RAD 309: RADIOGRAPHY EDUCATION

Introduction

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society.
In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or enculturation

Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits and manifests in various forms.
Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools, following a
curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside the formal
schooling system, while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences.
Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education,
primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on teaching
methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education, and on subjects, such as science
education, language education, and physical education. Additionally, the term "education" can denote
the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational
phenomena.

Education is designed to guide people from children to adulthood in learning a culture, moulding their
behaviour, and directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures, there
is often little formal learning—little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers.
Instead, the entire environment and all activities are frequently viewed as school and classes, and many
or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be
passed on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know, and, hence,
there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is formal
education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.

As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more institutionalized, educational
experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of showing and learning in the
context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling,
and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children
to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society
gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall
objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on
the rearing of the younger generation. In short, they develop philosophies and theories of education.
The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of
education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking.
These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education.
Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms, equipping
them with the skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates
economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems.

Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education
policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements.
International organizations, such as UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary education for
all children.
Many factors influence the success of education. Psychological factors include motivation, intelligence,
and personality. Social factors, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender, are often associated
with discrimination. Other factors encompass access to educational technology, teacher quality, and
parental involvement.

The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies. It delves into the nature
of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses
various subfields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, and economics of education. Additionally,
it explores topics such as comparative education, pedagogy, and the history of education. The term
"education" originates from the Latin words educare, meaning "to bring up," and educere, meaning "to
bring forth. The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree
that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills,
and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general
features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling,
teaching, and learning.

Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of
educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore, the term may also refer to the academic
field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning.
Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena,
measure educational success, and improve educational practices.

Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of
education. Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education,
including imparting knowledge and understanding to the student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and
conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the
most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education
may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise
definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based
on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each
other but need not share a set of essential features common to all.[ Some education theorists, such as
Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent.

Evaluative or thick conceptions[b] of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to
lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral
explanation. Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is
commonly used in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what
constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive
conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives, which may
encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally, and cultivating character traits such as
kindness and honesty.
Various scholars emphasize the importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from
indoctrination. They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless
of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and
question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly
distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education when
the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children
must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules
and hygiene practices.

Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-
centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of the teacher in transmitting knowledge and
skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze
education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process
transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It's also possible to consider definitions that
incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education is seen as a process of shared experience,
involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems.

Types of Education

Formal, non-formal, and informal

The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Formal education
occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order.
The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from
primary school to university. Formal education is usually overseen and regulated by the government and
often mandated up to a certain age.

Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal
education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized,
systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring, fitness classes, and
participation in the scouting movement.

Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and
exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated
authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations
throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their
parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing a dish together.

Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal
education occurs within schools, non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented,
such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally,
there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic
motivation, driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic
motivation, stemming from the enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the
differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit
into a single category.
In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between
educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom,
and adults commonly assumed the role of educators. However, informal education often proves
insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational
settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing
significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards
more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There was a greater
emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating
specific behaviors.

Levels

Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the
International Standard Classification of Education, maintained by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-
formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as the student's age, the duration of
learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements,
teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into
early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-
secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8)

Tertiary level professional education is a form of tertiary level education which provides programmes for
demanding occupational fields and leadership positions. It serves the purposes of staff training and
helps professionals to specialise. Tertiary level professional education comprises Professional Education
Institutions and Federal Diploma of Higher Education examinations and Advanced Federal Diploma of
Higher Education examinations. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary
education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic
degree. Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral
education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving
as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects,
providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's
level education, also known as undergraduate education, is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary
education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential
known as a bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate
education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral
level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor
of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a
dissertation. More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.

Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification, a prerequisite for advancing
to higher levels of education and entering certain professions. Undetected cheating during exams, such
as utilizing a cheat sheet, poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students.

In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are
significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland,
Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost. Conversely, in nations like the
United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees, leading students to
rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for
students in developing countries, as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms,
and buy textbooks

Education Training Methods.

Individual approaches and strategies to impart knowledge to students and inspire them to learn are
probably built on the teacher’s academic education as well as his instincts and intuition. Whether one
comes by preferred teaching methods organically or by actively studying educational theory and
pedagogy, it can be helpful to have a comprehensive working knowledge of the various teaching
methods available. The teacher-centered approach vs. the student-centered approach. High-tech vs.
low-tech approaches to learning. Flipped classrooms, differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning,
personalized learning and more. Not only are there dozens of teaching methods to explore, it is also
important to have a sense for how they often overlap or interrelate.

The term teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy and management strategies used
for classroom instruction. The choice of teaching method depends on what fits you—your educational
philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area and school mission statement. Teaching theories can
be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus
a student-centered approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use.

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning

Taken to its most extreme interpretation, teachers are the main authority figure in a teacher-centered
instruction model. Students are viewed as “empty vessels” who passively receive knowledge from their
teachers through lectures and direct instruction with an end goal of positive results from testing and
assessment. In this style, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities; student learning
is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.
Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are still an authority figure in a student-centered teaching model, teachers and students
play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate
student learning and overall comprehension of material, and to measure student learning through both
formal and informal forms of assessment, like group projects, student portfolios and class participation.
In the student-centered classroom, teaching and assessment are connected because student learning is
continuously measured during teacher instruction.

High-Tech Approach to Learning

Advancements in technology have propelled the education sector in the last few decades. As the name
suggests, the high-tech approach to learning utilizes different technology to aid students in their
classroom learning. Many educators use computers and tablets in the classroom, and others may use
the internet to assign homework. The internet is also beneficial in a classroom setting as it provides
unlimited resources. Teachers may also use the internet in order to connect their students with people
from around the world.

Below are some tech tools used in classrooms today:

G Suite (Gmail, Docs, Sheets, Classroom, Drive, and Calendar)

Tablets/laptops

Gamification software and Classcraft

Education-focused social media platforms (such as Schoology and Seesaw

Technology accessibility for students with disabilities

Low-Tech Approach to Learning

While technology undoubtedly has changed education, many educators opt to use a more traditional,
low-tech approach to learning. Some learning styles require a physical presence and interaction
between the educator and the student. Additionally, some research has shown that low-tech classrooms
may boost learning. For example, students who take handwritten notes have better recall than students
who take typed notes. Another downside of technology in the classroom may be that students exposed
to spell check and autocorrect features at an earlier age may be weaker in spelling and writing skills.
Ultimately, tailoring the learning experience to different types of students is incredibly important, and
sometimes students work better with a low-tech approach.

Here are some examples of low technology usage in different teaching methodologies:

Kinesthetic learners have a need for movement when learning. Teachers can allow students to move
around, speak with hands and gestures.

Expeditionary learning involves “learning by doing” and participating in a hands-on experience. Students
may participate in fieldwork, learning expeditions, projects or case studies to be able to apply
knowledge learned in the classroom to the real world, rather than learning through the virtual world.

Many types of vocational or practical training cannot be learned virtually, whether it be a laboratory
experiment or woodworking.
Through these different approaches to teaching, educators can gain a better understanding of how best
to govern their classrooms, implement instruction, and connect with their students. Within each
category of teacher and student centeredness and tech usage, there are specific teaching roles or
“methods” of instructor behavior that feature their own unique mix of learning and assessment
practices.

Teacher-Centered Methods of Instruction

Direct Instruction (Low-Tech)

Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching strategy that relies on
explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led demonstrations. In this method of instruction, the
teacher might play one or all of the following roles:

Teacher-Centered Methods of Expert Personal Model

Instruction
Expert teachers are in Teachers who operate under
Direct Instruction (Low-Tech) possession of all knowledge and the “personal model’ style are
Direct instruction is the general expertise within the classroom. those who lead by example,
term that refers to the Their primary role is to guide demonstrating to students how
traditional teaching strategy and direct students through the to access and comprehend
that relies on explicit teaching learning process. Students are information. In this teaching
through lectures and teacher- viewed solely as the receptors model, students learn through
led demonstrations. of knowledge and information observing and copying the
(“empty vessels”). teacher’s process.
In this method of instruction,
the teacher might play one or
all of the following roles:

As the primary teaching strategy under the teacher-centered approach, direct instruction utilizes passive
learning, or the idea that students can learn what they need to through listening and watching very
precise instruction. Teachers and professors act as the sole supplier of knowledge, and under the direct
instruction model, teachers often utilize systematic, scripted lesson plans. Direct instruction programs
include exactly what the teacher should say, and activities that students should complete, for every
minute of the lesson. Because it does not include student preferences or give them opportunities for
hands-on or alternative types of learning, direct instruction is extremely teacher-centered. It’s also fairly
low-tech, often relying on the use of textbooks and workbooks instead of computers and devices

Flipped Classrooms (High-Tech)

The idea of the flipped classroom began in 2007 when two teachers began using software that would let
them record their live lectures. By the next school year, they were implementing pre-recorded lectures
and sharing the idea of what became known as the flipped classroom.
Broadly, the flipped classroom label describes the teaching structure that has students watching pre-
recorded lessons at home and completing in-class assignments, as opposed to hearing lectures in class
and doing homework at home. Teachers who implement the flipped classroom model often film their
own instructional videos, but many also use pre-made videos from online sources.

A key benefit of the flipped classroom model is that it can allow for students to work at their own pace.
In some cases, teachers may assign the same videos to all students, while in others, teachers may
choose to allow students to watch new videos as they master topics, taking on a more differentiated
approach.

But despite this potential for more student-centeredness, flipped classroom models are still mostly
based on a teacher’s idea of how learning should happen and what information students need, making it
chiefly teacher-centered. From a technology perspective, the system hinges on pre-recorded lessons and
online activities, meaning both students and teachers need a good internet connection and devices that
can access it.

Kinesthetic Learning (Low Tech)

Sometimes known as “tactile learning”or “hands-on learning”, kinesthetic learning is based on the idea
of multiple intelligences, requiring students to do, make or create. In a kinesthetic learning environment,
students perform physical activities rather than listen to lectures or watch demonstrations. Hands-on
experiences, drawing, role-play, building and the use of drama and sports are all examples of kinesthetic
classroom activities.

Though a great way to keep students engaged and, at times, simply awake, very few classrooms employ
kinesthetic learning activities exclusively. One reason is that, despite the popularity of learning style
theories, there is a lack of research-based evidence that shows that teaching to certain learning styles
produces better academic results

One upside is that kinesthetic learning is rarely based on technology, as the method values movement
and creativity over technological skills. That means it’s cheap and fairly low-barrier to adopt, as well as a
welcome break from students’ existing screen time. Kinesthetic learning can be more student-centered
than teacher-centered when students are given the choice of how to use movement to learn new
information or experience new skills, so it’s also adaptable to a teacher’s particular classroom
preferences.

Student-Centered Methods of Instruction

Differentiated Instruction (Low Tech)

Differentiated instruction is the teaching practice of tailoring instruction to meet individual student
needs. It initially grew popular with the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which
ensured all children had equal access to public education. The Individualized Education Programs (IEPs),
which started under IDEA, helped classroom teachers differentiate for students with special needs.
Today, differentiated instruction is used to meet the needs of all types of students.
Teachers can differentiate in a number of ways: how students access content, the types of activities
students do to master a concept, what the end product of learning looks like and how the classroom is
set up. Some examples of differentiation include: having students read books at their own reading
levels, offering different spelling lists to students or meeting in small groups to reteach topics.

Though differentiation is focused on individual student needs, it is mostly planned and implemented by
the teacher. And technology, though a potential aid, is not a hallmark of the differentiated teaching
style, making it a fairly traditional, low-barrier method to adopt.

Inquiry-based Learning (High Tech)

Based on student investigation and hands-on projects, inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that
casts a teacher as a supportive figure who provides guidance and support for students throughout their
learning process, rather than a sole authority figure.

In this method of instruction, the teacher might play one or all of the following roles:

Facilitator Personal Model Delegator

Facilitators play a strong Teachers who operate under Teachers act as a resource to
emphasis on the teacher- the “personal model” style are students, answering questions
student relationship. Operating those who lead by example, and reviewing their progress as
under an open classroom demonstrating to students how needed. Teachers play a passive
model, there is a de-emphasis to access and comprehend role in student’s learning;
on teacher instruction, and both information. In this teaching students are active and engaged
student and educator undergo model, students learn through participants in their learning.
the learning process together. observing and copying the The main goal of a delegator is
Student learning is loosely teacher’s process. to foster a sense of autonomy in
guided by the teacher, and is the learning process.
focused on fostering
independence, hands-on
learning and exploration.

Teachers encourage students to ask questions and consider what they want to know about the world
around them. Students then research their questions, find information and sources that explain key
concepts and solve problems they may encounter along the way. Findings might be presented as self-
made videos, websites or formal presentations of research results.

Inquiry-based learning falls under the student-centered approach, in that students play an active and
participatory role in their own learning. But teacher facilitation is also extremely key to the process.
Usually, during the inquiry cycle, every student is working on a different question or topic. In this
environment, teachers ask high-level questions and make research suggestions about the process rather
than the content. At the end of the inquiry cycle, students reflect on the experience and what they
learned. They also consider how it connects to other topics of interest, as an inquiry on one topic often
results in more questions and then an inquiry into new fields.
Inquiry-based learning can make great use of technology through online research sites, social media,
and the possibility for global connections with people outside of the community. But depending on the
subject at hand, it doesn’t necessarily require it.

Expeditionary Learning (High Tech)

Expeditionary learning is based on the ideas of the educator who founded Outward Bound and is a form
of project-based learning in which students go on expeditions and engage in in-depth study of topics
that impact their schools and communities. The learning in this model includes multiple content areas so
that students can see how problem-solving can happen in the real world—ideally, their own worlds. A
student in a big city, for example, might study statistics about pollution, read information about its
effects and travel to sites in their city that have been affected by the problem. When they have a good
understanding of the circumstances, students and teachers work to find a solution they can actively
implement. Technology-wise, G Suite (Google Docs, Sheets and Drive) and internet access can aid
student research, presentation, and implementation of projects. But it’s the hands-on work and getting
out into the community that’s the cornerstone of this methodology.

Personalized Learning (High Tech)

Personalized learning is such a new educational model that its definition is still evolving. At the heart of
the model, teachers have students follow personalized learning plans that are specific to their interests
and skills. Student self-direction and choice in the curriculum are hallmarks of personalized learning.

Assessment is also tailored to the individual: schools and classrooms that implement personalized
learning use competency-based progression, so that students can move onto the next standards or
topics when they’ve mastered what they’re currently working on. That way, students in personalized
learning classrooms can progress to work beyond their grade level as they master topics, while students
who need additional help have that time built into their daily schedules as well.

There’s also room for an emphasis on college and career readiness in personalized learning
environments. Students who don’t require remediation or extension work can instead work with
teachers to nurture social skills and other or 21st-century skills lessons and receive mentoring.

Personalized learning is extremely student-centered, but teachers are required to teach lessons, look at
frequent assessment data and meet with students to make any necessary changes to their learning
plans. They’ll also need to have a certain comfort level with technology: the differentiated and
personalized instruction that students receive often come in the form of online lessons and programs, so
teachers must be able to navigate virtual platforms with ease.

Game-based Learning (High Tech)

Game-based learning comes from the desire to engage students in more active learning in the
classroom. Because they require students to be problem solvers and use soft skills that they will need as
adults, games are a great way to encourage a mastery mindset, rather than a focus on grades. In a
game-based learning environment, students work on quests to accomplish a specific goal (learning
objective) by choosing actions and experimenting along the way. As students make certain progress or
achievements, they can earn badges and experience points, just like they would in their favorite video
games.
Game-based learning requires a lot of time and planning on the teacher’s part. Fortunately, there is
software that makes this process much easier, like Gametize and Classcraft. Teachers who use this
software may be better at differentiating quests for students because of the data the programs provide.

Because teachers play a big role in planning and creating content under this model, game-based learning
isn’t completely student-centered. However, it is still very much focused on the student, who works at
their own pace and makes independent choices in a gamified environment.

Medical Education

Didactic lectures (DL) have been the gold standard and the most common method of traditional
teaching and learning practice. DL depends on the instructor, who teaches large amounts of information
with minimal student engagement, and are typically conducted in an instructor-centered classroom,
centralizing the knowledge, content, and involvement of students. Despite traditional preferences for
simplicity of lecture presentations, appropriateness for crowded classes, and the ability to present
massive amounts of theoretical content, students are exposed to large amounts of information making
it difficult to retain, remember, and interpret. But learning is an active process, in which the students
and teachers have to work mutually to make this knowledge-sharing process enjoyable and easier for
comprehension. For effective learning, teaching should facilitate development of analytical approaches
to a problem and address critical areas. Students should be able to use knowledge and skills obtained in
the class to satisfy their professional goals while being equipped with different learning styles and
having the opportunity for feedback and discussions on their learning process thereby enhancing
students’ learning effects. Thus, it becomes essential to utilize an approach to teaching and learning that
best meets the specific needs of the students. For this reason, modern education systems should
encompass multiple alternative teaching and learning strategies which are well validated and applicable
to a typical classroom setting in medical schools.

Case based learning (CBL)

CBL is a teaching-learning practice where clinical cases are employed to aid in traditional lectures. CBL
promotes active learning, and is being used recently to compensate for the lack of motivation in didactic
lectures. Students are given the opportunity to explore real cases in which patient history, signs,
symptoms along with clinical and laboratory findings are provided. Through teamwork and peer
interaction, students assess the case while planning for investigations and appropriate management.
The motto is to equip students with the necessary aptitude required for critical analysis.

CBL links theory to practice promoting inquiry-based learning techniques. Students are put into groups
and presented with clinical cases to simulate real life scenarios. These groups of students then work as a
team to discuss and analyze the case to uncover differential diagnoses, management strategies, and
future plans. CBL covers large amounts of topics with clear learning objectives and enhances clinical
knowledge, improved teamwork, clinical skills, and practice-based behaviour.

Although CBL can be effective in promoting group discussions, proper measures have to be taken in
organizing the groups. Students and teachers require additional time to prepare for each session. This
directly interferes with the student’s timetable and exam preparation. Furthermore, some instructors’
attitude, personality and disposition lead to dominance of the process with little time for independent
student exploration of the case interfering with experiential learning.

Evidence-based medicine (EBM)

EBM provides students with the necessary tools to learn, comprehend, and appraise medical literature.
EBM follows five steps: a) translation of undetermined information to an answerable question, b)
retrieval of the best evidence available, c) critical comprehension of evidence for internal validity, d)
application of results in practice, and e) performance evaluation. It advocates long-lasting learning and
disciplined thinking by allowing meticulous and sensible application of current medical evidence in
decisions regarding patient care.

Although EBM has been compared to the difference between experimental and personal equipoise, the
early introduction of EBM in medical schools has been effective in changing the thought process of
medical graduates. Students are better equipped with analytical ability and decision-making capacity
with positive impact on building competency. Implementing EBM into the conventional medical
curriculum improves students’ research knowledge, personal application, outlook, and future use of the
learned methods (Ma et al., 2014). In comparison with the integration of EBM along with traditional
medical curricula, the modern techniques of learning medicine shows a holistic approach promoting
innovation and spontaneity. It also increases the ability for logical and critical thinking, better suited for
the understanding of disease background and subsequent management.

Despite its indispensable role in modern education, incorporation of EBM has to be properly guided into
the medical curriculum to achieve its objectives. It is to be seen precisely through the filter of personal
training and experience as reflective learning is the best predictor of an optimal outcome. Insufficiency
of knowledge and experience within the research field are some of the challenges. Students need to
become acquainted with computers and have to undergo proper training on how to execute effective
research using online databases. Similarly, statistical understanding can be challenging at times limiting
its implementation.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

PBL is a modern learning system which combines complementary educational principles in the form of a
clinical problem. It is particularly aimed at improving the quality of educational outcomes through
collaborative, integrated, self-directed and comprehensive learning. An important and basic tenet of PBL
is “problem first” learning, in which students attempt to solve a problem without receiving formal
lectures on the subject matter. Generally, delivery of PBL is done through small group tutorials in which
instructions are relayed by the teacher serving as a facilitator. These tutorials typically consist of various
sessions, each dedicated to a problem in which a self-study period is allocated for searching and
gathering information. This creates opportunities for students to pursue and lay a firm foundation of
self-directed learning. Medical students are required to co-construct their own meaning and
understanding of reflective knowledge through social interaction rather than having pre-synthesized
knowledge passively conveyed to them.

PBL is acknowledged as a powerful strategy supporting higher-order cognitive processes among the
members of the group (Donner and Bickley, 1993). Knowledge application and diagnostic reasoning skills
are acquired through given cases to address a variety of clinical problems. Students develop better
clinical reasoning skills, use time efficiently, and retain clinical knowledge. Such skills and attributes are
especially important for subsequent practice as the need for continuing medical education becomes
widely accepted, and necessary to cope with the explosion of medical information and technology.

Periodic evaluation of students’ performance during PBL sessions can be challenging, necessitating the
definitive methods of evaluation. Students should also have simultaneous access to the equivalent
resources to be able to have the same advantages as their fellow colleagues. However, information
overload can become an obstacle in effectively completing the case objectives. Furthermore, the
adoption of PBL will require students to make a conscious effort to assume responsibility, in order to
attain better performance in the examinations.

Simulation-based learning (SBL)

Simulation represents a man-made illustration of a true world to attain instructional motives through
experiential learning. The main principle behind simulation learning is to utilize simulation aids to mimic
real clinical scenarios. Although medical simulation is quite new, simulation has been used for a long
time in other high risk professions such as aviation. Medical simulation permits the retrieval of clinical
skills through intended practice rather than an apprentice-style of learning. It can assist as a substitute
to real patients and clinical scenarios. Barriers that surround limited clinical settings have encouraged
the use of SBL into preclinical teaching. One of the most important advantages is the absolute freedom
for trainees in making and repeating mistakes without harming the patient.

Virtual reality can also be implicated into SBL to enhance learning standards and confidence in patient
care (Chin et al., 2014). It is best represented as a concept of leading edge technology to facilitate
human- machine interaction and effectively decrease the gap between realistic and theory based
learning by involving the learner in pseudo realistic settings. It differs greatly with respect to its level of
development, authenticity, and end user synergy with the virtual background. Comprehending the use
of haptic feedback can produce a feeling of resistance when using instruments in a simulated
environment. Similar technological principles are being used in training laparoscopic and endoscopic
instrumentation to the resident physicians.

Although SBL can simulate genuine clinical scenarios, it can be a first time practical experience for
students requiring coordination, patience, cooperation, and effective guidance. SBL equipment such as
mannequins, software and facility areas can be expensive and need appropriate maintenance. Session
preparation and arrangement can be time consuming and necessitates enough equipment for equal
student opportunity. Professors also need to be suitably trained in operating any gear.

Social media and video lectures (e-learning)

Social media is a public networking space where end users establish online communities for effective
discussion. These online communities are helpful to circulate information, thoughts, and various other
contents. There are many social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and online blogs.
Social media has become an elemental part of modern medical societies, hospitals, and advocacy
groups. The obligation for an advancing education is more important than ever before, thereby
incorporation of social media in the modern educational system is a must. Social media platforms can
assist subsidiary traditional knowledge and enhance distant learning. Students and learners of all
stratums commonly check the internet for details about diseases, therapies, and associated physiology.
Furthermore, many organizations have realized that supporting live-tweeting or blogging of medical
conferences as well as dispensing opportunities for wide propagation of content can far outdistance the
in-person attendance.

Computer technologies have shown greater impact on medical education, most recently through the
electronic distribution of videos. The extensive usage of the vast educational resources available
through the internet has significant medical importance. These online resources can be used for
practical learning of clinical procedures, demonstrations of anatomical dissections as well as
asynchronous learning through online lectures. Resources encompass a wide range of subject material
ranging from personal homemade videos to specialized content provided by various health care
organizations and clinicians for professional education.

Despite the fact these platforms can supplement and enhance learning, it is important to realize they
cannot replace fundamental education and experience. Students are not able to gain the same direct
and live contact with teachers with a structured time and location for learning, substantiation of the
knowledge as well as interpersonal skills that can only be learned through in-class learning. Also, the
information on the platform is not regulated and can easily be misleading.

Peer-assisted learning

Peer-assisted learning is the development of knowledge based skill through active help and support of
equals. It is a team-based, analogous, non-professional learning framework which comprises a group of
motivated people helping each other in the learning process. These participants, tutors and tutees,
come from similar educational backgrounds. This learning strategy is conducted through selection of
students with suitable characteristics of teaching medical concepts. This allows for development of
capabilities enhancing learning along with practice of medicine. It is an extensive system that promises
to ensure strong affiliation amid experiential learning and a collaborative teaching environment.

PAL is helpful to both the tutor and the tutee to enhance their knowledge and understanding. Tutor self-
perceived benefits include: skills in expressing thoughts and development in understanding knowledge.
Preparing to teach and learn simultaneously and providing feedback to peers have both improved
cognitive and non-cognitive benefits to the tutors. It has also shown a greater impact on the assessment
scores of the tutees improving their overall academic performance.

Tremendous efforts have to be taken in selecting highly efficient tutors to gain the full potential of this
learning style. Similarly, perceived stigma associated with peer knowledge, lack of motivation, and
willingness for collaboration can be a limiting factor. Students may not be well prepared or have
sufficient or accurate knowledge on particular concepts to be able to transmit it to their peers.

Observational learning

Observational learning is learning through demonstration, mostly important in the medical field in due
consideration of “patient safety first”. Motor skill development is an essential component of medicinal
expertise and therefore must be taught and practiced competently. Numerous medical procedures are
termed open-skills as they necessitate physician adaptation to unpredictable and ever-changing
environments (e.g. oro-tracheal intubation and surgical suture). The mechanical processing behind this
learning strategy comes from mirror neuron systems in the premotor cortex and has a role in the
reproduction of observable actions in others. The approach to observational learning involves the
commitment of the motor system to learn, requiring its implicit engagement by the observer.
Furthermore, immediate feedback gives the impression that it has an effect not only during physical
practice but also during observational learning. However, it shows that aggregates of observational
methods and physical practice could be more desirable than physical practice alone.

Observational methods are crucial to learning complex medical procedures enhancing learning and skill
through observational practice. Motor skill practice becomes an important attribute in improving the
performance of medical procedures, and understanding the underlying mechanism for these motor
actions play a crucial role in building better training systems. Strategies acquired from this technique
lead to flexible capabilities and optimize motivation by enhancing information processing. It also
heightens skill development through visual-spatial depiction consequently producing vivid imagery of
the working memory.

Observational learning has some challenges including its implementation into the curriculum. Instructors
are not able to control students’ interest in observing a particular technique or skill making it difficult to
assess behaviour. Observational sessions are also cumbersome and physically demanding to set up.
Similarly, it only provides some of the motor and sensory processes involved in motor skill development
compared to actual practice involving the complete process. Students experience the visual input
regarding movement execution, without experiencing the neuronal connections to motor periphery or
afferent feedback. Moreover, it can introduce observer-bias in which student interest can affect
perception and interpretation of the demonstration. Likewise, there can be a transient change in
student behaviour introducing a “Hawthorne effect”.

Flipped classroom

Flipped classroom is the newer innovative teaching and learning strategy that incorporates blended
learning techniques using online and/or offline instructional content outside the traditional classroom
setting. Students are provided with the pre-recorded lectures assigned as homework for class
preparation shifting from instructor-centred towards self-directed learning. They solve medical cases by
engaging in small groups that will facilitate a team-based approach and promote longer retention of
facts. It also supports student interaction amongst each other to fill the void in their knowledge by
acknowledging their diversity and learning strengths.

Flipped classroom promotes self-directed learning, as students are obliged to look into alternative
sources to support the given cases. Current research evidence shows that the flipped classroom
approach improves student perception, learning, critical thinking skills, and motivation in comparison to
traditional lecturing methods. Through incorporation of audio-visual tools, students are provided with
indefinite access to instructive material thus stimulating an interactive and independent learning
experience. Students are able to evaluate their learning, identify their strengths and weaknesses, and
are given the possibility to receive feedback and constructive criticism from both their colleagues and
teachers to make the necessary improvements in their learning process.

Despite these advantages, flipped classrooms are criticized for minimal direct instructor involvement
and lack of clinical skills collaboration, which are mainly essential for clinical practice. Other challenges
include known differences in cognitive abilities that students may use when learning from a screen
compared to hard copy material such as comparatively inferior time optimization and distractibility and
reduced ability to concentrate. There is a greater need for teachers to thoughtfully prepare and design
activities to ensure student preparation and engagement. As evident, neglecting to link pre-learning
material to in-class discussions can establish frustration and discontent among students.

Team-based learning

Team-based learning (TBL) is one of the finest learning techniques that recently gained popularity in
medical education with the basis of student-centered learning. Team-based learning is defined as a
learning strategy with a small group of students having the opportunity to apply educational concepts
through various activities that comprise critical thinking, individual and team-based tasks, and
brainstorming followed by immediate feedback from the instructor. TBL has a greater advantage of
increasing communication skills and teamwork strategies in the student groups which are essential for
patient care. Active participation of the student groups was more effectively seen in TBL compared to
the PBL. TBL also possesses the major advantage of having students find solutions, and make decisions
as a team which fosters increased motivation for learning, creates concept mapping, and seeds deep
learning. Instructors leading small group discussion sessions which mimic team-based learning have
shown better student assessment scores compared to the standard didactic lectures.

Unfortunately, there is evidence in which certain students and educators struggle with this learning
technique as some students do not value team-work; they find it has reduced effectiveness and
efficiency when compared to didactic learning. Certain students value the competitive nature of higher
education; this makes some students reluctant to engage in participating and sharing information. Also,
problems can lie in knowledge transfer between students and instructors. Both need to believe in
practicing concepts through exercises for proper concept use in real-life situations. Some instructors
who do not completely embrace this learning strategy, and revert back to simply telling students
information, risk interfering with students’ creative process and critical thinking, causing students to feel
less satisfied and feel they haven’t gained sufficient knowledge as they had wanted.

To decrease the potential differences in knowledge among the team members when working in groups
it is recommended to supplement students with pre-recorded lecture notes and compulsory reading
tasks before attending the session with the instructor. Better outcomes can be seen in student groups
when the instructor uses open-ended questions to foster discussion among the student groups.

The Methods

Traditionally, lectures occupy the centre of education in pre-clinical years. Didactic lectures have been
the formal method of relaying information from instructor to student. However, this approach has been
met with numerous challenges necessitating the implementation of modern learning techniques. DL is
passive and poorly designed or executed as an active learning exercise for students to be able to
effectively enhance their learning through collaboration. Students are becoming increasingly reluctant
to engage in teaching and learning beyond the realm of the classroom. Modern approaches to learning
are student-centered and focus the responsibility of learning on the learners. Unparallel progression in
the medical systems dictates the need for an educational system that actively engages future students.
Students do more than just listen; they are continually engaged in the learning process through active
participation. They are more effective in improving knowledge and understanding in medical education
compared to didactic lectures and shown to improve long-term retention of knowledge and self-
directed learning skills.
Modern techniques of learning medicine are imperative in medical education. Integrating modern
techniques of learning in medical education addresses the differences in learning style preferences that
can affect students’ performance in various aspects of basic medical sciences. These techniques, such as
CBL, EBM and PBL, motivate studying by actively involving students and linking theory to real life
situations. They improve competency, logical thinking and better clinical reasoning. For example, PAL
helps students express their thoughts and share their knowledge to develop understanding.
Observational learning allows for immediate feedback and enhances the performance of medical
procedures which are almost always a daily routine of physicians. Modern techniques of learning also
provide freedom to explore knowledge and give an opportunity for reflection in a controlled
environment. In simulation studies, student mistakes can be acceptable as they are not deleterious to
the patient and the mistakes serve as reinforcement in avoiding future medical errors. Similarly, the
internet is an effective tool in providing facts about disease processes, therapies, and management.
Through social networking, online collaboration is promoted and content-specific information is easily
disseminated to students in particular subgroups. YouTube videos from reliable sources have proven to
provide medical students with a wealth of valuable information, particularly on how to perform various
clinical examinations.

The process of learning is a natural, active, intentionally mediated and highly personal process in which
there is constructing meaning from information and life experiences. This concept suggests that
individuals have a natural propensity for learning surrounded by the correct motivational environment
as well as that the learning process is highly personal. A motivated student is therefore a lifelong learner
and vice versa. Both learning and motivation for seeking knowledge are natural qualities and are
influenced by a person’s view of themselves, their goals and expectations. Lifelong learning is also a
natural human capacity strengthened by the discovery of one’s learning tendencies. Accordingly, it is
important to promote self-initiating learning techniques as they are the most persistent and permeative
It should be relevant to the students’ work and obligations valued by them. Facilitators should be
explicit in the learning objectives and how that particular activity would allow them to achieve their
goals. Educators should also be aware of each student’s needs and devise activities that meet those
needs with emphasis on motivation. Creating a motivational atmosphere can involve establishment of
social relationships (i.e. making friends), fulfilment of expectations, professional growth, and cognitive
benefit. The optimal learning experience is a self-motivated and active process, with encouragement of
student participation, sharing of experiences, and involvement in discussions.

There is a greater need for curricular integration to complement basic and clinical sciences to enhance
learning and promote student engagement. Early introduction and exposure of various teaching-
learning strategies enhance understanding and aid in clinical practice. These learning methods attend to
individual learning differences and integrate various learning strategies allowing students. Currently,
medical colleges have realized the value of early clinical exposure to support vertical integration in
preclinical studies. Beyond doubt, the incorporation of modern learning methods will facilitate the
acquisition of knowledge and skills. This is in contrast to the traditional medical curriculum which
focuses entirely on the core medical facts rather than an overall development in research and
innovation. A regular review and implementation of modern teaching-learning technologies is needed
along with timely detection of a dysfunctional curriculum. Concerned stakeholders should come
together and play an active role in the formulation and design of the curriculum intended to ensure an
improvement in medical students’ aptitude, attitude, and future application of medical knowledge. As
such, educational institutions should design, introduce, and implement these alternative teaching-
learning strategies early in the curriculum for an optimal teaching and learning environment. This
provides students the freedom to explore and reflect on their knowledge as well as help in expanding
and modernizing medical education.

Points to Note

1 Problem-based learning is patient-centric and means you'll be exposed to patients very early
in your studies. It was pioneered by the University of Manchester and has now been
adopted by most Medical Schools, but the level of focus on problem-based learning will vary
with each University.
2 List of Teaching Methods
-Teacher-Centered Instruction. ...
-Small Group Instruction. ...
-Student-Centered / Constructivist Approach. ...
-Project-Based Learning. ...
-Montessori. ...
-Inquiry-Based Learning. ...
-Flipped Classroom. ...
-Cooperative Learning

3 Methods of teaching Health Education

- Health talks. ...

- Lecture. ...
- Group discussion. ...
- Buzz group. ...
-Demonstration. ...
-Role play. ...
- Drama. ...
- Traditional means of communication.