer must be
considered:
1)The physical setting:
What are the main feature of the physical setting? What is
the context which human behavior unfold?
2) The participant:
What are the characteristics of the people being observed?
How many people are there?
3) Activities and interaction:
What are the participant doing? What method do they use
to communicate?
4) Frequency and duration:
When did the activity begin? How much time is elapsed? Is
the activity is recurring?
5) Intangible factor:
Are the participant saying one thing verbally but
communicating other message nonverbally? What type of
thing were disruptive to the activity or situation?
6) Precipitating factors. Why is the event or
interaction happening? What contributes to how
the events or interaction unfold?
7) Organization. How is the event or interaction
organized? How are relationships structured?
What norms or rules are in operation?
Recording unstructured information:
The most common form of record keeping in
participant observation and other unstructured
observational studies such as; log, Field notes,
Observational notes, Theoretical notes, and
Methodological notes.
b. Structured observation
Definition; It is an observational method that imposes a
number of constraints upon the observer for the purpose
of maximizing observer's accuracy and objectivity and for
obtaining on adequate representation of the phenomena
of interest. Structured technique depend on plans
developed before the actual observation.
Categories and checklist : see example
Consideration in using category systems:-
One of the most important requirement of a category
system is the careful and explicit definition of the behavior
and characteristics.
Each category should be explained in details with an
operational definition. So that, the observer will have
relatively clear cut criteria for assessing the occurrence of
the phenomena in questions. For example PCS acuity
patient.
e.g., observing aggressive behavior of autistic
children.
We might develop such categories as :-
▪strikes another child
▪kicks or hit walls or floor
▪calls other children names
▪throws objects around the room
All non aggressive behavior would not be classified
or observed, so, non exhaustive systems are
adequate for many research purposes.
The observer's task is to watch for instances of behavior
on the list, when the behavior occur the observer either:
place a check mark beside the appropriate behavior,
or
make accumulative tally of the number of times the
behavior was witnessed.
e.g., describing patients' ability to perform selected
activities of daily living.
Activity frequency
Eating behaviors
Eats with hands
Eats with spoon
Cuts soft food
Cuts meat.
Hygiene
Wash hands or extremities.
Brushy teeth.
Cleans fingernails
Shave
Rating scales:-
The observer is require to rate some phenomenon
in terms of points along a descriptive continuum.
Rating scales normally are used in one of two ways
; the observer rating of behavior or events at
frequent intervals.
Summarize an entire event or transaction after the
observation is completed.
e.g., the observer might be asked to rate the
perceived anxiety level of the nursing staff in each
unit as a whole.
The rating scale might take the following form:-
▪Extremely relaxed
▪Rather relaxed
▪Somewhat relaxed
▪Neither relaxed nor tense.
▪Someone tense.
▪Rather tense.
▪Extremely tense.
The same information could be solicited using a graphic rating
scale format:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extremely neither relaxed Extremely
Relaxed nor tense tense
❑Structured observational instruments:
The developing testing, refining, and retesting of
a new category scheme or rating scale may
require weeks or even months of effort,
particularly if the system is intended to be used in
a variety of setting and with the variety of
subjects.
In some cases, the researcher may have no
alternative to design new observational instrument.
e.g., the researcher may investigating new area or
may be expanding an area of inquiring with a new
population, for when existing tools may be
inappropriate.
Structured observation by non research
personnel:
Another form of observational data gathering
method provide more global information about the
characteristics, activities, and behavior of
individuals by asking non research personnel to
record information about another person or group.
Person describe the attributes and behaviors of
people other than himself or herself.
e.g., mother might be asked to describe the
temperament of her infant.
The advantage of structured observation by non
research personnel :-
That is economical method compared with trained
observers.
Tips for gathering observational data:-
▪ Observers ideally should view the behaviors and
events under observation in and non judgment
fashion.
▪ The adequate training and preparation of
observer is essential to the collection of high-
quality observational data.
▪ Ideally, training should include practice sessions
during which the comparability of the observer's
recording is assessed.
▪ With both structured and unstructured method of
observation it is usually useful to spend a period of
time with study participants before the actual
observation and recording of data.
Advantages of observational methods :
1. There are many problems that are better suited to
an observational approach than self-report
techniques such as when people are embarrassed
to report their activities e.g. display of aggression or
hostility.
2. With observation technique the researcher has
the ability to directly capture a record of behaviors
and events.
3. There are no others methods of data collection
that can provide the depth and variety of
information as observation.
Disadvantages;
1. There is possible ethical difficulty due to lack of
consent to being observed.
2. Vulnerability of observational data to biases.
There are many factors that can interferes
with objective observation include.
▪ Emotions, attitudes, and values of the observer
may result in faulty inference.
▪ Anticipation of what is to be observed may
affect what is observed.
3. Reactivity of participants. Reactivity can be
eliminated if the observations are made without
people’s knowledge, however, make it difficult to
obtain truly informed consent.
