SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Social institutions are organized systems of social relationships representing certain common

values and procedures and meeting certain basic needs. As an organized system of behaviour it

differs from organizations which are organized groups of people. It entails a culturally approved

pattern of behaviours with defined statues, roles and procedures. These patterned behaviours are

also grouped around certain basic human needs and are organized so as to direct behaviour

toward the attainment of those needs.

TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

- Family (Kinship)

- Educational Institutions

- Religious Institutions

- Political Institutions

- Economic Institutions

Concept of Marriage and Family (Kinship)

The family is usually defined as a kinship group linked by blood and marriage and occupying a

common household. A household is not the same thing as the family. It refers to all persons

occupying the same house. These include relatives as well as lodgers.

The family as a social group is made up of a man, his wife or wives and children living under a

common roof, interacting and influencing the behaviours of each other in a more intimate

manner than with others who do not belong to it.

As a social institution the family entails the formalized, regular and patterned way or process by

which family life is carried out. It involves:

 - A set of common procedures such as betrothal or engagement, courtship, honeymoon,

wedding

- A common set of values and norms e.g incest taboo which forbids sexual intercourse with

blood relations thereby necessitating marriage outside the immediate family (exogamy),

love between husband and wife in a way different from that which is expected between

brother and sister.

Marriage involves choice of mates. Marriage allows the social relationship in which sexual

expression is expected to take place for the major purpose of procreation. But if much sexual

expression within and outside marriage is for the purpose of sexual urge gratification rather than

procreation, then sex plays an important role in self-fulfillment in both rural and urban areas.

Marriage is sanctioned by the society. It provides the social systems within which social roles

and statuses are prescribed.

Features of the Rural Family

The rural family is characterized by many features such as familism, production and

consumption of goods and services, continuity, size, child bearing and rearing, socialization,

participation in family decision making, marital expectations and evaluation.

Familism could be described as the degree to which members of the family show solidarity in the

process of performing the multifarious role of the family institution. It involves the following

factors:

- The extent to which personal goals are made secondary to be consistent with family

goals.

- The extent to which control is exerted over individual members so that family values are

imposed on each member, who in turn accepts the values.

 - Personal security of individual members of a family which shows familism is generated

by members through their deep sense of integration into the family.

- It embodies an intergenerational family group in which many generations live under one

roof near one another.

- Existence of family property such as land, house, shares in companies, animals and farm

crops. This practice discovers age’s individualism among members.

- Continuity of the family ensures that members bring in their children into the fold so that

it does not discontinue when certain members die.

- Mutual help exists among members who are assisted to set up their own farms, pay

education costs, dowries, burial and other forms of expenses when the need arises.

The advantages of familism include:

- Keeping the children in greater contact so as to deepen affection for one another.

- Exercising control over members to protect the family integrity; ethnic and rural

standards; apprenticeship in the family early occupation, which is frequently farming in

the rural area.

- Assistance in financing early education, purchase of work equipment and marriage

expenses, feeding, clothing and other personal expenses.

The disadvantages of familism include:

- Self centeredness, which makes a family to always look for the interest of its members,

while it frequently closes its eyes to the consideration of other families.

- Members tend to be narrow-minded and parochial; the personalities of members are at

about the same level.

 - Families limit chances of allowing members in rural families to take up other

occupations.

- The system of seniority frequently adopted lowers the rate of self-realization of talented

family members.

- Whenever a family member violates the norms, the family image rather than that of the

individual is considered as tarnished.

Functions of the Family

The family performs many societal functions to ensure the welfare and progress of its members.

The functions include:

- Reproduction of the human species. That is grant life.

- Care and rearing of the young offspring particularly at infancy and years of dependence.

- Education of the children.

- Protection from enemies, danger and psychological isolation, provision of love and

affection to reduce tension and frustration.

- Care of the aged and disabled family members.

- Production and consumption of good and services.

- Moral and financial support to family members in time of joy and trouble.

- Social, psychological and material support in time of bereavement, disaster or other

forms or adversities.

- Provide socialization. That is, the family equips the individual with the knowledge which

he/she will need in order to play his/her roles in the society.

Stages in the Family Life of a Rural Farmer

The family life and the farm business life of a rural farmer are intricately interwoven. The

success of one highly influences the viability of the other. However, some stages are

distinguishable in the life of a farm family.

1. Farm Apprenticeship: This stage commences as early as the child is able to walk to the farm

himself. It begins about the age of three or four (3-4) years and extends till the adolescent years

when the young farmer is looking for a wife at the age of 15 – 20. Initially, the young child is

taken to the farm and asked to watch the father as he operates the farm so as to inculcate the

habit of preparing for work. At the age of five or six (5-6), the child is given farm implements

with which to work. He is apportioned a small piece of land to work upon. He learns how to

operate farm implements gradually. The apprentice turns to a skilled farm operator who

continues to assist the father on a family farm.

2. Operation of a farm business on a limited scale: The young farmer opens up his own farm

on a large scale than when he was serving the father, but on a limited scale when compared with

that of a full-fledged farmer. He still gets advice from the father on how to operate his farm at his

own discretion and as a mark of recognition of the father’s experience and to promote family

solidarity. The enthusiasm of early independence from the family farm propels him to work. The

encouragement obtained from the young wife also stimulates him to work harder. Unfortunately

in south-western Nigeria, like in many developing societies where owner-operators of farms are

predominant, this is also the period when many young farmers over socialize by attending many

club meetings, parties, dances, funerals and marriage ceremonies which involve wastage of their

resources which ought to have been wisely invested in farm business. This stage lasts till the age

of about 30 years.
3. The owner-operator of a farm business on a large scale with his family. At this stage, the

farmer has now raised his children to maturity as he was raised by his father. The children now

assist him on the farm. He thus opens up large areas of land using family labour. It is the period

when farmers become most prosperous in farming. The farmer is primarily concerned with

maintenance operations, and opening up of some new farm projects. This lasts up till the age of

about 45 years to 50.

4. Owner-operator of a farm business on a small scale without the family: The farmer is now

declining in energy. He depends on hired labourers to carry out much of his farm operations if he

has a large farm. His returns from the farm start to decline because of greater investments in

running the farm which had been previously supplied via family labour. Hardworking farmers

would have built houses in the village by the end of the third stage. They actually would have

started to build the house in the town, which they would complete early in the fourth stage of

life.

5. The retirement from active farming. The farmer has attained the age of seventy and above

(70 & above). Those who have succeeded in building their own houses in the town spend much

of the time in town. Those who have not built their personal houses in the town spend much of

the time in their village houses and visit the town as occasions demand. This farm has now

turned into a bush with spots of tree crops growing here and there on the farm. The farmer that is

still energetic manages to maintain the tree crops which remain productive through spot-

weeding. He tries to grow some annual crops for his subsistence and also depends on the support

of prosperous children for his sustenance. He remains a partially active farmer until he dies,

unless old age makes him unable to go to the farm.

The foregoing stages in the life-cycle of a typical farmer in southwestern Nigeria are similar to

the situation in many other societies where family-sized farms predominate.

FORMS OF MARRIAGE

It was earlier said that marriage involves choice of mates. This may be done outside one’s group

or blood relations in which case it is described as EXOGAMY, or within some specified group,

the case of which could be described as ENDOGAMY. Where one man and one woman are

involved, the marriage is described as MONOGAMY. Where more than two people are

involved, it is called polygamy. Polygamy can assume three forms. One is the case of one man

married to two or more women. This form of POLYGAMY is called POLYGYNY. This is

most common among traditional villagers and Muslims in Nigeria.

This second form of polygamy is one involving one woman and two or more men. This is known

as POLYANDRY and has been identified among very few tribes in the world. The Todas of

southern India are known to accept fraternal polygamy in which one woman is married to two or

more brothers. The offspring of such a union belong to the extended family directly rather than

to a particular father.

The third form of polygamy is what is known as GROUP MARRIAGE and involves several

men and women in marriage relationships with one another with no sense of exclusive

ownership. Murdock (2002) in his study of 250 societies found that only 43 (17%) practiced

monogamy as a rule while the rest (8.3%) allowed different forms of polygamy.

Levirate Marriage

This is a type of marriage which involves the inheritance of a widow by the deceased husband’s

male relations. This form of marriage is based on a reasoning that a wife is part of the
possessions of the husband which are passed down the extended family line on his demise.

Levirate marriage is a secondary form of marriage and entails no elaborate ceremony.

Factors Associated With Polygamous Marriage in Nigeria

Polygamous marriage in Nigeria could be attributed to many factors. Significant among these

are:

1. Economic Reasons

In societies where little mechanization is practiced, most economic production is carried out

manually. Therefore, the greater the number of hands available, the greater the productivity of

the family. People who have large areas of farm land usually marry more than one wife so as to

enhance the available free labour force.

2. Religious Beliefs

The Moslem religion permits its adherents who are able, to take as many as four wives. The

well-to-do among them have married more than one wife.

3. The Need for Children

Sometimes a man may take a second or third wife if the first is not productive or fruitful. In the

traditional Ibibio of south eastern Nigeria, a barren woman in fact, went out of her way to marry

another woman for her husband. In addition, in the traditional society a man’s prestige was

enhanced by the number of children in his compound and so the more women he acquired, the

larger his compound grew. In some cases, the need for a male child who would inherit the

property of the family also encourages men to take additional wives.

4. Social or Cultural Obligations

Some men in Nigeria have found themselves with more than one wife purely due to social or

cultural reasons. A successful businessman or traditional leader may be given a girl gratis by
someone who desires to pay homage, indicate respect, seek favour or just seek a closer

relationship with him. Culture warrants that such a “gift” be accepted gratefully. Similarly,

tradition may require that the widows of a relative be inherited by the surviving next of kin. The

man may have married his own chosen wife already, thus he becomes obliged by tradition to

take on the widows of his relations.

5. Gratification of Sexual Needs

Men’s sex needs are known to be more imperious than women’s sex urge. Thus, men who desire

socially approved sexual outlets when their wives are either pregnant or menstruating take on

additional wives.

The Concept of Education

Education is the process of transmitting the socially approved cultural heritage of any society

from one generation to another. It is also the process by which the new knowledge is spread

among members of a society. The cultural heritage and knowledge are transferred through

education. Education as an activity is the process of transmitting and acquiring the socially

approved aspects of cultural heritage. The school is the social organization in which education

takes place. The process of socialization or culture learning usually starts informally in the

family, churches, mosques, the community and then formally in schools. Education in the

formal sense has come to mean systematic training by specialists within the formal organization

of the school.

Functions of Education

The functions of educational institutions include the following:

1. The transmission of the culture from one generation to another. This is the normal

socialization function which involves the teaching of societal values, norms, taboos, rotes, folk
ways among others to the new entrant into the society (Ekong, 1988). This function can be

executed within the family, by peer groups and other primary groups in a community.

2. Bringing about social change via the modification of cultural heritage and development

of new knowledge skills, arts and artifacts. New knowledge is acquired through research and

present experience has shown that technologically advanced nations invest more on research than

developing nations.

3. Training of people for specialized adult roles. This involves learning of new skills through

apprenticeship, acquisition of knowledge, tutorship or indoctrination, or by formal educational

institutions. This level of education is mostly obtained outside the family and informal school

settings with some expert teachers.

4. Provision of a setting for school interaction. The school brings people from diverse

background into constant interaction. This thereby fosters the formation of peer groups and

associations which help in moulding the character and future of the individuals involved.

5. Differentiation of people in the society and validation of their social status. In most

contemporary society, the acquisition of formal education and possession of some certificate

ensure the entry of individual into prestigious jobs. That is, the higher the certificate, the more

highly placed the individual within his profession. Therefore the proliferation of professions and

skills and the graduation of diplomas help to put people into various categories. Thus, education

has become a source of class formation as well as social mobility.

Types of Education in Rural Nigeria

There are various forms of formal educational facilities in rural Nigeria. These include the

followings:
1. Extension Education

This is an informal out-of-school education given to rural families by experts in agriculture,

home economics, health, small-scale industries among others. This type of education is often

known as extension education.

2. Adult Education

This is semi-formal literacy education organized for adults who had no opportunity to acquire

formal education at earlier age.

3. Formal Education

This is the type of education offered at the primary and secondary levels to rural children and

adolescents. At the primary level, two main types of education can be identified in Nigeria.

These are the western type of education and the Qur’anic type of education with the latter being

more prevalent in the Moslem areas in Nigeria. Since Nigeria had grown up under the influence

of the western world, there has been the tendency for people to undertake Qur’anic education

generally. Until quite recently, most parts of rural northern Nigeria had only Qur’anic schools

whereas western type schools have always predominated in the south.

Problems of the Rural School System and their Solutions

The rural school is of fundamental importance in the life of any nation. This is because it is the

area in which basic values, attitudes and other cultural dimensions of a society are transmitted to

the succeeding generations of citizens. Most of these citizens invariably move to the urban areas

to constitute the cream of the society. The rural school experiences many problems when

compared with their urban counter parts. Some of these include:

1. The pupil – teacher ratio is lower in the rural than urban areas. The anxiety to send

children to school is still lower in rural areas than in urban areas. In agrarian societies some

reasons are responsible for this. Some parents want their children to help them on the farm; some

parents do not have sufficient money to give their children even for daily feeding at school; some

are not interested in formal education because they believe that it takes children out of the home

after graduation; instead they prefer their children to remain with them on their farm. In many

rural parts of northern Nigeria, many parents do not want their children to go to formal school,

instead they prefer sending them to Islamic schools to study the Qur’an.

2. The average salary of the rural teacher is lower than that of the urban teacher. This is

because the average qualification and experience of the rural teacher is lower than that of the

urban teacher.

3. The average rural teacher is saddled with a heavier teaching load than his urban

counterpart. This is because of frequent shortage of teachers in many subjects, particularly at

the high school level. Teachers, who specialize in a field such as agricultural science, may be

required to teach related science subjects such as chemistry and biology. In the elementary

school, many schools in fact required the same teacher to teach all the subjects because he is

considered as competent enough to handle all the subjects at that level. The outcome is over-

loading of the teacher, which frequently results in inefficiency.

4. The staff-turn over in rural school is much higher than that of urban school. Staff in rural

schools frequently disturbs the school supervisors to post them to urban schools. Married female

teachers in particular, prefer to stay with their husbands who frequently live in urban area. Such

teachers are frequently posted to the urban area at the earliest available opportunities.
5. The physical and teaching facilities in rural schools such as buildings, laboratories,

sporting facilities, toilet and sanitary facilities are often smaller and less efficient than those

in cities. For example, lighting facilities are not in existence in many Nigerian rural schools

whereas urban schools are supplied with electricity. Pipe-borne water supply is absent in many

rural schools, but are present in many urban schools.

6. Myopic, limited, traditional and outdated curricula/syllabi often feature in small schools.

Much of the curriculum is not related to solving rural problem. Agriculture and livestock rearing

are the most common occupations in Nigerian rural areas. Agricultural science was not taught in

many rural secondary schools in Nigeria. It was not until 1976 when the Federal Military

Government introduced the Operation Feed the Nation campaign, that the subject became

compulsory in all secondary grammar schools in Nigeria (Jibowo 1992).

7. Supplementary materials for teaching in rural schools are marginal or non-existent.

Libraries are poorly equipped or nonexistent. Social “promotion”, a system of moving the

students along so as to give chance for the in-coming group prevails. Such a system results in ill-

educated students.

8. The rate of failure is higher in rural schools than in urban schools. This leads to

unfavourable image of the rural schools to such an extent that educated members of the society

are not willing to send their children there.

9. Schools are more broadly separated from the homes of the students in rural areas than

urban areas. Some students have to trek about 1 - 6 kilometers or more from their homes to

school. Only a few rural secondary schools provide buses for their students.

10. Students in rural schools are often more exposed to manual work than those in urban

schools. They are often asked to spend some hours in the school garden, cutting school fields,
sweeping the school compound, cleaning the school toilet, washing the desks and tables at the

beginning of each semester or term. Such jobs are often given to hired labourers in some urban

schools. Some teachers in both urban and rural schools at times ask students to work on their

personal farms even after school hours. These types of activities make the students to be too tired

to do their assignments or get enough rest for the following day’s academic work.

Solution to the Rural School Problem

There are two possible approaches to providing solutions to the problems of rural schools. First

is to alter or change the structure of the rural schools from what they are at present, the other is to

continue with the present arrangement but improve on them. Altering the structure involves

consolidation of schools. In the United States, since 1879 when the National Education

Association Report of the committee of twelve on rural schools was released, there has been a

general agreement among educators and social scientists in the country that schools had

problems which could be largely corrected through consolidation of schools.

Consolidation is expected to bring the following merits:

- More qualified teachers, more effective supervision and school administrations;

- More adequate school located centrally.

- Use of the consolidated school plant as a natural social centre for its arena;

- A large and more heterogeneous range of contacts for rural children;

- Increase school attendance;

- Improved educational programme based on the social needs of rural children and aimed

at improving them mentally and physically;

- Adequate number of children in schools to facilitate healthy competition and social

stimulus in school work, development of group and project work and satisfaction of
 extra-curricular activities; Improvement in adult programmes in areas served by the

consolidated schools;

The demerits/criticisms of consolidation are:

- Students from low socio-economic background might bring in unwarranted attitudes to

influence other students;

- It brings students together in one school with disregard to community interest;

- Putting students in buses from one community to another for long periods of the day is

not in their interest. Schools which are consolidated within each community will

eradicate much of the demerits.

The second possible approach to providing solution to the problems of rural schools is to

continue with the present school structure, but improve on it via community efforts. The parent-

teacher association (PTA) may take the responsibility for providing solutions to some of the

constraints. This will be in form of cooperative relationship between the school and the

community. If the parents want good quality education for their children, they should play an

active role in the process of providing such education.

The third approach is the establishment of private schools to run side by side with those of

government. Many groups and individuals such as missionary organizations, philanthropic

organizations and private individuals could be allowed to established schools. The government

should give guidelines which are to be followed by these groups and individuals for quality

assurance.

A new approach to providing high quality education at the rural level is the establishment of

rural schools by philanthropic organizations such as the International Lions Club and Rotary
Club. Some of these organizations are so rich and endowed with so many talented members that

they could go into community improvement, which is their major goal through the establishment

of high quality rural schools.

The Meaning of Religion (Religious Institution)

Religion is defined as consisting of institutionalized systems of beliefs, values and symbolic

practices which provide groups of men with solutions to their question of ultimate meaning –

death, difficulties, suffering, etc. Religion is also defined as “the attempt to bring the relative, the

temporary, and the painful things of life into relation with what is conceived to be permanent,

absolute and cosmically optimistic”. Religion is a universal human institution. It entails a set of

basic beliefs and ritualistic practices.

These beliefs and practices however vary from one religious organization to another and

responsible for the multiplication of religious organizations in society. Religious practices and

thoughts are often associated with descriptions such as power, invisible, mighty, all-pervasive

omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent, mysterious, miraculous, super-natural and everlasting

being. There is a belief that God who is worshiped through religion does good things only. There

is also a belief that God can do evil to those who violate his rules.

Rural Religion in Nigeria

Like in many parts of the developing world, religion is an important aspect of the social life of

Nigerians in both rural and urban areas. There are three major forms of religion in Nigeria

namely, Christianity, Islam and the traditional religion. The first two have many denominations,

while the third has many sub-types.

Christianity

Christianity was introduced during the period of colonialism, first into the southern part of the

country. Today it has spread to many other parts of the country. However, there is a larger

concentration of Christians in the south than in the northern states. Christians are commonly

found in Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Lagos, Delta, Edo, Enugu, Akwa-Ibom, Oyo, Imo, Anambra,

Enugu, Abia, Ebonyi, Bayelsa, Cross-River, Rivers, Adamawa, Taraba and Plateau states. The

other states have less proportion of Christians.

Different Christian denominations have been introduced from Europe and the United States.

These are the Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, Baptist, the Christ Apostolic Church and the

Apostolic Faith. Several indigenous church denominations have been formed also. Some of these

are the African Church, the African Methodist Church, Church of the Lord Aladura, the

Cherubim and Seraphim Church, and the Celestial Church of Christ. Some other new Churches

introduced are the Redeemed Christian Church of God, the Students Christian Movement and the

Four Square Gospel Church. The old denominations and the indigenous groups are more

common in rural areas than the new introductions which are largely restricted to the urban areas.

The rural branches of the denominations are frequently accountable to the church district and

their urban parent bodies. In small towns and cities, the church continues to attract massive

following. With increase in social change of rising aspirations among urban residents, there has

been corresponding increase in crime rate, armed robbery, cases of hired assassinations, motor

accidents among others. People believe that by moving closer to God, they could be spared of

these sources of disaster. Others believe that by moving closer to God, their welfare and success

in life could be ensured.

Islam
The rural Muslims belong to many denominations which have small buildings utilized as

mosques. There special occasions are the birth day of Prophet Mohammed and the end of the

annual fasting. While Christians pray in the churches on Sundays, Muslims pray in central

mosques on Fridays. In addition, Christians pray in the morning and evening daily. Such

occasions do not attract many Christians. On the other hand, Muslims are supposed to pray five

times daily. Devoted Muslims obey this regularly. Both Christians and Muslims sometimes

accompany their prayers with fasting when they have special request to make to God.

The Muslims in rural areas often go to the urban areas to celebrate special religious festivals.

Among Moslem devotees, particularly the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups, the prayer period is

so strictly observed that even when they have to pray during a journey they stop their vehicles by

the road side and pray. The proportion of Muslims in the northern part of Nigeria is greater than

that of Christians.

The Traditional Religion

This religion is observed mainly in the rural areas of Nigeria. The rural inhabitants of the various

states in Nigeria still place much premium on the continued worship of traditional religions.

Some of those who claim to be Christians and Muslims still have traditional gods in their rooms

which had been passed to them from their ancestors to be worshipped. Among the Yoruba of

south western Nigeria, many of the traditional gods are heroes and heroines who have become

deified. Good examples are Sango, the god of thunder, Ogun, the god of Iron, Iyemoja, the

goddess of water and Ifa, the god of divination. There are traditional gods which represent the

spirits of the deceased ancestors. Examples of these are Egungun, the masquerade, Oro, the god

of vibrating sounds, Igunnu, the lofty rotating god. The lofty rotating god actually originated

from Nupe ethnic group of Niger State.

The annual festival for these gods provide occasions for pomp and pageantry among their

adherents. Some even worship Yam during festivals so as to obtain a good harvest. With increase

in formal education, the influence of the traditional gods on the people has waned. This is due to

the fact that many educated children of the adherents are no more willing to worship such gods.

Some that are not well committed worshippers have adopted either Christianity or Islam. Some

reasons responsible for this change in traditional attitude include:

1. The missionaries paired introduction of western education with Christianity. Christians

are thus seen as embracing western education rather than believers in traditional religions. In

addition, the schools attended by many youths taught them Christian religious worship or Islam.

No traditional religion is taught in these schools. Many students thus graduate to imbibe the

religious beliefs they are taught at school.

2. The method of worshipping traditional gods is unhygienic as it involves the use of things

like palm oil, blood of livestock, and food items which are exposed to flies and ants.

Educated people are not willing to go through such processes.

3. Many of those who worship traditional gods are old and illiterate. Many of those who are

young and still worship them are illiterates. The upcoming literate generations of the society thus

mostly accept either Christianity or Islam.

4. It has become fashionable to be a Christian in the south and a Muslim in the north. On

the other hand, it has become “primitive” to espouse traditional religious beliefs in the country.

Young literate people are therefore willing to accept fashionable religions rather than the

outmoded traditional gods.

Functions of Religion

Religion fulfils certain universal functions which include:

1. The explanation of the unknown and irregular physical occurrences e.g flood, earthquakes,

drought, lightening, etc.

2. The justification of human existence by stating the nature and role of man in terms of super-

natural design.

3. Promotion of group solidarity as religion is a cultural possession.

4. The celebration of human achievement. That is, most rituals are connected with some crucial

periods in the society. Examples are puberty, planting of crops, harvest, etc.

5. Strengthening of moral order and promotion of social control.

6. Support for other social organizations and institutions, e.g schools, hospital, welfare agencies,

etc.

7. The rationalization of individual suffering in the material world thereby making such suffering

bearable (Ekong 1988).

The Concept of Political Institutions

Political institutions serve the people of a nation in form of governments in their traditional and

modern forms which exist at the local, state and national levels. They serve executive, legislative

and judiciary functions at each level and also relate citizens to each level of government in the

performance of these functions. Each level of government also relates to the other in a systematic

and coordinated fashion, frequently ensuring a division of labour. A system of political

organization is fashioned within which the philosophy and methodology of governance and

selection of active participants in the political process evolve. In more developed societies like

the United States, the rural local government is frequently a continuation of the state or national

government political structure. However, the native Indian tribes had their own system of rural
local governance prior to the arrival of immigrants from Europe and during the early years of

European settlement in that country (Gupta 2002). Today, much of such structures

have been obliterated by the forces of modernization which have swept across United States

particularly during the last two centuries. Less developed nations or countries like Nigeria still

retain much of their traditional political forms at the local level, although the modern political

structure exists side by side with the traditional forms. The latter which had influenced the lives

of the citizens over a much longer period than the former, still controls much of the daily

activities of the local people. Unlike some African countries, Kenya did not have institution of

political chiefs prior to the arrival of the British colonialists in that country. Most of the

communities were ruled via a council of elders. In 1902, the colonial administration passed the

village headmen ordinance, which among the other things, provided for the appointment of

headmen by the colonial administrators. They were to rule on behalf of the colonialists at the

local level. Japanese rural area fiefs during feudal times were divided into districts. These were

administered by magistrates who were appointed by the fief government. The districts consisted

of villages Mura. In the urban areas were cities which consisted of wards and villages. Wards

were subdivided into neighbourhoods of five to ten houses, gonin gumi or junin gumi. The

district magistrates linked the fief administration with the people. They exercised legislative,

executive and judicial powers.

Features of the Local Government in Rural Areas

The following features characterize the rural local government in many societies:

1. Resistance to Change

The local government is the institution through which the local people show their political

expressions, thus like other rural institutions it is highly resistant to change. The traditional rural
local governing processes in many societies have remained the same over centuries. Prior to the

introduction of the western systems of government in many African countries, the traditional

system of government had even remained the same.

2. Informality

Local government structures and processes are highly informal. They are governed by traditional

mores, practices and relationships.

3. A High Degree of Autonomy

The local government enjoys a high degree of autonomy irrespective of the state or national

government which could be a monarchy, republic, democracy or an oligarchy. This is because

comprehensive local affairs cannot be supervised by the central government which is far from

the local sense. The influence of the central government becomes more effective in governing

the area with increase in transportation and communication, although the high degree of

autonomy is still common in most rural districts of the world.

4. A High Degree of Stability

Even in terms of rapid social change brought about by the activities of the modern central

governments which open up projects in rural areas, change in the traditional rural system of

government is often gradual.

5. Rule by Discretion

This is a common feature where mores predominate the ruling process. Taxation, administration

of justice, maintenance of facilities such as schools, roads and bridges are informally executed.

However, such traditional political institutions have been largely replaced by central

governments with growing difficulties of virtually all societies.

6. Lack of Specialized Political Leadership

Those who lead in other spheres of rural life frequently take the mantle of political leadership. In

Nigeria, among the Yoruba and Bassa-nge people, seniority in terms of age, wisdom,

membership of the lineage of leaders in the community and social standing, are some of the

criteria for becoming the Baale or Madaki of a village ruling council. In many Latin American

countries like Colombia, there is no financial gain for becoming the Alcalde (Jibowo 1992). This

is true of many other rural local governments in other countries.

7. Complement of Formal Local Government

The traditional rural local government frequently helps the formal government in implementing

some of the programmes at the local level. For example, collection of taxes, criminals

identification, prevention of crime, security and safety of the rural dwellers are best ensured by

the village governments. In some Yoruba villages, Bassa-nge, Igala among others, prevention of

crime, for example, is carried out by engaging night-watchmen or vigilantes who are paid by the

village residents to help keep vigil, prevent and fight crime. The number and effectiveness of the

police force is so limited, in many other less developed countries, that their influence in crime

prevention is virtually non-existent at the village level.

8. Subjection to the Control of the Central Government

The rural local government takes instructions from the formal local government, which it

frequently implements. The formal local government in turn receives instructions from the state

government.

9. Lack of Formal Means of Enforcing its Regulations

The traditional village government depends on mores, folkways, imposition of fine, and similar

informal means of enforcing its regulations. Although its regulations are frequently obeyed

because of the existing spirit of sodality among the inhabitants, disobedient members can
occasionally be forced to comply. With increasing influence of formal political activities at the

village level, disobedient members who are bolstered by party loyalty frequently put the council

in positions of powerlessness to enforce its rulings.

10. Definite Pattern of Governance

The rural local government has its own pattern of governance, communication and decision-

making. Among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, each village is governed by a village council.

This council is headed by the Baale, who chairs all council meetings. He holds this position for

life. He is assisted in many cases, by a deputy. A village crier is instructed by him to call

meetings of village heads of households on important occasions.

3.3 Rural Political Participation

The farmers indicate a considerable interest in political participation in their villages. Political

gatherings and campaigns are occasions for large assemblages of rural people to meet. This

encourages solidarity among the rural people. In Nigeria, the campaign meetings are

accompanied by drumming, dancing and acrobatic displays to meet important political figures.

Speech-making in support of a political party whose leaders are on such campaign tours is the

main item on the agenda for convincing eligible voters. State and local government level leaders

of political parties meet with village leaders and the electorate from time to time to discuss

political issues. There are frequent occasions for speech making and merriment by farmers,

farmers’-leaders, state and local government political parties. As rival political supporters

sometimes clash during campaigns, and for the safety of politicians who sometimes attack one

another, thugs are often hired to protect the politicians. This is because police protection is often

inadequate, and because of the design of some politicians to use the thugs to cause trouble for

members of the opposing political party.

The casting of ballot to elect their representatives is a common practice in many countries, apart

from those in which military governments have forced themselves into political power for the

greater part of the history of nationhood. Rural people vote more in relation to the number of

people of voting age than the urban people.

Rural people vote more for personality rather than the party. One party is also more likely to be

favoured by majority of the rural people than urban people who are more likely to divide

themselves among the parties favoured. In Nigeria, party support among rural people has been on

ethnic basis. The predominant party favoured in rural south-western part by the urban people has

been led by the late Chief Obafemi Awolowo (1909-1987).

Radicalism and revolution have taken place among rural farmers, particularly when ownership

and control of their land is threatened. Farmers have often then resorted to violent actions. The

farmer holiday movement of 1932 and 1933 in the Midwestern part of the United States, which

also influenced some southern states, was an example of farmers’ revolt which sought to prevent

dispossession of farmers. The land use Act (1978) in Nigeria recognized this potential danger by

making provision for continued use by farmers, of plots of land which they were cultivating at

the time of the Act. Farmers often favour constructive measures and those which improve their

own welfare. They have opposed civil rights regulations and favoured price support bills for

agricultural products in the United States (Jibowo 1989).

The Meaning of the Economic Institution

The economic institution in any culture is often concerned with the arrangement of relationships

between people for the sustained production, distribution and consumption of goods and services

within that culture or between it and another culture (Mbiti 2003). The family as we have earlier

discussed, is the basic economic unit in any society.

That is, it acts as the basic unit of production and consumption. As a society advances and

becomes more complex, specialization of functions often sets in to the extent that the function of

production and distribution of goods becomes transferred to industrial and commercial firms.

The family however, still plays the important role of providing the labour or manpower for

production and distribution within these organizations. The basic factors of production in any

economy have been identified as land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. Karl (1992),

however, holds that of all these, labour is the most crucial and that labour produces capital and

entrepreneurship. In addition to labour, land is equally very important.

The Significance of economic Institutions to Rural Farmers

The economic institution is one of the most significant dimensions of rural life. The institution

provides the need of the rural farmers in different ways through provision of credit, provision of

land, provision of labour, purchase of equipments and supplies, and marketing of farm produce.

These needs are provided in rural communities where family farms predominate. In this

situation, the initiatives of individual and family farmers are mobilized to look for these services

for their farm development.

The foregoing economic services are often performed in rural areas through established rural

organizations such as:

1. Cooperative societies performed through cooperative efforts of the rural farmers;

2. Government of privately established institutions serving the rural area like rural banks,

government parastatal organizations such as agro-service centres where farming inputs such as

improved seeds, fertilizers, chemicals, tractor services are made available to farmers at

subsidized rates, cooperation’s which are established by the government to produce and market
agricultural products, marketing companies and commodity boards which are to purchase

agricultural commodities from producers and other large scale buyers (Akingbade 2003);

3. The efforts of individual farmers who look for these services from other individuals and

groups. We are now going to discuss each service in more detail.

a) Provision of Farm Credit

Farm credit is money provided to farmers to meet the cost of executing various operations on

their farm enterprises. The money is often spent on aspects such as project farm planning,

acquisition of land where it cannot be obtained, land survey, labour, procurement of farm inputs

and marketing. Credit is therefore needed at all stages of agricultural production process.

Credit is provided to farmers in two ways. First is cash credit, which is money loaned to farmers.

Second is credit in kind, which consists of farm inputs like improved seeds, agro-chemicals,

fertilizers and herbicides, which are given to farmers to cover a part of the loan granted to farms.

Cash credit is often provided by the Banks. Agricultural Credit Cooperation and Nigeria

Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development Banks (NACRDB) in many States in Nigeria,

give credit in both cash and kind to farmers. Collateral security is however required at times.

b) Acquisition of Land

This is the second manifestation of the significance of the economic institution in the rural area.

Acquisition of land for agricultural and other economic purposes is of paramount importance.

The system of land tenure in the world falls into two major parts:

i) State ownership and control, and

ii) Individual ownership and control. The former has developed largely in the communist

countries; the latter is predominant in other parts of the world (Njike 2000). Under the state
ownership of land, allocation of this resource by groups and for various purposes is usually done

by the government. Under individual ownership, land acquisition is frequently through rent,

lease, borrowing or outright purchase of land.

c) The Land Use Degree

The Ogun State of Nigeria Gazette 27 (1978) was one of the instruments which published the

decree. It stated that it was in the public interest that the right of all Nigerians to the land of

Nigeria be preserved by law. In addition, it was in the interest of the public that the rights of all

Nigerians to use and enjoy Nigerian land and its natural fruits in enough quantity to sustain

themselves and their families should be preserved. The right to allocate land to applicants and

withdraw such land when necessary was vested in the Governor of each state. A land use and

allocation committee was set up in each state to advice the Governor on the implementation of

the decree. A land use advisory committee was setup in each Local Government Area to advice

on lands in rural areas (Jibowo 1992).

The major criticism of the decree is that it allows the rich land developers to acquire large areas

of land in various parts of the country without paying much money. The provision of the decree

which limits the area of land which could be acquired should be enforced and possibly reviewed

to reduce the area further which each person could acquire, so that land could be available for

prospective users.

d) Supply of Labour

Rural labour supply for agricultural development in various parts of the world is through these

major sources such as human labour, farm animal sources, and use of modern machines namely

ploughs, harrows, harvesters mounted on tractors. The source of labour appears to be indicative

of the level of development of each nation. In the underdeveloped and developing parts of the
World, which include themajor parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America, reliance is placed on

human labour to execute many farm operations in the rural areas. Land clearing, cultivation,

planting of crops, maintenance operations, harvesting and haulage are carried out manually

(Baldwin 1997).

The tools used include hoes and cutlasses which demand much human labour. Basket is used for

haulage of products from the farm. This involves carrying of products on shoulder or heads.

Transportation involves trekking on most occasions.

e) Acquisition of Technological Equipment and Supplies

The major essence of agricultural technology is the acquisition of equipment and supplies for the

improvement of agricultural enterprises. Technology is appropriately described as the study,

mastery, utilization and systematic application to industrial arts of the knowledge of

manufacturing methods (Makanjuola,1998). Agricultural technology may then be defined as the

systematic study and application of the knowledge of manufacturing methods to the development

of agriculture.

Agricultural technology exists in many forms. According to Olayide (1990), agricultural

technology falls into one or a combination of many forms. First is tool-embodied technology,

which is symbolized by many tools and machine such as hammers, weeders, planters, stumping

machines and sprayer. Second is process-embodied technology which is found as plans,

formulae, blue-prints and procedures embodied in the production and processing of farm goods

and services into final products. Third is process – oriented technology which assumes detailed

knowledge of properties of chemicals or physical elements and accumulated experience of

sequence to follow in production. Fourth is decision – oriented technology which encompassed

practical knowledge used by planners, technicians, engineers and producers in analyzing bodies
of information to determine the practical sequence which might be meaningfully arrived at from

such information. Many of the tools and equipment used by the small and large scale farmers

belong to the first form of technology as classified above. The technology chosen by the small

farmers has to meet some basic requirements if it is to be effective.

a) Technically Feasibility

It should be able to increase productivity by employing its technical elements;

b) Social Acceptability

It should be compatible with community structures norms, values and beliefs;

c) Economic Feasibility

It should be characterized by profitability, compatibility with the existing farming practices and

systems, dependability and potential for risk minimization;

d) Infrastructural Compatibility

It should be capable of accommodation by the existing level of the infrastructure;

e) Other Requirements

It should have employment enhancing and generating potential. It should make optimum use of

basic production resources such as land, labour, water, capital and entrepreneurship so as to

maximize output. The farm inputs or supplies are land, labour and traditional capital investment

including off-farm purchased inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, improved seeds and

seedlings. Land is the most important of these inputs. Much of the arable land in Nigeria (70%)

has not yet been put into cultivation. However, increased population pressure particularly in the

cocoa growing area of the southern states and the groundnut growing areas of the northern states,

has led to shortening of the fallow period and consequently lowers soil fertility.
f) Marketing of Farm Produce

In more developed nations, marketing of agricultural commodities is carried out largely by

specialized marketing agencies. Examples are food crops, livestock and dairy. Some individual

farmers or groups of farmers engage in the production and marketing aspects of agriculture.

In many less developed countries, however, many farmers operate on a small scale. They

frequently combine both production and marketing of their farm enterprises. Storage and

transportation of agricultural enterprises are carried out on the farm. Marketing is carried out at

the wholesale and retail levels. In Nigeria storage is only for some months or short period. Some

farmers use their crops as collaterals for obtaining loans from traders. Food crops are stored in

pots, soil, jute bags, and rafters, hung above the fire place. Only a few farmers use the steel or

concrete silos provided by the government. Transportation of food crops in Nigeria is done

mainly by head and lorries. Rail and water transportation are minimal. Water transportation is

common in riverine areas of the country. Transportation costs vary according to the means used.

Transportation problems such as bad roads, irregularity and excessively high charge of lorries

and other transport facilities prevent smooth transportation of agricultural commodities from the

farm or village to the markets.

Like in many other less developed countries, marketing efficiency is low in Nigeria.

This is because of many problems such as:

i) Low level of technical efficiency in processing;

ii) Constant price fluctuations;

iii) Inadequate transportation and storage,

iv) Poor market knowledge and information, and

iiv) Lack of standardized quality and quantity measures which prevents responsiveness of

marketing system to consumer direction and lower efficiency of commodity pricing.

To improve marketing of agricultural commodities:

(i) The government should establish storage, transportation and processing facilities at low rate

for farmers or by individuals or groups of farmers themselves;

(ii) Cooperative marketing by producers, traders and consumers should allow greater

systematization and standardization of marketing;

(iii) Marketing education and information should be made available to all people concerned with

marketing so as to arrive at judicious marketing decisions.