Introduction and Sources

– Socio-economic and political changes occurred in western Europe from the 9th to the 16th
centuries.

– Germanic groups occupied regions of Italy, Spain, and France after the fall of the Roman
Empire.

– Land control was central to social organization, influenced by Roman traditions and German
customs.Social science textbooks

– Christianity survived the collapse of Rome and spread throughout central and northern
Europe.

– The Church became a significant landholder and political power.

– The Three Orders consisted of Christian priests, landowning nobles, and peasants, and their
changing relationships shaped European history.

– European historians have extensively studied regional histories and individual villages using
documents, land records, and church records.Historical textbooks

– Marc Bloch emphasized the importance of geography and collective behavior in

understanding history.

– Bloch’s book “Feudal Society” provides detailed insights into European society from 900 to
1300.

– Bloch was tragically shot by the Nazis during World War II.

An Introduction to Feudalism
Historical textbooksBookshelves
– Feudalism describes the economic, legal, political, and social relationships in medieval
Europe.

– The term originates from the German word ‘feud’, meaning ‘a piece of land’.

– Feudalism developed in medieval France, England, and southern Italy.

– Economically, feudalism involved agricultural production based on the relationship between

lords and peasants.Social science textbooksFinancial software

– Peasants worked on their own land and the lord’s land, providing labor services in exchange

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for military protection.

– Lords had judicial control over peasants, expanding feudalism beyond the economic realm.

– Feudalism’s origins can be traced back to practices in the Roman Empire and the era of
Charlemagne.

– Feudalism became an established way of life in large parts of Europe during the 11th
century.Financial software

France and England

– Gaul, a Roman province, had diverse geographical features including coastlines, mountains,
rivers, forests, and plains.

– The region came to be known as France, named after the Germanic tribe called the Franks.

– From the 6th century, France was ruled by Frankish/French kings who embraced
Christianity.

– The French monarchy had strong ties with the Church, which were reinforced when Pope
Leo III crowned Charlemagne as the “Holy Roman Emperor” in 800.

– Across the English Channel, the island of England-Scotland was conquered in the 11th
century by a duke from the French province of Normandy.

The Three Orders

– In French society, priests subscribed to the idea that individuals belonged to one of the three
social “orders” based on their occupation.Social science textbooks

– The clergy, nobility, and peasantry were recognized as the three main orders.

– The clergy, consisting of religious figures such as priests and bishops, were associated with
prayer.

– The nobility, comprising the aristocratic class, were associated with military or fighting
activities.

– The peasantry, the majority of the population, were associated with labor and worksReligious
souvenirs

The Second Order: The Nobility

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– Priests considered themselves part of the first order, while the nobles belonged to the
second order in the social hierarchy.Social science textbooks

– Nobles held significant influence in society due to their control over land, established through
the practice of vassalage.

– Vassalage was a system where nobles pledged loyalty to the king, who served as their
seigneur (senior), and in return, the king offered protection.

Social science textbooks

– The vassalage relationship involved formal ceremonies and vows exchanged in a church,
often accompanied by symbolic gestures like receiving written charters, staffs, or clods of
earth representing the land.

– Nobles enjoyed privileges such as complete control over their properties, the ability to raise
feudal levies (troops), holding their own courts, and minting their own currency.

– Nobles owned extensive lands, including their own residences, fields, and pastures, as well
as the homes and fields of their tenant-peasants.

– Peasants worked on the noble’s lands, acted as foot soldiers when needed, and also
managed their own farms.

The Manorial Estate

– Lords had their own manor-houses and controlled villages where peasants lived. Some lords
had authority over hundreds of villages.

– Manorial estates varied in size, ranging from a dozen families to fifty or sixty families.

– The estate provided for most daily needs, including grain cultivation, maintenance of tools
and weapons by blacksmiths and carpenters, stonemasons for building upkeep, spinning and
weaving by women, and children working in wine-presses.

– The estate encompassed woodlands and forests for hunting, pastures for grazing cattle and
horses, a church, and a castle for defense.

– Castles, which became larger residences for knight’s families from the thirteenth century,
served as centers of political administration and military power under the feudal system.

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– The manor relied on external sources for items like salt, millstones, and metalware.

– Lords seeking luxurious goods and imported furnishings, musical instruments, and
ornaments had to acquire them from other regions.

The Knights
– Localized wars in Europe during the ninth century necessitated the rise of knights as skilled
cavalry.

– Knights were linked to lords through a system of land grants called “fiefs.” The lord provided
land, including a house, church, and other facilities, in exchange for the knight’s protection and
military service.

– Knights paid regular fees to their lords and practiced fencing and tactics to maintain their
skills.

– Knights could serve multiple lords, but their loyalty primarily lay with their own lord.

– Minstrels, traveling singers, gained popularity in France from the twelfth century. They
entertained nobles in manors, often from a minstrels’ gallery, with songs and stories about
brave kings and knights.

– Minstrels played a significant role in disseminating tales and legends in a time when literacy
was limited and manuscripts were scarce.

The First Order: The Clergy

– The Catholic Church had its own laws, owned lands granted by rulers, and had the power to
levy taxes, making it a powerful institution independent of the king.

– The Pope, residing in Rome, headed the western Church.

– Bishops and clerics guided the Christians in Europe and constituted the first “order.”

– Villages typically had their own churches, where people gathered on Sundays for sermons
and prayers led by priests.

– Certain restrictions applied to becoming a priest: serfs, physically challenged individuals, and

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women were prohibited. Priests were also forbidden from marrying.

– Bishops held a position of religious nobility and had access to vast estates and grand
palaces.Religious souvenirs

– The Church collected a tithe, which was a tenth of the peasants’ agricultural produce, and
received monetary endowments from the wealthy for their own welfare and the well-being of
their deceased relatives.

– Some Church ceremonies mirrored the formal customs of the feudal elite. Kneeling in
prayer, with hands clasped and head bowed, imitated the posture of a knight taking vows of
loyalty to his lord. The use of the term “lord” for God also reflected feudal culture and found its
way into Church practices.

– Feudal customs and symbols were shared between the religious and lay worlds of
feudalism.Religious souvenirs

Monks
– Devout Christians formed religious communities called abbeys or monasteries.Religious
souvenirs

– Monks and nuns took vows of lifelong dedication to prayer, study, and manual labor.

– Monasteries grew in size and had large buildings, schools, hospitals, and landed estates.

– Some monks chose to be friars, moving and preaching among the people.

– By the 14th century, there was growing uncertainty about the purpose and value of
monasticism in England.

The Church and Society

– Despite adopting Christianity, Europeans retained beliefs in magic and folk traditions.Social
science textbooks

– Christmas and Easter gained significance, replacing old pre-Roman and spring festivals.

– Holidays provided relief from work for peasants, allowing them to engage in festivities.

– Pilgrimage to shrines and churches was a common practice among Christians.

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The Third Order: Peasants, Free and Unfree
– Cultivators were divided into free peasants and serfs.Agricultural machinery

– Free peasants were tenants of the lord, providing military service and labor-rent.

– Women and children in peasant families performed various tasks for the lord.

– Peasants were subject to a direct tax called ‘taille,’ while clergy and nobles were exempt.

– Serfs were bound to the lord’s land, giving a portion of their produce and performing labor.

– Serfs had no wages, required permission to leave the estate, and faced restrictions on using
certain facilities.

– Lords had control over serfs’ marriages and could charge fees for approving their choices.

England
– Feudalism emerged in England in the 11th century.

– The Angles and Saxons settled in England in the 6th century, giving rise to the name
“England.”

– William, the Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated the Saxon king in the 11th
century.

– France and England frequently clashed in wars over territory and trade.

– William I mapped the land and distributed it to 180 Norman nobles who had migrated with
him.

– The nobles became tenants of the king and were required to provide military assistance.

– They granted lands to knights who served them, mirroring their own service to the king.

– Private warfare was prohibited in England.

– Anglo-Saxon peasants became tenants under various levels of landholders.

Factors Affecting Social and Economic Relations

– The feudal system was perceived as stable and unchanging by the clergy and nobility.

– Various processes were gradually transforming the system.

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– Environmental changes occurred over time and had subtle effects on the system.

– Changes in agricultural technology and land use had a more pronounced impact.

– These changes influenced and were influenced by the social and economic relationships
between lords and vassals.

– The following processes will be examined individually to understand their effects on the
feudal system.

The Environment
– From the 5th to the 10th centuries, Europe was predominantly covered with forests, limiting
available agricultural land.

– Peasants dissatisfied with their conditions could seek refuge in the forests.

– Europe experienced a cold climatic period during this time, with severe winters and a
shortened growing season.

– In the 11th century, Europe entered a warm phase, leading to increased temperatures and a
longer growing season.

– The warmer climate allowed for easier cultivation of the soil and expansion of agricultural
activities.

– Environmental changes, including a receding forest line, facilitated the expansion of

cultivated land in many parts of Europe.

Land Use
– Initially, agricultural technology was primitive, with only wooden ploughs drawn by oxen
available to peasants.

– The ploughs were inefficient and unable to fully utilize the soil’s productivity, resulting in
labor-intensive farming.

– Fields had to be dug by hand, usually once every four years, requiring significant manual
labor.

– Crop rotation was ineffective, with half the land left fallow and the other half planted with
winter wheat or rye.

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– This system led to soil deterioration and frequent famines, causing hardships and chronic
malnutrition.

– Despite the difficulties, lords aimed to maximize their incomes by forcing peasants to
cultivate all available land and work beyond their legal obligations.

– Peasants engaged in passive resistance by prioritizing their own fields, retaining more of
their harvest, and avoiding unpaid extra services.

– Conflicts arose between peasants and lords over the use of pasture and forest lands, with
peasants considering them communal resources while lords claimed them as private property.

New Agricultural Technology

– Technological changes in agriculture during the eleventh century included the use of heavy
iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards for deeper digging and better soil utilization.

– Improved methods of harnessing animals, such as the shoulder-harness, increased their

power.

– Water-powered and wind-powered mills became more prevalent, aiding in tasks like milling
corn and pressing grapes.

– The switch from a two-field to a three-field system allowed peasants to rotate crops and
increase food production.

– Food availability doubled, with the inclusion of crops like peas and beans providing
vegetable proteins and animal fodder.

– The average size of peasant farms decreased, allowing for more efficient cultivation and
reduced labor requirements.

– Technological changes were often initiated by lords due to their financial resources, but
peasants took initiative in extending arable land and setting up small forges and smithies.

– The transition to money-based transactions weakened the personal bonds of feudalism, as

lords preferred cash rent and cultivators sold crops for money rather than bartering goods.

– The use of money influenced prices, leading to higher prices during poor harvests.

A Fourth Order? New Towns and Townspeople

– The expansion in agriculture led to population growth in Europe, increasing from roughly 42
million in 1000 to 62 million in 1200 and 73 million in 1300.

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– Improved food availability contributed to longer lifespans, with an average European living
10 years longer by the thirteenth century compared to the eighth century.

– Towns began to grow again from the eleventh century as agriculture supported higher
population levels. Peasants needed selling centers and access to tools and goods, leading to
the development of periodic fairs and small marketing centers that gradually evolved into
towns.

– Towns formed around castles, bishops’ estates, or large churches, offering opportunities for
paid work and freedom from lordly control, attracting serfs and free peasants seeking
independence.

– Many people in towns were free peasants or escaped serfs, providing unskilled labor, while
skilled individuals like shopkeepers, merchants, bankers, and lawyers emerged as towns
grew.

– Guilds played a crucial role in economic organization, controlling product quality, prices, and
sales. Guilds were organized by craft or industry and met in guild-halls for formal functions.

– Trade routes with West Asia developed, Scandinavian and English merchants engaged in
trade, and commerce and crafts grew in France.

– Town merchants became wealthy and powerful, rivaling the nobility in influence and power.

Cathedral-towns
– Wealthy merchants made donations to the construction of cathedrals in France during the
12th century.

– Cathedrals were built with labor, materials, and money from various contributors.

– The construction of cathedrals led to the development of small towns around them.
– Cathedrals were designed for optimal acoustics and featured stained glass windows.

– Stained glass windows depicted biblical stories through pictures, serving as a means of
communication for illiterate people.

The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century

– Europe’s economic expansion slowed down in the early fourteenth century due to multiple
factors.

– Climate change, with colder summers, reduced crop-growing seasons and caused storm

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damage and flooding.

– Intensive ploughing and land clearance led to soil exhaustion and reduced pasturage.

– Severe famines and cattle deaths occurred between 1315 and the 1320s.

– Trade suffered from a shortage of metal money and reduced silver content in currency.

– The arrival of ships and rats carrying the bubonic plague (Black Death) in the mid-fourteenth
century devastated Europe.

– The plague caused a significant reduction in the population, estimated at 20% of the entire
European population.

– Cities and enclosed communities were particularly hard-hit by the plague.

– The population of Europe decreased from 73 million in 1300 to 45 million in 1400.

– The resulting depopulation led to a major labor shortage and imbalances between
agriculture and manufacturing.

– Agricultural prices dropped, while wage rates increased significantly, with a rise of up to
250% in England after the Black Death.

Social Unrest
– Lords faced a decline in income due to lower agricultural prices and increased labor wages.

– In response, lords attempted to abandon money-contracts and reinstate labor-services,

which led to peasant opposition.

– Peasant revolts took place in Flanders (1323), France (1358), and England (1381).

– The intensity of these rebellions in prosperous areas indicated peasants’ determination to

protect their previous gains.

– Despite harsh repression, the revolts prevented the complete restoration of old feudal
relations.

– The advancement of the money economy made it impossible to reverse the changes.

– Feudal privileges of earlier times could not be reinstated due to the resilience of peasant
opposition.

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Political Changes
– European kings in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, known as “the new monarchs,”
strengthened their military and financial power.

– They established standing armies, permanent bureaucracies, and national taxation.

– The dissolution of feudalism and slow economic growth allowed kings to increase their
control over subjects.

– Monarchs introduced professionally trained infantry and artillery, gaining firepower and
overcoming aristocratic resistance.

– Increased taxation provided revenue for larger armies and expansion of territories.

Ggc- Opposition to monarchies, including rebellions and wars, often centered around the issue
of taxation and regional liberties.

– The nobility shifted tactics and became loyalists, maintaining influence through permanent
administrative positions and patron-client relationships.

– Money became important for non-aristocratic elements, like merchants and bankers, to
access the court through lending money to the kings.

– France and England experienced different power structures and developments: France with
absolutism and suppression of the Estates-General, while England established a Parliament
and underwent political transformations, including the execution of Charles I.

– Today, France has a republican form of government, while England retains a monarchy,
reflecting the divergent paths taken after the seventeenth century.

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