SEMINAR I (Koval Karyna, INI-31)

WORD-FORMATION IN MODERN ENGLISH

1)What is the minimal unit of language? The word. The morpheme. Types of morphemes.
Inflection and derivation. The root morphemes and the affixation morphemes. Free and bound
morphemes. Allomorphs. Structural types of words: simple, derived/complex, compound.
The morphological structure of a word refers to how a word is built from smaller meaningful
elements. These elements are called morphemes, which are the minimal units of meaning in a
language. While words are often thought of as the smallest units of language, it is the morpheme
that holds the title for being the smallest grammatical unit that carries meaning.
Morphemes are broadly divided into:
Root morphemes – the core part of a word that carries the primary lexical meaning. Example:
friend in friendship.
Affixational morphemes – added to roots to modify meaning or function. They include:
prefixes (e.g., un- in unhappy), suffixes (e.g., -ness in kindness), infixes (rare in English).
Inflectional morphemes modify a word’s grammatical form without changing its class or core
meaning. Examples: walk → walks, happy → happier.
Derivational morphemes create new words by changing the word class or meaning. Examples:
beauty → beautiful, read → reader.
Free morphemes can stand alone as words (e.g., book, run). Bound morphemes cannot stand
alone and must attach to a root (e.g., -ed, un-).
An allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme that appears in different phonological or
morphological contexts. Example: the plural morpheme -s in cats [s], dogs [z], and horses [ɪz] –
all are allomorphs of the plural morpheme.

Words can be classified based on their morphological complexity:

Simple words – consist of a single morpheme, usually a free morpheme (e.g., book, dog).
Derived/Complex words – formed by adding derivational affixes to a root (e.g., happiness,
unfriendly). Compound words – formed by joining two or more roots (free morphemes) (e.g.,
railway, toothbrush).

2)The concept of productivity. Productive means of word-formation.

Productivity in word-formation refers to the ability of a morphological process to create new

words that are accepted and used by speakers of a language.

A productive process is one that is actively used in modern English to form new words. A non-
productive process may still exist in the language but is no longer used to create new terms
(e.g., old suffixes like -th in depth).
Productive Word-Formation Processes in English:

1. Affixation (adding prefixes and suffixes) → unhappy, reader

2. Compounding (joining two or more roots) → toothbrush, greenhouse

3. Conversion (zero derivation) → to email (verb) from email (noun)

4. Shortening / Clipping → exam (from examination)

5. Blending → brunch (breakfast + lunch)

6. Back-formation → editor → edit

7. Reduplication (limited) → ping-pong, chit-chat

3)Affixation. Definition and general characteristics of suffixes and prefixes. Prefixes, principles
of classification of prefixes. Semantics of prefixes. Suffixes, classification of suffixes according
to: a) the word class formed, b) the meaning, с) stylistic reference, d) origin.
Productive and non-productive affixes, productivity vs. frequency of affixes.
Affixation is the process of adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to a root to form new words.
Prefixes occur before the root (e.g., un- in unfair). Suffixes occur after the root (e.g., -ness in
kindness). Prefixes typically do not change word class. Suffixes often change the word class
(noun → verb, adjective → noun, etc.).

Prefixes:

Principles of Classification:

1. By origin:
o Native: un-, mis-, out-

o Foreign (mainly Latin/Greek): pre-, post-, trans-

2. By productivity:

o Productive: un-, re-, dis-

o Semi-productive: counter-, under-

o Non-productive: arch-, vice-

3. By meaning (semantics):

o Negation: un- (unfair), in- (inactive)

o Reversal: dis- (disagree), de- (devalue)

o Repetition: re- (rewrite)

o Degree/intensity: over- (overcook), under- (underrate)

 o Time/Order: pre- (prewar), post- (postmodern)

o Position/Direction: sub-, inter-, trans-

Suffixes:

Classification by:

a) Word Class Formed:

 Noun-forming: -ness (kindness), -er (teacher), -tion (creation)

 Adjective-forming: -ful (beautiful), -less (hopeless)

 Verb-forming: -ize (realize), -en (strengthen)

 Adverb-forming: -ly (quickly)

b) Meaning:

 Agent/doer: -er (writer)

 State/quality: -ness (softness), -ity (curiosity)

 Action/result: -ment (development), -tion (completion)

c) Stylistic Reference:

 Neutral: -ness, -ly, -er

 Formal/learned: -ity, -tion

 Colloquial/Diminutive: -y/-ie (doggy, sweetie)

d) Origin:

 Native: -ness, -hood, -ful

 Latin/Greek: -ity, -tion, -ism

Productive Affixes: actively form new words (e.g., un-, -ness, -er). Non-Productive Affixes:
found in older or inherited words but rarely used to coin new terms (e.g., -th in warmth, -en in
widen).

An affix can be frequent in the language but not productive (e.g., -th appears in many
words but is not used to form new ones). Productivity is about the ability to form new
acceptable words, not just how often an affix appears.

4)Compounding. Types of stems. Classification of compound words. Types of derivational

compounds. Their structural patterns.

Compounding is the process of creating a new word by combining two or more stems, which
can be free morphemes or roots.
Types of Stems in Compounding:

 Noun + Noun: toothbrush, football

 Adjective + Noun: blackboard, greenhouse

 Verb + Noun: swearword

 Noun + Verb: handshake

 Adjective + Adjective: bitter-sweet

 Adverb + Verb: overcook

Classification of Compound Words:

a) By Structure:

 Closed (solid): toothpaste

 Hyphenated: mother-in-law

 Open (separate): ice cream

b) By Meaning:

 Endocentric: the compound denotes a subtype of the head (policeman = a type of man)
 Exocentric: meaning does not relate directly to components (pickpocket)

 Copulative: both elements are equal (bittersweet)

c) By Function:

 Noun compounds: bookstore, sunroof

 Adjective compounds: part-time, high-quality

 Verb compounds: to babysit

Types of Derivational Compounds:

Derivational compounds combine compounding and affixation. They include:

 Agentive nouns: honeymooner (honeymoon + -er), holiday-maker

 Adjectival compounds: narrow-minded, single-minded

 Others: bare-legged, old-timer, pencil-sharpener.

Structural Patterns of Derivational Compounds:

Structure Example
Compound noun + suffix honeymoon + -er
Compound adj + suffix open-hearted + -ed
Noun + participle + suffix pencil-sharpener
Adj + noun + ness single-mindedness
 MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH LEXEMES

I. Comment on structural types of words. Arrange the following words into (a) simple; (b)
derived; (c) compounds; (d) derivational compounds:

Teenager, ill-mannered, railway, childish, bald-headed, toy, deaf, deaf-mute, act, actor, friend,
friendship, boyishness, everything, open-hearted, old, old-timer, normal, honeymooner, bare-
legged, pencil-sharpener, meltdown, outsmart, single-mindedness, disgruntled.

Simple Words (contain only one free morpheme, no affixes or compounds):

 toy
 deaf

 act

 friend

 old

 normal

Derived Words (root + derivational affix):

 childish (child + -ish)

 actor (act + -or)

 friendship (friend + -ship)

 boyishness (boy + -ish + -ness)

 disgruntled (dis- + gruntle + -ed)

Compounds (two free morphemes joined):

 railway (rail + way)

 deaf-mute (deaf + mute)

 everything (every + thing)

 meltdown (melt + down)

 outsmart (out + smart)

Derivational Compounds (compound base + derivational affix):

 teenager (teen + age + -er)

 ill-mannered (ill + manner + -ed)

 bald-headed (bald + head + -ed)

 open-hearted (open + heart + -ed)

 old-timer (old + time + -er)

  honeymooner (honeymoon + -er)

 bare-legged (bare + leg + -ed)

 pencil-sharpener (pencil + sharpen + -er)

 single-mindedness (single + mind + -ed + -ness)

II. Comment on the inflectional and derivational functions of suffix –s if added to the following
nouns:
Duty, custom, direction, power, humanity, picture, honor, color, development, work, talk.

The suffix –s can serve two functions:

1. Inflectional –s

Used to form plural nouns (countable), third person singular present tense verbs .

Plural Examples: duties, customs, pictures, colors, honors, talks, developments, works (as
in tasks), directions (routes), powers (abilities or authorities)

These are grammatical changes; they do not create new lexemes.

2. Derivational –s

In some cases, –s forms a new word with a new meaning, not just plural:

Derivational Examples:

 works – can mean a factory or literary/artistic output (e.g., complete works of

Shakespeare)
 colors – can mean a flag (e.g., military colors)

 honors – academic distinctions or official awards

 customs – border control authorities, not just multiple customs

 powers – supernatural abilities or political authorities

 talks – negotiations, not just instances of talking

These are lexical changes, meaning the word acquires a new semantic identity.

AFFIXATION

III. Classify the following prefixes into (A) 1. native; 2. foreign; (B) 1. productive; 2. semi-
productive; 3. non-productive: a-, ante-, arch-, be-, circum-, counter-, de-, dis-, ex-, mis-, ob-,
out-, post-, retro-, trans-, ultra-, un-, under-, vice-.
Prefix A) Origin B) Productivity Example
amoral,
a- Foreign Non-productive
apolitical
antebellum,
ante- Foreign Semi-productive
antenatal
 Prefix A) Origin B) Productivity Example
archenemy,
arch- Foreign Non-productive
archduke
bewitch,
be- Native Semi-productive
befriend
circum- Foreign Non-productive circumnavigate
counterattack,
counter- Foreign Semi-productive
counterbalance
deactivate,
de- Foreign Productive
defrost
dislike,
dis- Foreign Productive
disconnect
ex-president,
ex- Foreign Productive
ex-wife
misunderstand,
mis- Native Productive
misuse
obstruct,
ob- Foreign Non-productive
obscure
outrun,
out- Native Productive
outsmart
postwar,
post- Foreign Productive
postgraduate
retrospective,
retro- Foreign Semi-productive
retrograde
transatlantic,
trans- Foreign Semi-productive
transport
ultramodern,
ultra- Foreign Semi-productive
ultrafast
un- Native Productive unhappy, undo
underestimate,
under- Native Productive
underpaid
vice- Foreign Non-productive vice-president

IV. Comment on the meaning of the prefixes in the words below:

Afloat, redo, disband, uncomfortable, unarm, anew, apolitical, disobey, revisit, reunite,
disconnect, unsafe.
Word Prefix Meaning of Prefix Overall Word Meaning
floating; being on the water or surviving
afloat a- in a state or condition
financially
redo re- again, repetition to do again
disband dis- reversal, separation to break up an organization or group
uncomfortable un- negation, opposite not comfortable
unarm un- reversal, removal to take away weapons
in a new or different
anew a- again, from a new beginning
way
apolitical a- absence, lack of not interested or involved in politics
disobey dis- negation, opposition to not obey
revisit re- again, repetition to visit again (literally or metaphorically)
reunite re- again, back to come together again
disconnect dis- reversal, separation to break a connection
 Word Prefix Meaning of Prefix Overall Word Meaning
unsafe un- negation, opposite not safe

V. Add a prefix with the meaning of oppositeness, negation, etc. to these (there may be more than
one):
Able, literate, reasonable, sense, to function, proper, believer, to inform, certain, accurate,
capable, to behave, regular, to wrap, respective, official, standard, smoker, to translate, apt,
nourished.
Prefix(es)
Base Word Negative Form(s)
Used
able unable, inable (rare) un-, (in-)
literate illiterate il-
reasonable unreasonable un-
sense nonsense, senseless non-, (less)
to function malfunction, dysfunction mal-, dys-
proper improper im-
believer nonbeliever, disbeliever non-, dis-
to inform misinform mis-
certain uncertain un-
accurate inaccurate in-
capable incapable in-
to behave misbehave mis-
regular irregular ir-
to wrap unwrap un-
respective irrespective ir-
official unofficial, nonofficial un-, non-
nonstandard,
standard non-, sub-
substandard
smoker nonsmoker non-
to translate mistranslate mis-
apt inapt, unapt (rare) in-, un-
malnourished, mal-,
nourished
undernourished under-

VI. Classify the following –er nouns into: (a) agent-nouns; (b) nouns denoting things which do
what the stem denotes; (c) nouns denoting persons who live in a certain locality.
Dancer, reader, announcer, New-Yorker, offender, owner, footballer, villager, free-thinker,
cutter.
Noun Category
dancer (a) Agent-noun
reader (a) Agent-noun
announcer (a) Agent-noun
(c) Locality-based
New-Yorker
noun
offender (a) Agent-noun
owner (a) Agent-noun
footballer (a) Agent-noun
(c) Locality-based
villager
noun
free-thinker (a) Agent-noun
 Noun Category
(a)/(b) Agent and
cutter
instrument

VII. Form (other) nouns from the words below by using the suffixes -hood, -age, -ment, -ship, -
(i)ty, -(e)ry:
Nourish, parent, curious, nurse, break, minor, brutal, brew, dentist, guardian, orphan,
bachelor, complex, penman, encourage, sterile, short, pot.
parent → parenthood
minor → minorhood
bachelor → bachelorhood
orphan → orphanhood

break → breakage
brew → brewage
pot → potage

nourish → nourishment
encourage → encouragement
brutal → brutalment

guardian → guardianship
dentist → dentistship
penman → penmanship

curious → curiosity
sterile → sterility
complex → complexity
brutal → brutality

nurse → nursery
brew → brewery
dentist → dentistry
short → shortage
VIII. Form diminutive nouns with the help of the following suffixes: -let, -kin, -ling, -y/-ey/-ie, -
ette/-et:
Book, duck, aunt, cigar, wolf, seed, dog, kitchen, drop, prince, girl, first.
Meaning /
Base Word Diminutive Suffix Used
Note
book booklet -let a small book
duck duckling -ling a baby duck
affectionate
aunt auntie / aunty -ie / -y
form of aunt
cigar cigarette -ette a small cigar
playful,
wolf wolfie -ie affectionate
form
a small seed
seed seedlet -let
(rare, poetic)
affectionate
dog doggy / doggie -y / -ie
form of dog
kitchen kitchenette -ette a small
 Meaning /
Base Word Diminutive Suffix Used
Note
kitchen
drop droplet -let a tiny drop
a young or
prince princeling -ling petty prince
(often literary)
diminutive or
girl girlie / girly -ie / -y informal, may
be stylized
the first-born
first firstling -ling or first of a
kind (rare)

IX. Give the corresponding words denoting living beings of the female sex:
hero, bull, duke, prince, bachelor, king, monk, nephew, mister, actor, doctor, god, widower, tsar,
bridegroom, count, cock, gander, horse, host, tiger.
Masculine Feminine
hero heroine
bull cow
duke duchess
prince princess
spinster (traditional) / single
bachelor
woman (modern)
king queen
monk nun
nephew niece
mister miss / ms / mrs (contextual)
actress (though “actor” is now
actor
often used for all genders)
female doctor (no special feminine
doctor
form; profession is gender-neutral)
god goddess
widower widow
tsar tsarina (or czarina)
bridegroom bride
count countess
cock hen
gander goose
horse mare
hostess (though “host” is now often
host
gender-neutral)
tiger tigress

X. Form adjectives from the names of these countries:

Africa, Canada, Germany, Iraq, Iran, Poland, France, Azerbaijan, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,
Thailand, Egypt, Ireland, Singapore, Malaysia, Qatar, the Netherlands, Tajikistan, Spain.
Country Adjective
Africa African
Canada Canadian
 Country Adjective
Germany German
Iraq Iraqi
Iran Iranian
Poland Polish
France French
Azerbaijan Azerbaijani
Japan Japanese
Saudi (Saudi
Saudi Arabia
Arabian)
Pakistan Pakistani
Thailand Thai
Egypt Egyptian
Ireland Irish
Singapore Singaporean
Malaysia Malaysian
Qatar Qatari
The Netherlands Dutch
Tajik
Tajikistan
(Tajikistani)
Spain Spanish

XI. Comment on the homonymy of the following suffixes: -ish, -ly, -en:

Flatten, greyish, darken, British, weekly, thoughtfully, childish, fatherly, sevenish, neighborly,
kindly, flaxen, moisten, boldly, Finnish, widen, fortyish, silken.
Word Meaning
boldly in a bold manner (adverb)
thoughtfully in a thoughtful way (adverb)
fatherly like a father (adjective)
friendly/helpful like a neighbor
neighborly
(adj)
gentle, benevolent (adj OR adv
kindly
depending on use)
flatten to make flat (verb)
darken to make dark
moisten to make moist
widen to make wide
made of flax, pale yellow
flaxen
(adjective)
made of silk, soft and smooth
silken
(adjective)
British nationality adjective (from Britain)
greyish somewhat grey
childish like a child, often pejorative
sevenish approximately at seven o’clock
fortyish around forty in age
Finnish nationality adjective (from Finland)
 COMPOSITION (COMPOUNDING)

XII. Arrange the following into compounds and free word-groups:

Punctuation mark, excellent mark, top mark, birthmark, burn mark; material comforts,
creature comforts, rear seat comfort, comfort zone;
whale bones, whaleboat, whalebone, killer whale, whale killer;
bright side, winning side, riverside, soft side, downside;
silver platter, silver spoon, silver bullet;
bear market, bear hug, bear tracks, bear sightings, bearskin.
Free
Compounds Word-
Groups
excellent
punctuation mark
mark
birthmark top mark
material
burn mark
comforts
rear seat
creature comforts
comfort
comfort zone whale bones
whale killer
whaleboat
(contextual)
whalebone bright side
winning
killer whale
side
riverside soft side
silver
downside
platter
bear
silver spoon
sightings
silver bullet
bear market
bear hug
bearskin
(depends on
bear tracks (semi-fixed)
context)

XIII. Arrange the following compounds into compounds proper and derivational compounds:

Old-timer, honeymooner, food stamp, narrow-minded, late arrival, holiday-maker, mean-

spirited, wide-eyed, bushy-tailed, straight shooter, cranberries, cutting-edge, state-of-the-art,
tour de force.
Derivational
Compounds Proper
Compounds
food stamp old-timer
late arrival honeymooner
straight shooter holiday-maker
narrow-
cranberries
minded
cutting-edge mean-spirited
 Derivational
Compounds Proper
Compounds
state-of-the-art wide-eyed
tour de force bushy-tailed

XIV. Identify compounds in which semantic integrity is idiomatic in character:

Blueprint, bluestocking, Bluetooth;

Dogleg, doghouse, dog collar, dog-eared, dog days, dogfight
Ladybird, ladies’ man, lady-in-waiting;
Wall-eyed, wall painting, wallpaper, wall-to-wall;
Homework, homeschooling, home front, home loan, home truth, home base, homespun.

Idiomatic Compounds (non-literal meaning):

Technology & Figurative Use

 Blueprint – not just a literal blue print, but a detailed plan or design.
 Bluestocking – refers to an intellectual or literary woman, not literally a stocking.

 Bluetooth – a wireless technology, unrelated to the literal color or tooth.

Animals with Non-Literal Meaning

 Dogleg – a sharp bend, typically in a road or golf course, not a dog’s leg.
 Dog days – refers to the hottest part of summer, not about dogs.

 Dogfight – an aerial battle, not dogs fighting.

 Dog-eared – describes folded page corners, not ears of a dog.

 Ladybird – an insect (US: ladybug), nothing to do with a lady or bird.

 Ladies’ man – a man who is popular with women, idiomatic.

 Lady-in-waiting – a female royal attendant, not someone literally waiting.

Walls and Home-Related

 Wall-eyed – describes a condition of the eyes (e.g., strabismus), idiomatic.

 Wallpaper – not just paper for walls, often metaphorical (e.g., "digital wallpaper").

 Wall-to-wall – used metaphorically for something continuous or overwhelming.

 Homework – although literal, it has evolved into a broader idiom for any task taken
home.

 Home front – refers to the civilian side during wartime, not a literal front.

 Home truth – an unpleasant or uncomfortable truth, idiomatic.

 Homespun – refers to simple, rustic wisdom or lifestyle, metaphorical.

 Non-idiomatic / Transparent compounds:

These retain literal or semi-transparent meaning:

 Doghouse – a literal house for a dog.

 Dog collar – literally a collar for a dog.

 Wall painting – a painting on a wall.

 Home loan – a loan to buy a home.

 Home base – base of operations, partly literal.

 Homeschooling – education at home, transparent.