Vox Batauli, Vol.

9, September 2024 72

Vox Batauli, Vol. 9, pp. 72-79, September 2024

Department of English, Butwal Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/vb.v9i01.70409

Morphological Processes in English and Sanskrit: A Cross-

Linguistic Study
Ramnath Neupane, PhD
Assistant Professor, English Education, Tribhuvan University, Butwal Multiple Campus
Article History: Received 10 July 2024; Reviewed 20 July 2024; Revised 12 August 2024; Accepted 3
September 2024
Abstract
Morphology is the sub-discipline of linguistics. It is the study of morphemes and their
arrangement in forming words. The present study attempts to identify and compare the
morphological processes in English and Sanskrit. This study was based on qualitative
methods and the selected documents of both languages were used as the research tools for
this study. The results reveal that the English suffixes such as -age, -al,-ation,-ism, -ment, -
ant, -ent, -er, and Sanskrit suffixes such as -ya/-eya, -man, -na, -an, -a, -ti -a, -ana, -ah, -ti, -
tri, -aka, -man, are nominal derivational suffixes. The plural morpheme -s, and genitive
morpheme -'s are English nominal inflectional morphemes whereas there are twenty-one
inflectional suffixes (sup) (su, au, jas) in Sanskrit. Similarly, English verbal inflectional
morphemes are -ed, -en, and -ing whereas there are eighteen verbal inflectional suffixes (tin)
(tip, tas, jhi,) in Sanskrit. Furthermore, there are compound nouns (breakfast), verbs (fine
tune), adjectives (open-ended), and adverbs (uprightly) in English. In contrast, there are only
two special sub-class of exocentric compounds in Sanskrit, namely numerative (dvigu), and
adverbials (avyayībhāva). As a comparative study, it can help identify the root knowledge of
both languages as languages are related to each other.
Keywords: inflectional and derivational morphemes, nominal, and verbal morphology,
compounding, linguistic typology
Introduction
Morphology is the center of linguistics. It deals with word formation, analysis, and
generation. It studies the ways new words are formed in the languages and the way word
forms are varied depending on how they are used in sentences (Lieber, 2009). It studies
form-meaning relationships between lexical units and their arrangement in forming words
(Hamawand, 2009). It studies the combination of morphemes as elements of words. Words
are the interface between phonology, syntax, and semantics. Every language has words.
Language is the 'basic building block' in forming complex words. They are considered the
fundamental building blocks of language (O’Grady et al., 1997). They are the smallest free
form in a language (Akmajian et al., 2012; Bloomfield, 1933). It is, therefore, concerned with
how words are formed or created in a language from smaller units systematically.
Morphology is, therefore, the study of the internal structure of words (Akmajian et al., 2012,
Greenbaum, 2006, Haspelmath & Sims, 2010; Katamba, 1983).
Morphology is the study of morphemes, the smallest significant units of grammar
(Todd, 1987). It deals with the morphemes and their arrangement to form words (Nida,
1949). It includes the stocks of segmental morphemes and how words are formed out of them
(Hockett, 1958). Morphology also deals with prefixes, suffixes, and compounding to form
words. It is the branch of grammar that studies the structure or forms of words, primarily
through morpheme constructs (Crystal, 2003). It is concerned with the structure of words and
with relationships between words involving the morphemes (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002). It
also deals with what morphemes are and how they operate in the structure of a word.
Morphological Processes in English and Sanskrit: A Cross-Linguistic Study 73

Morphology is the construction of resultant forms which are either bound forms or words. It
includes the constructions of words and parts of words (Bloomfield, 1996). Languages differ
more in morphology than in syntax. Morphology, therefore, studies the grammar of words
and their internal structure, including minimal forms, inflections, and derivations.
The two major branches of morphology are word formation: derivational morphology
and inflectional morphology. Derivation refers to the creation of new words whereas
inflection deals with the grammatical forms of the same word. In this light, Booij (2014)
claims, "Inflection is concerned with the expression of morphosyntactic properties whereas
word formation deals with the creation of new words by various morphological mechanisms
such as compounding, affixation, truncation, and segmental and tonal alternation" (p.1).
Morphology is one of the sub-disciplines of linguistics that helps in understanding how words
are formed and how they relate to each other. Sanskrit language focuses on morphology in
comparison to English as English is a syntax-based whereas Sanskrit is a morphology-based
language.
Literature Review and Research Gaps
Morphology, the study of word formation and structure, is a key area in linguistics. It
examines how words are formed from morphemes, the smallest units of meaning. Although
this study aims to identify morphological patterns in English, and Sanskrit, I did not find any
comprehensive morphological studies from comparative perspectives between English and
Sanskrit. However, I have attempted to present some morphological studies in different
languages. In this context, Prasad (1988) studied the morphology of Nepali, Maithili, and
Hindi under formative affixes, nominal deflections, pronominal declensions, numerals, and
verbal conjugations. A history of the cardinal numbers and certain pronouns was dealt afresh,
and comparative observations were made. The tense of those languages was classified with a
novel approach. A separate short note on the historical development of the compound verbs
was enclosed along with the list of combinations found in the languages.
Correspondingly, Poudel (2005) analyzed tense, aspect, and modality in Nepali and
Manipuri applying the tools from a functional typological grammar approach. He focused not
only on derivational and inflectional verbal groups that contribute to the meaning of tense,
aspect, and modality but also on different types of lexical verbs that have different semantic
effects regarding the meaning of these categories.
Conversely, Jha et al. (2007) analyzed only Sanskrit sentences and their basic
categories. They focused that Sanskrit nouns are inflected with seven case markers in three
numbers. They also categorized nouns under primary (kṛdanta), secondary (taddhitānta),
feminine forms (stripratyayānta), and compounds. They further classified Sanskrit subanta
into avaya subanta , basic subanta, samasata subanta, kṛdanta subanta. The primary affixes
called krt are added to verbs to derive substantives, adjectives or indeclinable, taddhitānta
subanta (secondary derived nouns). The secondary affixes called 'tadhita' derive secondary
nouns from primary nouns, and stripratyayānta subanta (feminine derived nouns) Sanskrit
had eight feminine suffixes.
Likewise, Tumbahang (2007) analyzed the phonology, morphology, and syntax of
Chatthare Limbu. He collected the mythological stories found in that language. Then he
translated that oral data into English. Tumbahang concluded that there were 20 consonants
and seven vowels. That language had all phonological processes. Pronouns were divided into
personal and interrogative and adverbs by affixation, and all the adjectives were made by
verbs. Likewise, Tapaswi, Jain, and Chourey (2012) applied morphological analysis to the
categories of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, postpositions, conjunctions, and
interjections. The paradigms of postpositions were created based on their linguistic behavior.
They included case markers (vibhakti pratyaya) and a class of post positions called
 Vox Batauli, Vol. 9, September 2024 74

shabdayogi avyay. The latter were attached to singular and plural forms of nouns and
pronouns. Some shabdayogi avyays exhibit specific behavior.
Yadhav (2015) described the verbal system of Sirhali Tharu language as dealing with
some traits such as agreement morphology, valence-changing morphology, tense-aspect
system, mood, non-finite forms, and negativization. He found that Tharu language possesses
the past tense marker suffix -l for person subjects for singular and plural. The present tense is
also marked with -ci and -ch. He also found that this language has four aspects: perfective,
perfect, pluperfect, and imperative. Also, Khatiwada (2016) described and analyzed the
Dhimal morphosyntax. Most of the examples presented in his study are drawn from naturally
occurring texts. Different tools like digital audio recorders, audio editors, and textbook
software were utilized to obtain and process the data. He found that Dhimal exhibits
morphologically marked past, present, and future tenses. Morphological aspects are
categorized into perfective and imperfective. Dhimal employs nominative and accusative
case marking. Personal pronouns show three persons and three genders distinction.
The literature reveals that there have been many morphological studies in various
languages descriptively or analytically. However, no comprehensive morphological studies
have been carried out so far from a comparative perspective. So, the researcher is keenly
interested in studying both languages from a morphological point of view. Analyzing
morphology in both languages from comparative point of view is the main problem of this
study and the following are the specific problems:
1. What are the morphological processes in English and Sanskrit ?
2. What are the similarities and differences in the morphological system of those languages?
Methodology
The present study was the document study, a part of qualitative research. The aim of
qualitative research often involves the provision of careful and detailed descriptions as
opposed to the quantification of data through measurements, frequencies, scores and findings
(Mackay & Gass, 2005). Qualitative research is a logic that links data to be collected to the
initial questions of study (Yin, 2009). Inductive reasoning is most closely associated with
qualitative approaches to research, which collect and summarize the data using primarily
narrative or verbal methods: observation, interview, questionnaires, documents, texts,
researchers' impressions, reactions, records, and films (Lodico et al, 2006; Strauss & Cordin,
1998). Similarly, the document is a written, drawn, presented or memorized representation of
thought, and document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating
documents, both printed and electronic. Like other analytical methods in qualitative research,
document analysis requires that data can be examined and interpreted in order to elicit
meaning, gain understanding and develop empirical knowledge (Cordin & Strauss, 2008).
Being a document study, the researcher collected the related books, journal articles, and
previous theses both in English and Sanskrit languages and compared and analyzed them
logically and systematically.
Results and Discussion
English and Sanskrit are two members of the same language family, i.e. Indo-
European. English is an inflected language. There are various morphological processes such
as inflection, derivation, and compounding in English and Sanskrit. These processes were
studied under nominal, verbal, and compounding morphology as described below.
Nominal morphology
In nominal morphology, morphemes are attached to the end of nouns and adjectives and
agree in case and gender. English has two numbers: singular and plural, three genders:
masculine, feminine, and neuter and eight cases: nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative,
ablative, genitive, locative, and vocative (Cowan, 2008). On the other, Sanskrit has three
numbers: singular, dual, and plural, three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter, and eight
Morphological Processes in English and Sanskrit: A Cross-Linguistic Study 75

cases similar to the English language. Both English and Sanskrit languages have the
following derivational and inflectional morphemes.
The derivational morphemes such as -ant (informant), -ent (solvent), -er (writer), -ing
(drawing), -ee (examinee) are added to a verb to make concrete nouns in English whereas -
a (jayah), -ana (gamanam), -ah (tapah), -ti (matih), -tri (netri), -aka (nāyakah), -
man (karman) are used to form such nouns in Sanskrit (Muller, 2016; Williams,
2005).Similarly, English suffixes such as -age (baggage), -al (arrival), -ation (collaboration),-
ion (objection), -ing (gardening), -ism (communism), -ment (development) are added to form
abstract nouns. Some other adjective suffixes such as -ancy (truncy), -ency (decency), -
babble (psychobabble), -ful (handful), -hood (boyhood), -line (chatline), -thon (talkathon) are
added to a verb to form abstract nouns. Moreover, the adjectival suffixes are such as -ness
(happiness), -ity (publicity), -al (arrival),-ity (capability) are used to make abstract
nouns(Greenbaum, 2006) . On the other hand, the Sanskrit suffixes such as -ya/eya (viryam/
sauryam), -man (kāliman),-na (praṣna), -am (vācanam), -a (jayah), -ti (gatih), athu (vepathu)
are used to make abstract nouns (Giri, 2016; Muller, 2016; Williams, 2005).
English nominal inflectional morphology is formed by adding plural morpheme-s
(cars, books), and genitive morpheme-'s (Ram's book, John's diary). On the contrary, there is
a very complex nominal morphological system in Sanskrit. There are twenty one inflectional
suffixes attached to the nominal base of seven cases, three numbers, and three genders as
given: [su, au, jas][ am, auṭ, śas] [tā, bhyām, bhis] [ṅe, bhyām, bhyas] [ṅasi, bhyām, bhyas]
[ṅas, os ,ām] [ṅi , os, sup] (Goldman & Goldman, 2011; Muller, 2016; Williams, 2005).
Gradable and non-gradable derivational suffixes are found in English. The suffixes
such as -ful (successful, pitiful), -y (hairy, wealthy), -ible/-able (inevitable, visible) are
gradable adjective suffixes in English whereas -ed (pointed, wooded), -less (restless,
childless), -al/-ial/-ical (accidental, editorial, professorial) are non-gradable adjectives (Carter
& Mac Carthy, 2006; Greenbaum, 2006). On the other, they are limited to Sanskrit. They are
-a (śadṛśa), -isṇu (sahisṇu), -uka (kāuka), -war (naswar), -ura (vidura), -vin (medāvin), -
in (dhanin), -mat (dhimat). Degree of comparative adjectives in English take the forms -
er (smaller) and -est (smallest) or more (more beautiful) and most (the most beautiful) or
less (significant) or the least (significant) whereas in Sanskrit tara (puntyatara) and
tama (punyatama) , īyas and īṣṭha (baliyas, baliṣṭha) are used for comparative and
superlative degree respectively (Muller, 2016; Williams, 2005).
The cardinal numbers such as one, two, three,… and the ordinal numbers such as the
first, second, third… are not infected with gender and case system in English. However,
Sanskrit cardinal numbers such as eka, dvi, tri, catur…and ordinal numbers such as
prathamah, dvitīyah, tṛtiyah,…are declined with numbers, gender, and case termination
(Williams, 2005). Similarly, English has the first (I, we), second (you), and third (he, she, it,
they) person pronouns. Similarly, he, she and it are masculine pronouns, feminine pronouns
and neuter pronouns respectively. Similarly, he, she, it , you, they, we, etc. are personal
pronouns. These personal pronouns can be grouped into nominative pronouns (I, we, you,),
possessive pronouns (our, ours, my), accusative (me, us, you) and reflective (myself, himself,
yourself). On the other, Sanskrit personal pronouns asmad (I/we), yusmad (you) and tad (he,
she, it) are inflected with three genders, numbers, and case terminations.
English has demonstrative pronouns (this, that, those, these). This and that are
singular pronouns whereas these and those are plural pronouns. On the other, Sanskrit
demonstrative pronouns are etad (this), and adas (that) which are infected with numbers,
genders, and case terminations. Similarly, English relative pronouns (who, which, whom),
indefinite pronouns (somebody, someone, anybody, anyone), and pronominal adjectives (all)
are inflected with masculine, feminine, and neuter gender, singular and plural numbers and
nominative and accusative cases. Nevertheless, Sanskrit relative pronoun yad (who or which),
 Vox Batauli, Vol. 9, September 2024 76

indefinite pronouns kascit-(somebody, anybody), and pronominal adjectives such as

sarva (all), visva (all), ubha (two) are declined with numbers, genders and case systems.
Verbal Morphology
Verbs are words that describe an action or talk about something that happens. Most
verbs are action verbs, used to describe actions (what we do), and events (what happens)
while some verbs are state verbs rather than actions (Yule, 2006). Regular complete verbs
have four morphological forms: base form, -s form, -ing participle, -en and -ed form
(Greenbaum & Quirk, 2008). Verbs appear as part of the sentence's predicate and bear the
marks of categories such as tense, mood, voice, person, and number.
There are different types of verbs such as auxiliary, lexical, transitive, intransitive,
finite, non-finite, phrasal, prepositional, regular, irregular verbs. Most verbs in English are
conjugated with tense, mood, and aspect system whereas Sanskrit verbs are divided into ten
classes called ganas. They are bhvādi, adādi, juhotyādi, rudhādi, divādi, svādi, tudādi,
rudhādi, tanādi, kṛyādi and curādi gaṇas ( Giri, 2016, Muller, 2016; Williams, 2005)
Traditional grammarians claim that there are twelve tenses in English. However
modern grammarians view only two types of morphological tenses: past and non-past. They
have put future tense under modal verbs. On the contrary, there are six tenses: present, past
perfect, past imperfect, aorist, first future, and second future, and four moods: imperative,
potential, benedictive, and conditional in Sanskrit. English inflectional verbs are formed by
adding different suffixes such as third person singular- s (walks), progressive form-ing
(walking), participle -ed (walked), -past form -ed (waked) (Carter & Mac Carthy, 2006). But
all Sanskrit verbs- primitive or derived- use tiṇ termination to make a new word. They are
eighteen in number and conjugated with person, number, tense, mood, and voice. They are
grouped under parasmaipadi [tip, tas, jhi] [sip, thas, tha] [mip, vas, mas] and ātmanepadi [a,
ātāam, jha], [thas, āthām, dhwam], [it, vahin, mahin] (Macdonell, 2007; Muller, 2016).
The imperfect tense uses an augment (a-prefixed element). Potential and imperative
follow similar affixes to the present tense. The reduplicated perfect employs a certain rule for
reduplication i.e. the first syllable of the root is reduplicated (e.g. budh-bu-budh). There are
two kinds of aorists. The first aorist is formed by adding a sibilant between root and
termination, and the second aorist is formed by adding the termination to the root. The simple
future is formed by adding -'sya' or -'isya' suffix to the root. The second future is found only
in parasmaipada. The conditional mood is very similar to the simple future in its formation.
In the Benedictive mood, s is inserted between 'ya' and personal inflection. Similarly, the
present, imperfect, imperative, and potential passive are formed by adding 'ya' to the root
(Muller, 2016).
There are two types of voice systems in English: active and passive. The passive takes
the termination of Ᾱtmanepada only (e.g. pā-'drink'-pīyate) in Sanskrit. Similarly, participles
are formed by taking the third person plurals of the present and dropping the final i (e.g.
bhavanti > bhavant, bhavan (Nom), bhavantam (Accu), bhavantā (Ins). Similarly, the gerund
of the simple verb is formed by adding tvā to the root (e.g. Kṛ-kṛtvā, -having done).
Some derivative verbs such as causative, desiderative, intensive, and denominal are
found in Sanskrit and these verbs are not conjugated with tense, mood, person, or number. So
they are called secondary conjugation. The causative verbs are formed by adding i in the final
position of the root (e.g. bhū> bhāvi and bhāvayati- 'he causes to be'). Derivative verbs are
formed by reduplication and adding s to the root (e.g. bhū > 'to be' bubhūs 'to wish to be'.
Similarly, intensive verbs are formed by adding 'ya' to the end (e.g. bhūbobhīyate). Finally,
denominative verbs are formed by adding 'ya' to the root (e.g. syena > synāyate- he behaves
like a hawk (Macdonell, 2007). On the other hand, denominal verbs are made by adding -
ise/ize, -ify, -en although there is no proper rule for forming other causatives and intensive
verbs in English.
Morphological Processes in English and Sanskrit: A Cross-Linguistic Study 77

Compound morphology
Compounding is another morphological process of forming a complex structure by
combining two or more free morphemes (Bloomfield, 1996; Hamawand, 2009; Zapata,
2007). In English, we generally use free bases to compose compounds (Lieber, 2009). It is
somewhat challenging to create new words by perfectly transparently compounding two
words (Stockwell & Minkova, 2001).
In English, there are synthetic compounds (e.g. hand washing, dog walker), root
compounds (windmill, ice cold), attributive compounds (snail mill, windmill), coordinative
compounds (doctor-patient, student-teacher), and subordinative compounds (truck-driver,
hard-mixer) (Bauer, 2009). On the other, Sanskrit has avayībhāva samās where there is
purba pada pradhana. It means noun is preceded by an adjective (adhi- hari, upa-kṛṣṇa),
tatpuruṣ samās is uttara pada pradhāna samās (rāja puruṣ- king's man, hiranya ratha- a
golden car), karmadhāraya samās is formed with the combination of adjective and noun
(purṇamāsa- 'full moon', ekavira 'unique hero', mahavira-'great hero'),
dvandva samās consists of two nouns connected with ca -'and' (mātā ca pitā ca = mātāpitā,
hari ca kṛṣṇa ca = harikṛṣṇau). Bahuvṛi compounds are the compounds without a head. They
are adjectival in nature (pitambaram yasya = pītāmbarah, nilam kanthya yasya =
nīlakanthah). In dwigu samās, the first member is necessarily numeral (dwau dalau =
dwidalah) (Burrow, 2016; Mackdonell, 2007; Regmi, 2068; Williams, 2005).
Syntactically, there are also different types of compounds: compound nouns (pick-
pocket, breakfast, boyfriend), compound verbs (fine-tune, overlook), compound adjectives
(open-ended, cross-modal), compound adverbs (uprightly, cross-modally), and neo-classical
compounds (hydro-electric, astronaut) in English (Bauer, 1983, 2009; Lieber, 2009).
Moreover, Sanskrit grammarians distinguished two special sub- classes of exocentric
compounds, namely numerative (dvigu), nouns with numbers as prior members, such as in
English, fortnight, sixpence and adverbials (avyayībhāva), adverbs with noun head such as
barefoot, bareback or with noun subordinate, such as uphill, indoors, overseas.
In addition to inflection, derivation, compounding, and reduplication, English has
many other processes of word formations such as conversions (a drink- to drink), blends
(motel, smog), acronyms (RAM- Random Access Memory), clitics ('s for is, 'm for am),
coinage (Xerox, volt, Kodak), clipping ( math, exam), borrowing (homicide -Latin, ghee-
Hindi), backformation ( baby sitter-baby sit), cross formation (seafare, airfare and spacefare),
etc whereas such types of formation cannot be found in Sanskrit.
Conclusion and Implications
Morphology is a process of word formation. It mainly studies prefixes, suffixes, and
compounding. The present study compared morphological processes in English and Sanskrit
where there are both inflectional and derivational morphemes. The suffixes such as -age, -al,-
ation, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ent, -er, in English and the suffixes such as -ya/-eya, -man, -na, -an,
-a, -ti -a, -ana, -ah, -ti, -tri, -aka, -man, in Sanskrit are nominal derivational suffixes. The
suffixes such as plural morpheme-s, and genitive morpheme -'s are English nominal
inflectional morphemes whereas there are twenty-one inflectional morphemes (su, au, jas,
am, aut, sas) in Sanskrit. English verbal inflectional morphemes are -ed, -en, and -ing
whereas there are eighteen verbal inflectional suffixes such as (tip, tas, jhi, sip, thas, tha ) in
Sanskrit. English and Sanskrit words are formed through different processes such as
prefixation, suffixation, and compounding. There are different types of compounds in
English: compound nouns (pick-pocket, breakfast), compound verbs (fine tune, overlook),
compound adjectives (open-ended, cross-modal), compound adverbs (uprightly, cross-
modally), and neo-classical compounds (hydro-electric, astronaut). However, there are two
special sub- classes of exocentric compounds in Sanskrit, namely numerative (dvigu), nouns
with number as prior members, such as in English, fortnight, sixpence and adverbials
 Vox Batauli, Vol. 9, September 2024 78

(avyayībhāva), adverbs with noun head such as barefoot, bareback or with noun subordinate,
such as uphill, indoors, overseas.
The present study is a small scale study. Although it attempts to compare the
morphological processes in English and Sanskrit, it does not deal with all aspects of
morphology in depth of detail. Other researchers who want to study in this field can carry out
in-depth studies in any one field, i.e. nominal, or verbal or compound morphology. Being a
comparative study it can help find out root knowledge of both languages as languages are
related to each other.
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