RVS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

(Affiliated to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3)

Thanjavur – 613 402

HOR 211 – PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF

VEGETABLES AND SPICE CROPS (1+1)

Course Teacher
Mrs. S. Harini
Assistant Professor (Horticulture)

STUDENT NAME :

ID NO :

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 Lecture 1
Importance of vegetable growing –area and production of vegetables in India and Tamil Nadu-
National economy- nutritive value of vegetables and human nutrition .
▪ India: second largest producer of vegetables in the world after China
▪ Area under vegetables 11.28 million ha
▪ Total production 204.61 million metric tonnes
▪ Productivity per ha 17.4 t/ha
▪ Top five states (area wise) WB, UP, Bihar, AP, Orrisa, Gujarat
▪ Highest productivity Tamilnadu
▪ India‟s share in world production: 13-14%.
Olericulture

Derived from two Greek holar/holas + cultra

The science of vegetable cultivation is termed as olericulture

• They vary in life span (annual, biennial, perennial), propagation (seeds, vegetative), growth habit
(herbaceous, vine, shrub, tree), growing season (summer, winter) and their uses of different parts and at
different stages.
Vegetables: These are the products of herbaceous plants which are annuals, biennial and perennials (mostly
annual) whose plant parts such as fruits, leaves, roots, stems, petiole, flower etc. are used for culinary or
consumed as raw.

IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES
Self-sufficiency in true sense can be achieved only when each individual is assured of a balanced
diet. Our dietary situation which is mostly cereal based is really alarming. Cereals chiefly supply
carbohydrates which constitute only a part of the diet. Chief deficiencies in our diet are calories, proteins,
vitamin A and riboflavin. Dieticians advocate intake of 300g of vegetables every day to make our diet
balanced along with other diets. This includes 125 g leafy vegetables, 75 g other vegetables and 100 g
root and tuber vegetables . The average intake of vegetables of the country is about 230 g/head/day.
The fruits and vegetables play an important role in the balanced diet of human beings by providing
not only the energy-rich food (good source of productive foods carbohydrates) but also promise supply of
vital protective nutrients like minerals and vitamins.

Importance of vegetables as healthy food

I. Productive foods (energy-rich food) are carbohydrares, protein, roughages

Nutrient Deficiency causes Nutrient rich vegetables

Carbohydrates (400- Serve as a chief source of energy in Sweet potato, Potato, cassava,
500 g) the food. carrot, taro, pea, onion,
elephant foot yam etc.
Protein Pea, cowpea, broad bean, lime
(60-70 g) Retarded growth in children. bean, fenugreek leaves,
Discolouration of skin and hair. celery, drumstick

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II. Protective foods:
a) Vitamins:
Nutrient Deficiency causes Nutrient rich vegetables
Vitamin A Night blindness, Xerophthalmia, Carrot, Amarathus, Palak, Spinach,
(5000 IU) Frequent respiratory infection. Fenugreen leaves, broccoli, kale,
tomato
Thiamin (B1) Beri-beri disease Palak(0.26mg), Pea(0.25 mg), tomato,
1.2 mg Loss of appetite. chilli, musk melon, garlic, leek
Dilation of heart.
Riboflavin (B2) Palak (0.56 mg), chilli (0.39 mg),
1.7mg Ulcers in the oral cavity. sweat pepper, broccoli, lettuce, celery,
Loss of hair & dry scaly skin. Asparagus.
Cracked lips.
Niacin Pellagra Palak (3.3mg), Aamaranth (1mg),
(19 mg) Nervous break down. bitter gourd, chilli, radish, lettuce,
Stomach and intestinal disorder. carrot, pea.
Sore tongue.
Pyridoxin (B6) Ulceration of oral cavity, anaemia, skin Widely distributed in vegetables.
diseases (acrodynia).
Vit C >100 mg: Sweat pepper, chilli,
(70 mg) Scurvy (oedema, anaemia, bleeding gums cabbage, broccoli, kale, drumstick,
and mucus membrane). parsley.
Reduced resistance to diseases. 70-100 mg: cauliflower, bitter gourd,
amaranths
Vit K Delayed and faulty coagulation of blood in Green leafy vegetables
(0.15 mg) cut wounds.
Hindrance in normal secretion of bile.

Some other vitamins which are not generally associated with vegetables are pantothenic acid, biotin
(Vit H), vitamin B12 (Cobalamin), Cholin (sinkalin), inositol and vitamin D. These are present in the
product of animal origin and may be synthesized by intestinal bacteria (eg pantothenic acid, biotin).
III. Minerals
 Play a major role in the functioning of physiological activities and reproduction.
 Components of various vital body constituents. For example:
Ca: bones & teeth, blood clotting, osteomalacia in women after repeated pregnancies.
Fe: important component of haemoglobin, Anaemia – pale smooth tongue, pale lips, eyes & skin: spoon
shaped nails, frequent exhaustion.
P: Component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – basis of life.

Ca Fe P
200-400 mg /100 g in hyacinth Green leafy vegetables are rich Vegetables are quite rich in P.
beans, palak, fenugreek in sources.
Highest in curry leaves. Highest in Amaranthus Highest in garlic.
100-200 mg in chow chow, >100 mg in palak, spinach, >100 mg in pea, limabean,
parsley, onion. fenugreek, taro, mushrooms.
other vegetables are: lettuce,
70-100 mg in chilli,
water melon. cauliflower, broccoli, bitter
gourd, cowpea, winged bean,
hyacinth bean, globe artichoke.
IV. Roughages/Fibre: Help in digestion & prevent constipation. Leafy vegetables and root vegetables
have more cellulose/fibre content.

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 Vegetable cultivation as a source of income and self-employment
I. Yields high/Area/Time
Tomato 400-500 q/ha, Garden pea: 100q/ha
Wheat 25-30 q/ha and Pulses 10-15 q/ha.
II Important source of farm income
▪ Vegetables: Net return may be 1.0-1.25 lakhs/ha which is 4-5 times more than cereals
▪ Cereals: Rs. 25000/ha
▪ Off-season: Tomato Rs 1 lakh/ha and peas Rs 80,000/ha.
III. Vegetable production assures more farm employment
Labour intensive operations and related secondary activities like transportation and marketing,
more job opportunities/more work to the farmer/his family.
Tomato requires 2180 (processing) to 8020 (fresh market) labour hours per ha compared to only
761 for rice (a study in Taiwan). Thus, vegetables have a great potential for using idle or seasonally
underemployed farm workers to increase the family and total cash earnings.
IV High Cropping Intensity
on account of short duration of a number of crops e.g. radish, turnip, pea, okra, potao. e.g. Potao-
onion-frenchbean-okra (400%) and Radish-pea-frenchbean-okra (400%)
V. Industrial Development
 Processing: Wastage avoided and availability of product for a longer period.
 Seed Industry: come up on a big scale.
VI. Foreign Exchange Earner
Vegetables are exported in fresh, dried and preserved form or as processed products. The value of
export from total horticultural products were Rs. 6964.6 crores out of which fresh onion alone contributed
about 25 % (1741.55 crores) and share of others fresh vegetables were 12.8 % during 2010-2011.
TYPES OF VEGETABLE FARMING
Kitchen gardening/Home garden: It is the growing of vegetable crops in residential houses to meet the
requirements of the family all the year around. Every individual is concerned with home or kitchen garden.
Market Gardening /Peri-urban vegetable farming
▪ This is a type of garden which produces vegetables for local market.
▪ This type of garden was confined to the near vicinity of the cities when a quick transport was not
developed.
▪ Most of the market gardens even today are located within 15-20 km of a city.
▪ The cropping pattern of these gardens will depend on the demand of the local market.
▪ The most important consideration is to develop a clearly focused marketing plan before any vegetable
crops are planted.
▪ The land being costly, intensive methods of cultivation are followed.
▪ A market gardener will like to grow early varieties to catch the market early.
▪ He should be good salesman as he may have to sell his own produce.
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 ▪ He must be a versatile person as he will have to grow a number of vegetables throughout the year.
▪ The high cost of land and labour is compensated by the availability of municipal compost, sludge and
water near some cities and high return on the produce.
Truck Gardening
▪ This is a type of garden which produces special crops in relatively large quantities for distance markets.
▪ Truck gardens, in general, follow a more extensive and less intensive method of cultivation than market
garden.
▪ The word truck has no relationship with a motor truck but it is derived from French word “troquer‟
means “to barter”.
▪ The location of this type of garden is determined by the soil and climatic factors suitable for raising a
particular crop.
▪ The commodities raised are usually sold through middle man.
▪ The truck gardener should be a specialized person.
▪ He should be proficient in large scale cultivation and production and handling of some special crops.
▪ He follows the mechanical method of cultivation hence cost of cultivation is less.
▪ The net income is also less as this includes the cost of transport and the charges of middle men.
Vegetable Gardens for Processing
▪ These gardens come up around vegetable processing factories.
▪ Mainly responsible for regular supply of vegetables to factories.
▪ Emerging more rapidly now in India with the establishment of processing industries by corporate
sector.
▪ Earlier only a few factories existed which were dependent upon purchases from local markets.
▪ The end product from such local factories was not good from such a heterogeneous mixture.
▪ The prospects of future development are quite bright as people‟s interest in the processing industry is
growing.
▪ These gardens specialize in growing only a few vegetables in bulk.
▪ A heavier soil is chosen to obtain high and continuous yield rather than early yield.
▪ These gardens are required to grow particular varieties for canning, dehydration or freezing.
▪ The prices are paid on contract basis on weight and quantity of the produce.
▪ The return may be low but the cost of marketing and the transport charges are negligible.

Vegetable Forcing: In the method known as forcing, vegetables are produced out of their normal season
of outdoor production under forcing structures that admit light and induce favourable environmental
conditions for plant growth. Greenhouses, cold frames, and hotbeds are common structures used.
Floating Vegetable Gardens: One more type of vegetable garden known as floating garden is seen on the
Dal lake of Kashmir valley. Most of summer vegetables are supplied to Srinagar from these gardens. A
floating base is made from the roots of typha grass which grow wild in some parts of lake. Once this floating
base is ready, seedlings are transplanted on leaf compost made of vegetations growing wild in the lake. All

5
the inter-cultural operations and occasional sprinkling of water are done from boats. This type of vegetable
cultivation is a specialized technique and an art itself.
Container gardening: In urban areas mainly in big cities, land is a big constraint for home/kitchen
garden,many types of vegetables can be grown well in containers and space available in backyard, terrace,
varandah, balcony can be utilized for this purpose where sunshine is easily available

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 LECTURE 2
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting - water and nutrient management
– fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulator - physiological
disorders - maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – seed production of tomato, chilli and
brinjal
TOMATO
Botanical Name : Solanum lycopersicum
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24
Family : Solanaceae
Origin : Peru of South America
 Tomato is a self pollinated crop due to hermaphrodite flowers
 Flowers are borne in racemose cyme and flower cluster is known as ‘truss’
Economic importance and uses
 It is called as protective foods since it is a rich source of minerals and vitamin like calcium (48 mg
/ 100g), sodium (12.9 mg), trace elements, copper (0.19 mg), vitamins like vitamin A (900 IU),
vitamin C (27 mg), vitamin B complex (thiamine), essential amino acids and healthy organic acids
like citric, formic and acetic acids.
 red colour of fruit is due to lycopene and yellow colour is due to carotenes.
 Tomato is a good appetizer and its soup is a good remedy for preventing constipation.
 Tomato fruits are consumed fresh in salads or cooked in sauces, soup and meat or fish dishes.
 They can be processed into purées, juices and ketchup.
 Canned and dried tomatoes are economically important processed products.

Taxonomy

Botanical name of tomato is Solanum lycopersicum (lycos = wolf and persicon = peach).
1. Genus Lycopersicon is divided into two subgenera
A. Eulycopersicon: Red fruited and self-compatible. Which Includes two species, L. esculentum
(Solanum lycopersicum) with large fruits and L. pimpinellifolium (New name Solanum
pimpinellifolium) with small fruits born in clusters.
B. Eriolycopersicon: Green fruited and self-incompatible. Mainly consists of wild sp like L. hirsutum
(S.habrochaites), L. peruvianum,(S. peruvianum) L. pissisi, L. glandulosum, L. cheesmani(S.
cheesmani) etc.
2. Rick (1976) divided genus Lycopersicon into following two groups based on their ability to cross with
cultivated tomato:
A. Esculentum complex : crossable with cultivated tomato
- L. esculentum, L. pimpinelifolium, L. cheesemani and L. hirsutum
B. Peruvianum complex : Not crossable with cultivated tomato

- L. peruvianum, L. chinense.

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Based on growth habit and fruit characters, five forms of L. esculentum are identified.
Communae - Common tomato
Cerasiformae - Small fruited cherry tomato
Pyriformae - Pear shaped tomato
Grandifolium - potato leaved tomato
Validum - Erect and upright tomato

Varieties

Developing Variety Special features

institution
IIHR, Arka Saurabh * Semi determinate. Fruits firm, round and nipple tipped.
Bangalore Arka Vikas * Indeterminate, tolerant to moisture stress
condition.
Arka Alok Bacterial wilt resistant, determinate. Fruits square and oblong.
(BWR 5) *
Arka Vikas Determinate Fruits medium large, oblate Tolerant to mosaic.
(Sel 22) *
Arka Saurabh (Sel.4) Semi-determinate, resistant to fruit cracking, good transport
* quality. Fruits round firm with nipple tipped.
Arka Ahuti (Sel.11) Semi-determinate.
Arka Ashish Tolerant to powdery mildew.
Arka Abha (BWR 1) Resistant to bacterial wilt, semideterminate.
Arka Meghali Suitable for rain fed cultivation.
IARI, SL 120* Resistant to nematode, determinate.
New Delhi. Fruits flat round.

Pusa Early Dwarf* Determinate. Fruits flat oblate.

Pusa Uphar (DT 10) * Determinate. Fruits round with thick pericarp, suitable for
processing.
Sioux* Indeterminate. Fruits small and round.
Pusa Ruby* Indeterminate. Fruits flat round and suitable for processing.
Pusa Sadhabahar Suitable for high and low temperature regimes.
Pusa Sheetal Cold set variety (8oC or below). Fruits flat round.
Roma Suitable for long distance transport, determinate growth.
Pusa Gaurav Suitable for processing.
Pusa Rohini Longer shelf life. Fruits round.
IIVR, H 24* Determinate, resistant to TLCV

Varanasi. DVRT 2* Determinate. Fruits large and spherical.

Kashi Amrit (DVRT Backcross pedigree selection. Suitable for cultivation in TLCV
1) infested period.
NBPGR, La Bonita Determinate. Fruits oblong with thick pericarp, suitable for long
distance transport.
New Delhi
Kerala Mukthi Bacterial wilt resistant, semi determinate. Fruits
(LE 79.5) * round to flat round without green shoulder.

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 Agricultural Sakthi Bacterial wilt resistant, semi determinate. Fruits
(LE 79) * green shouldered and flat round.
University,
Thrissur Anagha Resistant to bacterial wilt and fruit cracking. Semi determinate
TamilNadu Marutham (CO.3) * Developed by mutation breeding (EMS) from CO.1 determinate.
Fruits round and clustered.
Agricultural
CO.1 Semi determinate. Fruits round.
University,
Coimbatore CO.2 Indeterminate. Fruits flat round and deep orange red.
PKM 1 Induced mutant suitable for long distance transport.
Paiyur 1 Suitable for rain fed cultivation. Fruits round, medium sized and
slightly ribbing.
Suitable for long distance transportation.
GBPUA&T, Pant T 3* Determinate. Fruits round, suitable for processing.

Pant Nagar. Pant Bahar* Resistant to Verticillium wilt and

Fusarium wilt. Indeterminate. Fruits flat round and suitable for
processing and storage.
Haryana Sel.32* Determinate.
Agricultural HS 101* Determinate and dwarf. Fruits round.
University,
Hisar Arun (Sel.7) * Determinate and dwarf. Fruits round.
Hisar.
HS 110 Potato leaved variety.
Hissar Lalima Determinate. Fruits round and large.
Hisar Anmol Resistant of leaf curl, determinate.

Hisar Lalit Resistant to root knot nematode. Determinate

Punjab Punjab Chuhara* Determinate. Fruits pear shaped and suitable for long distance
Agricultural transport, susceptible to TLCV.
University, Punjab Kesari * Determinate. Fruits pear shaped and suitable for long distance
Ludhiana transport, susceptible to TLCV.
CASU&T, Azad T2 (KS-2) * Determinate, early, fruits small round, moderately resistant to leaf
Kanpur. curl virus.
QUA&T, Uskal Kumar* Bacterial/ wilt resistant
Bhubanesw
ar Urkal Urbashi (BT12) Bacterial wilt resistant, indeterminate, fruits pear shaped and
* clustered.

Hybrids

Developing Variety Special features

institution
Tamil Nadu COTH.1 Determinate. Fruits round to oblong, slightly acidic, 96
Agrl.
t/ha in 115 days.
University
COTH 2 Semi determinate, fruits are borne in clusters of 4-5,
high yield (90.2 t/ha) and resistance to leaf curl virus
disease

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IIHR, Bangalore. Arka Vardhan* Indeterminate, resistant to root knot, nematode, oblate
fruits.

Arka Vishal Indeterminate. Fruit weight 140 g. round, green

(FMH 1)*
shouldered, resistant to cracking, good shelf life.
Arka Abhijit Determinate. Resistant to bacterial wilt,
(BRH 1)
Arka Shresta Determinate. Resistant to bacterial wilt,
(BRH 2)

IARI, New Delhi. Pusa Hybrid 1* Determinate, tolerant to high temperature (upto 23o
night temperature)

Pusa Hybrid 2* Semi-detrminate, tolerant to nematode

HARP, Ranchi Swarna Baibhav Fruits round, deep red, suitable for long distance
transportation
Climate
Day neutral warm season crop, which cannot tolerate frost. Cool and dry weather is preferred. Night
temperature is more critical than day temperature. High temperature results in exerted stigma, dryness of stigma,
burning of anther tip, poor pollen dehiscence, low pollen viability and slow pollen tube growth leading to low
pollination and fruit set. Incidence of viral diseases also will be more at high temperature.
o
Day temperature 21-28 C
o
Night temperature 15-20 C
o
Fruit colour development 21-24 C
o
Lycopene reduced above 27 C

Based on night temperature requirement for fruit set, tomato varieties are classified into three.
o
a) Normal set varieties: Set fruits at 15-20 C.
o
b) Hot set varieties: Set fruits above 20 C – eg : Philipine, Punjab Tropic, Pusa hybrid 1.
o
c) Cold set varieties: Set fruits below 15 C – eg : Pusa Sheetal, Avilanche.

Soil
 Tomato cannot withstand water logging.
 fairly fertile soil rich in organic matter is preferrable
 Ideal pH is 6-7
Sowing time
 In the hills – March to April.
 In plains - June to November.
 Kerala condition - September and transplanted in October.

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Seed rate
 Variety: 400-500 g / ha
 Hybrid : 125-175 g / ha.

Seed treatment
Seed hardening : withholding irrigation for one week before transplanting, adding NaC1 (400
ppm) to irrigation water or by spray of cycocel (200 ppm) and Zinc Sulphate (0.25%) + 25 ppm proline at
time of transplanting.
2
Nursery area : Seeds sown in an area of 4-5 cents (200-240 m )

Main field preparation and transplanting

 Field is ploughed 4-5 times
 Raised beds of 80-90 cm width or ridges and furrows are prepared.
 Transplanted on raised beds or on sides of ridges

Spacing
 Determinate : 60 x 30-45cm
 Indeterminate : 75 x 60 cm
 Semi determinate : 75 x 75 cm

Manures and fertilizers

FYM 25 t/ha, should be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing

Variety :

 Basal : 75:100:50 kg/ha NPK and Borax 10 kg and Zinc sulphate 50 kg/ha
th
 Top dressing : 75 kg N/ha on 30 day of planting during earthing up.
 Spray 1 ppm (1 mg in one lit) Triacontanol, 15 days after transplanting and at full bloom stage to
increase the yield.

Hybrid : 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha.

Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is the most common method in tomato and the crop require adequate moisture
throughout growth period. During summer, crop should be irrigated at 3-4 days interval. Water stress at
flowering stage will adversely effect fruiting and productivity. A long spell of drought followed by heavy
irrigation leads to cracking of fruits. Similarly a dry spell after regular irrigation causes blossom end
rot. Drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation are becoming more common in areas of water shortage.

Intercultural Operation

 Hand hoeing and earthing up.

 Pre emergence herbicide : Pendimethalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) or Oxyfluorfen (0.25 kg a.i. / ha) Goal (0.25
kg a.i./ha) and Basalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) as spray along with one hand weeding at 45 DT.
 Mulching with straw or plastic is also effective

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Training and pruning
All indeterminate varieties are trained with wires, strings or stacks to prevent lodging and loss of
fruits by coming in contact with soil. It is done by providing individual stack or by erecting 2-2.5 m long
poles on either side of ridges for stretching G1 wire. Branches of plants are supported on poles or strings
with twine. Pruning is also generally followed in indeterminate varieties to improve size, shape and quality
of fruits. It is removal of unwanted shoots to enhance vigor of plants

Plant growth regulators

Harvesting
Crop starts yielding by 70 days after planting. Fruits are harvested with hand by a gentle twist so
that the stalk is retained on plant. Intervals of harvests depend on season and it is twice in a week during
summer and weekly during winter and rainy days. Harvesting maturity depends on the purpose whether for
fresh market, processing, long distance transport etc.

Maturity stages in tomato

1.Mature green: Fruits fully grown, fruit colour changes from green to yellowish and cavity filled with
seeds surrounded by gelly like substance. Harvested for long distance market.
2.Turning or breaker stage: Fruits firm, 1/4t portion of fruit changes to pink in colour, but the shoulder
still yellowish green. Harvested for long distance market.
3.Pink stage: 3/4t of whole fruit surface turns pink colour. Harvested for local market.
4. Light red: Entire fruit surface is red or pink but the flesh is firm. Harvested for local market.
5. Red ripe or hand ripe: Fully ripened and coloured. Flesh becomes soft. Harvested for processing and
for seed extraction.

Yield
 Varieties : 20-25 t/ha.
 Hybrids : 50 t/ha.

Grading storage and marketing

 Grading : remove bruised, cracked and damaged fruits before packing in baskets
 Packaging: bamboo baskets or wooden boxes.
 Four grades (Bureau of Indian Standards) : Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial.

12
 o
 Storage: Fruits can be stored for-two weeks and four weeks at 10-13 C when harvested at red stage
and green stage respectively. Pre-cooling of fruits before storage and transportation enhances
storage life.

Processing tomatoes
Use of tomato for processing is increasing day by day and a variety of products like puree, paste, syrup,
juice, ketchup etc are made. Varieties for processing should have following qualities.

 Deep red colour which retains even after processing.

 Low pH – The acidity of fruits affect-heating time required for sterilization of processed
product. Longer time is required if pH is high and hence a pH below 4-5 is required for
processing.
 High TSS – Fruits with high TSS yield more finished products / tonne of raw fruits and hence
o
minimum TSS should be 4.5 B
 High viscosity and consistency
 Firm and easy peeling
 Pericarp thickness-should be more than0.5 cm.
 Crack resistance
 Fruits size should be above 50 g and oblong in shape
Suitable Variety : Pusa Gaurav, Roma, Punjab Chuhara, Pusa Uphar, Arka Saurabh

Physiological disorders in Tomato

1. Blossom end rot
Symptoms : Water soaked spots of one cm or more appear at point of attachment of petals and effected
portion becomes sunken, leathery and dark coloured.
Causes : Use of Ammonium Sulphate, imbalance of Mg and K , Deficiency of calcium
Remedies : Cultural practices that concern soil moisture and maintain uniform moisture supply.
Transplanting in early April instead of early June. Foliar spay of 0.5% CaCl, Apply N in form of urea.

2. Fruit cracking
1. Radial Cracking: Usually seen at ripe stage and crack radiate from pedicel end to stylar end.
2. Concentric cracking: Seen around shoulder of fruit even at green stage.
3. Cuticular: Seen on outer skin of fruit
4. Burst: Burst occurs at certain points on shoulder of fruit
Radial and concentric cracking are more common of which, former is more damaging.
Causes: Boron deficiency, long spell of drought followed by sudden heavy irrigations
Remedies: Use of resistant cultivars like sioux, punjab chuhara. Picking of the fruit before the full ripe
stage. Soil application of Borax @ 10 -15 Kg per ha. Regulation ofsoil moisture. Misting spray of cool
water.

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3. Puffiness
The outer wall continues to develop but the growth of remaining internal tissues is retarded. This
results in light weight fruits which lack firmness and are partially filled.
Causes : Very high or low temperature and low soil moisture conditions will lead to puffiness
Remedy : Single application of 4-CPA @ 20mg/litre or CPPU @ 20-25mg/litre

4. Cat facing
Causes : Low temperature, faculty pollination, application of nitrogen duringtransition from vegetative to
reproductive phase.
Remedies : Balanced fertilizer applicationRegulation of temperature

5. Sunscald
Symptoms : Tissues on exposed fruit develop a blistered appearance leading to sunken areas, which have a
light or grey colour on green fruit and yellow colour on red fruit.
Causes : High temperature
Remedies : Prefer the varieties having more foliage and follow application culturalpractices.

6. Flower and fruit drop

Causes : Fluctuations in temperature , poor water mangement and soil moisture
Remedies : Good package of practices should be followed moisture stress should be avoid. Spraying of
planofix or NAA @ 1ml in 4.5 lt of water. Control of fluctuations in temp.
7. Blotchy ripening : Ripening of fruits is not uniform as certain portion develop colour while in others
greenish-yellow or whitish patches can be seen on ripe fruits particularly in stem end portion. The possible
reasons are imbalance of N and K nutrition especially when K is deficient. Even, more days or weeks of
alternate sun and cloud during fruiting also lead to blotchy ripening. Balanced fertilization and proper
irrigation help in managing this problem.
8. Bronzing or internal browning ( grey wall)
9. Green back : Reduce temperature by artificial means

Insect Pests:
1. Tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera)
Symptoms:
The larvae causes damage to flowers and bore into fruit. Often, large
entry holes in the fruit are evidence and extensive rotting occurs.

Control measures:
 Shaking of the plants.
 Ploughing upto depth of 10 cm before the end of augus t reduces the
survival of over wintering pupae and reduces the starting population.
 Spraying of dimethaote @ 1.5ml/litre of water.


14
 3. Aphid (Myzus persicae, Aphis spp.)
Symptoms:

Yellowish and black mould appear in leaves

Control measures:
Apply phorate @ 1 kg/hac as application/earthing-up followed by one spray of
Rogor 750ml/hac/750lit.of water.

4. Cut worm (Agrotis segetum, Agrotis ipsilon)

Symptoms:
Cutting young plants, holes in tubers
Control measures:
 Sort out cut worm damage tubers to avoid secondary infection in the
stores.
 Use Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 500g/ha against cut worms.

Diseases
1. Early blight (Phytophthora infestans)
Symptoms:
Brown spots scattered over the lamina surface, concentric narrow dark lines
and affected leaves dry.
Control measures:
 Plant disease free whole tubers.
 Follow crop rotation with non solanaceous crop like Mustrad, cabbage,
cauliflower etc.
 Seed treatment with Mancozeb for 20 minutes before storages for soil
and tuber borne diseases.
 Apply Mancozeb 75% WP @ 2.5g/liters of water
2. Late blight (Phytophthora infestans): The symptoms are almost similar as that appear on potato crop.
Spray Dithane-M-45 (0.25%)

3. Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearun)

Symptoms:Sudden wilting of the plant, plant show droopy appearance and
the branches gradually turn bronzy and die.
Control measures:
 Follow crop rotation with non solanaceous crop like Mustrad, cabbage,
cauliflower etc.
 Seed treatment with Mancozeb for 20 minutes before storages for soil and
tuber borne diseases.
 Apply stable bleaching powder@ 12 kg/ha in soil at planting.

15
 1g hin + 5g turmeric powder treated with soil/plant

Treated soil of infected plant of 1m radius just after harvest with 10% formalin.

4. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.)

Symptoms:
These fungal diseases cause the development of dark, sunken spots or
lesions, often with araised rim, on affected falling of leaves, stem and
fruit.
Control measures:
Pre-harvest treatment: Spraying of fungicides such as mancozeb from
flowering to fruit set. Control of fruit damaging insect such as fruit fly.

Post-harvest treatment:
Treat fruit after harvest. Handle fruit carefully to avoid damage.

6. Tomato leaf curl virus

Symptoms
Leaflet rolling upwards, leathery, brittle and produce ratting sound when brushed with hand. Tuber
size small and reduce number.
Control measures:
 Spray Rogor 1ml/litre of water.
 Apply Thimet 10G 20kg/hac be used along with fertilizer at the time of planting.

7. Spotted virus wilt virus (TMSV)

Symptoms:
Fruits cause ringspots, mottling, chlorotic botches and line patterns on leaves. Both leaves and fruits are
distorted with dark spots or ring patterns on fruit. Wilting & purpling of leaves and necrotic lesion can
develop on stems.
Control measures:
 Virus free seed.
 Uproot of infected crops.
 Removal of weed as a alternate source.
 Spraying of insecticides for control of thrips.
 Use of healthy planting materials.

SEED EXTRACTION IN TOMATO

Methods of seed extraction
1. Juice and seed extraction:

The whole lot of tomato fruits of a particular variety is taken to some processing unit, where in juice is
removed for other processing purposes and seed is extracted separately. This is the method being followed
by National Seed Corporation and other seed companies as the seed cost is reduced in this way.
16
2. Fermentation method:
The selected ripe fruits are crushed by hand. Keep entire mass for 24-72 hours depending upon the
temperature conditions. The pulp will float at the top and the seed will settle at the bottom.
Remove the fermented mass and clean the seeds with fresh water. Dry the seeds. Long fermentation period
may damage the seed. Seed cost is very high in this method and usually followed for nucleus seed or
maintenance of seed stocks by the institutions.

3. Acid treatment:
Cut the selected fruits into two halves and scoop out the slimmy mass containing seed in a vessel.
Treat the mass with HCl @ 75-100ml/12 kg of material. Seed is separated in 15-30 minutes from the slimmy
mass. Wash the seeds and dry them.
4. Alkali method:
Cut the selected fruits into two halves and scoop out the slimmy mass containing seed in a vessel.
Treat the mass with equal volume of washing soda (300g dissolved in 4 litres of water). The mixture is
allowed to stand overnight. Next day all the seeds will settle down at the bottom. Seeds are washed
thoroughly and dried.

17
 CHILLI AND BELL PEPPER
Botanical Name: Capsicum annuum var. hortense (chilli)
Capsicum annuum var. grossum (Bell pepper)
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: New world (American) – Mexico and surroundings of central America
Introduction
 Red colour of chilli fruit is due to capsanthin which is used as natural colourant.
 Oleoresin extracted from chilli is used in cosmetic products indicating its industrial importance
Types of Capsicum
a. Hot pepper: Pungent due to crystalline volatile alkaloid capsaicin, located mainly in the placenta of fruit,
cultivated for vegetables, spices and pickles etc., potential foreign exchange earning crop, and rich source
of vitamin A and C.
b. Sweet Pepper (Shimla Mirch): Bears bell shaped, non pungent/mild and thick pericarp/fleshed fruit,
used as vegetable
c. Paprika: Mild in taste and slightly pungent than sweet pepper. Used as spice in European countries,
gives colour and mild pungent taste to food stuff, used in pickles and sandwiches
Importance and uses
Chillies
 It is very important and indispensable items in every kitchen for its pungency, spicy taste and
appealing colour which adds to the food.
 Its demand in the pharmaceutical industries is increasing day by day on account of its medicinal
values since green chillies are rich in rutin.
 The fruits are rich in vitamins A and C.
Bell pepper or Shimla Mirch
 Sweet pepper green, or red or yellow, may be eaten cooked or raw, sliced in salads and pizzas.
 They are also used for pickling in brine, baking and stuffing.
 Sweet pepper imparts a novel flavour in stews
Climate and Soil
 Tropical and sub-tropical region.
 It grows well in warm and humid climate and a temperature of 20-30o C.
 A well-drained, well-aerated, fairly light fertile loam with a fair moisture holding capacity is ideal.
Chilli crop prefers a soil reaction ranging from pH of 6.0-7.0.
 It is highly sensitive to frost.
Varieties
Chilli: G-3, Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sadabahar, Bhagya Lakshmi (G-4), HC-28, HC-44, Andhra Jyoti, Punjab
Lal, Punjab Surkha, Punjab Guchhedar, NP-46A, Pant-C-1, Sindhur, Pant-C-2, X-235,
Chilli hybrids: CH-1, CH-3, Arka Meghana, Arka Harita, Arka Sweta, CCH-2, CCH-3
Bell Pepper: California Wonder, Yolo Wonder, Arka Mohini, Solan Hybrid 2, Arka Basant, Arka Gourav,
Bharat (hybrid), Solan Bharpur, Pusa Deepti (hybrid)
18
Soil preparation and transplanting
Soil should be thoroughly prepared by being ploughed 4 to 5 times before planting the seedlings.
Seed Rate:
Crop Seed Rate
Chilli Hybrids 1 kg/ha (2 or 3 kg/ha for direct
seeded) 400-500 g/ha
Capsicum 1.25 kg/ha (seed size is bold)
Hybrids 700 g/ha
Manures and fertilizers
Apply FYM @250q/ha, Nitrogen @ 75 kg/ha, Phosphorus @60-75kg/ha and Potassium @ 50
kg/ha. Full dose of farmyard manure, phosphorus and potassium and half of N should be applied at the time
of transplanting. Remaining part of N should be top dressed in two equal parts at an interval of one month
each
Interculture and weed control
 Hand weedings at 20 and 40 days after transplanting.
 Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2kg a.i./ha (4 litres/ha in 750 litres of water) or Pendimethalin (Stomp) @ 1.2
kg a.i./ha (4 litres/ha) can be used 24-48 hours before transplanting.
 Hand weeding should be done in the later stages of plant growth along with top dressing of
fertilizers.
Irrigation
 A light irrigation is given during the third day of transplanting and thereafter at weekly interval.
 Gap filling is done during second irrigation after 10 days of transplanting.
 The most critical stages for irrigation are blooming (flowering), fruit setting and development.
Use of growth hormones
 Chilli : Foliar application of NAA (50ppm) at full bloom stage can effectively control flower drop
with an increase in yield. Planofix (10-20ppm) as foliar spray at flowering stage can reduce flower
and fruit drop in chilli.
 Bell Pepper: Application of 5 ppm Mixtalol (triacontanol) gave the highest fruit yield. Foliar
application of NAA at 10 ppm at the time of first flower appearance and 15 days later reduced the
flower drop, improved fruit set and increased fruit size.
Harvesting
 Chilli: The picking of fruits depends upon the type and purpose for which they are grown
1. Green fruits: Fruits are harvested when they are still green but fully grown. It needs 5-6 pickings for
harvesting the whole crop.
2. Pickles: The fruits are harvested either green or ripe
3. Drying: Red when fully ripe fruits are picked at an interval of 1-2 weeks and harvesting continues for a
period of about three months. The ripe chillies are dried under sun for 8-15 days, while commercially it is
dried at about 54.4 oC in 2-3 days.

19
Bell peppers: Fruits are usually harvested when they are of suitable market size and are green, and are
relatively firm and crisp. These are picked with an upward twist which leaves a piece of stem attached.
Young, immature peppers are soft and yield readily to mild pressure of the fingers.
Yield:
▪ Irrigated conditions:
Green Chilli 200-300 q/ha,
Dry 15-25 q/ha
▪ Rainfed :
Green Chilli 50-60 q/ha,
Dry 5-10 q/ha
▪ Capsicum
OP Varieties: 125-150 q/ha
Hybrid: 250-300 q/ha
Post harvest management
▪ Hydro-cooled to remove field heat quickly.
▪ Peppers should not be stored with ethylene releasing commodities.
▪ Waxing peppers before shipping is a very common practice to reduce moisture loss and resist
bruising while in transit.
Disease Management:
1. Anthracnose/Ripe fruit rot/die back:
Spots appear on the fruits which gradually turn brown to black.
Management:
▪ Use disease free seed.

▪ Spray mancozeb or copper oxychloride (0.25%) or carbendazim (0.1%) and repeat at 8-10 days
interval.

▪ Go for seed treatment.

2. Powdery Mildew:
White powdery growth on bottom side of the leaves. The diseased leaves drop off from the plant.
Management:
Spray Sulphur based fungicide i.e. Sulfex(0.3%) or dinocap (0.05%) at an interval of 15 days interval.
3. Cercospora leaf Spot:
There is formation of small circular and water soaked spots on the leaves, stems and petioles which are
brown with white centre. On coalescence, there is yellowing of leaves and defoliation takes place.
Management:
▪ Remove severely affected plants and destroy them.

▪ Go for seed treatment with carbendazim.

▪ Spray Bavistin @ 0.1 % at 15 days interval.

20
4. Bacterial Wilt:
Wilting of plant or stunting growth or yellowing of entire plant are the symptoms.
Management:
▪ Grow resistant varieties such Surjmukhi.

▪ Crop rotation with Cruciferous vegetables is recommended.

▪ Field sanitation and crop rotation reduces the disease incidence.

6. Chilli leaf curl virus:
Leaves curl towards midrib and become deformed. The growth of plant is stunted due to shortened
internodes and reduction in leaf size. There is flower drop. The virus is generally transmitted by whitefly.
Management is similar as that in tomato leaf curl virus.
Insect-pests management
1. Fruit Borer:
Adults lay eggs on the upper and lower side of leaf. Larva bore circular holes and usually thrust only head
inside the fruit and may destroy many fruits.
Management
▪ Spray deltamethrin (0.0028%) or spray 5% neem seed kernel extract to kill early stage larvae.

▪ Use other insecticides listed for Tomato Fruit Borer.

2. Aphids and Thrips:
These insects suck cell sap as a result the plants lose their vigour.
Management
▪ Spray malathion (0.05%) and repeat the spray after 15 days if required.

21
 BRINJAL
Botanical name: Solanum melongena
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: South East Asia-India.
Introduction
 Brinjal is also known as “Poor man‟s crop”.
 The other names of brinjal are “Aubergine”, “Guinea squash”, Egg plant.
 Bitterness in brinjal is due to glycoalkaloids Solasodine
 It is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions
 It has a long bearing period (fruiting period) when grown under mild climate of southern states but
its bearing is shortened under hot summer and cold winter seasons of SutlejGanga Alluvial plains
of northern India
 In hilly regions, it is grown only in summer.
 A large number of cultivars are grown in the country depending on regional preferences for colour,
size and shape of the fruits

Nutritive value and uses

 It is valued for its tender unripe fruits used as a cooked vegetable.
 Brinjal fruits are a fairly source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins particularly Vitamin
„B‟ complexes
 Pigmented, dark-purple brinjal has more vitamin C than those with white skin.
 Toasting of fruits raises the nicotinic acid at the expense of trigonellin which is present in it and
66-69% of it is converted into nicotinic acid during toasting
 The presence of magnesium and potassium salts also helps in de-cholestrolizing action.
 Dry fruit contains goitrogenic principles
 Discolouration of brinjal is due to polyphenol oxidase enzyme (PPO)
 White brinjal is preferred for diabetic patients
Taxonomy
Taxonomy Genus Solanum comprises approximately 2000 species, which include both tuber bearing
and non-tuber bearing forms. Important edible species under non-tuber bearing forms are S. melongena, S.
torvum, S. nigrum, S. macrocarpom, S. ferox and S. aethiopicum
▪ S. torvum – used for its small clustered fruits for curry purpose and for drying. It is grown as a wild
plant in backyards and roadsides. Due to its resistance to Fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt, S. torvum
can be a resistant root stock for grafting cultivated
▪ S. melongena S. macrocarpom and S.aethiopicum – grown for edible fruits and leaves.
▪ S. nigrum – Small clustered acidic fruits are also edible and are harvested ripening stage when it
turns purple in colour. In Tamil Nadu this species is cultivated and for frying. Leaves and flowers
of S. nigrum have more resemblance to that of chilli.
Based on growth habit and fruit shape, four botanical varieties are reported under S.melongena.
1. S.melongena var. melongena - cultivars with round and egg shaped fruits

22
 2. S.melongena var serpentinum - long and slender fruited cultivars
3. S.melongena var. depressum - early and dwarf cultivars
4. S.melongena var. incanum - wild and prickly plants with small fruits.
Depending on length of style in relation to position of anthers, four types of flowers – heterostyly are
available.
 Long styled – stigma well above the anthers
 Medium styled – stigma and anthers at same level
 Short styled – style short
 Pseudoshort styled – style rudimentary
Fruit set in long styled flowers ranges from 60 to 70% whereas in medium styled flowers it is 12.5 to
55.6%. Short styled and pseudoshort styled flowers act as male flowers and there is no fruit.
Climate
▪ Brinjal is warm season day neutral plant and is susceptible to severe frost.
▪ Optimum temperature : 21-27ºC
Soil
▪ It is a hardy crop and is cultivated under a wide range of soils.
▪ Well-drained and fertile soil is preferred for the crop. Crops grown in sandy soils yield early and those
grown in clayey soils yield more.
▪ Ideal pH for cultivation of crop is 5.5-6.6 and humidity.
Important varieties recommended for different regions of India:
▪ IARI: Pusa Shymala, Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Cluster, Pusa Kranti, Pusa Bhairav, Pusa Anmol
(H), Pusa Hybrid 5 (long), Pusa Hybrid 6 & 9 (round),
▪ IIHR: Arka Sheel, Arka Shirish, Arka Kusumkar, Arka Navneet (Hybrid), Arka Nidhi, Arka Keshav,
Arka Neelkanth
▪ PAU: Punjab Chamkila, Punjab Sadabahar, Punjab Barsati, Punjab Neelam, PH-4, Selection-4,
▪ GBPUAT, Pantnagar: Pant Samrat, Pant Rituraj, Pant Brinjal Hybid-1
▪ Others: Hisar Jamuni, Hisar Shyamal Azad Kranti, T-3, Annamalai, Surya, Phule Hybrid 1, Aruna,
Manjarigota
Season
▪ Hills- March and transplanted during April.
▪ Plains - three seasons
▪ Autumn-winter crop : Crop is sown in June and transplanted in July
▪ Spring Summer crop: Crop is sown in early November and transplanted in January-February. Due
to low temperature, seedlings take 6 to 8 weeks for attaining normal size for transplanting and nursery
beds are to be protected from frost.
▪ Rainy season crop : Seeds are sown in March-April and transplanted during April-May.

23
Sowing
▪ Seeds are sown in nursery bed and transplanted to main field after four weeks during summer and after
7 to 8 weeks during winter, when it is 8 - 10 cm tall.
▪ Seed rate : 300 to 350 g /ha.
Main field preparation and transplanting
▪ Proper drainage is essential for growth of brinjal.
▪ Soil should be prepared to a fine tilth by 4 to 6 ploughings.
▪ FYM should be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing.
▪ It may be grown on raised beds/ ridges during rainy season. In undulating land, in order to avoid soil
erosion, small pits are dug at the point of planting and seedlings are planted.
Spacing
▪ Long duration spreading varieties - 75-90cm x 60-75 cm
▪ Bushy and non-spreading varieties - 45-60cm x 45-60cm
▪ Early and less spreading varieties - paired row planting
Manures and fertilizers
▪ Apply FYM 25 t/ha.
▪ Fertilizer : Basal dose - 50:50:30 kg/ha
Top dressing - N 50 kg/ha 30 days after transplanting during earthing up.
▪ Apply 2 kg of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria in the mainfield at planting.
▪ Spray 2 ppm (1 ml in 500 lit.) Triacontanol plus Sodium borate or Borax 35 mg/lit. of water 15 days
after transplanting and at the time of full bloom to increase the yield.
Irrigation
▪ In plains, - every third or 4th day during summer while in winter it should be at 10-15 days interval.
During winter, care should be taken to keep soil moist to avoid crop loss due to frost injury.
▪ Drip irrigation is also followed
▪ It is grown as a rainfed crop in high rainfall states like Kerala by transplanting seedlings just before
onset of South West monsoon. Transplanted seedlings should be given one or two life irrigations for
initial establishment.
Intercultivation
▪ Keep the field free of weeds at initial stages of crop growth and is usually done by 2-3 light hoeing or
earthing up.
▪ Pre emergent weedicide : fluchloralin @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha, applied followed by one hand weeding at 30
days after planting controls a broad spectrum of weeds.
▪ Mulching : Use of black polythene mulches is also efficient for suppression of weeds and for better
growth of plants.
Use of growth hormones

24
 Application of 2,4-D (2ppm) on pseudo short, short and medium styled flowers leads to higher fruit
set. NAA (50ppm) after 30-35 days after transplanting, PCPA (20 ppm) and n-metatolylphthalmic acid
(0.1, 0.5%) promoted fruit set.
Harvesting
▪ Maturity indices : Fruits should be harvested when they attain a good size, attractive colour and its
surface should not loose its bright and glossy appearance. Timely harvesting of tender fruits increases
the total growing period and number of pickings alongwith yield.
▪ Harvesting : Fruits are harvested along with its stalk with a slight twist by hand. In some varieties, a
sharp knife is also used for harvesting fruits along with fleshy calyx and a portion of fruit stalk.
Yield
 Early short duration varieties: 20-30 t/ha
 Long duration varieties: 35-40 t/ha
 Hybrids: 55-80 t/ha
Post harvest handling
 Grade: Fruits of brinjal are categorized into three grades e.g. SSuuppeerr,, FFaannccyy aanndd
ccoommmmeerrcciiaall
 Packaging : Fruits are acked in basakets or gunny bags
 Storage : Fruits can be stored for 7-10 days in a fairly good condition at 7.2-10°C with 85-90% RH.
It is better to store at 20°C than at 6°C and in perforated polythene bags than under open condition.
Disease management:
1. Phomopsis blight (Phomopsis vexans):
 Portion of fruit is bleached and gives burning appearance.
Management:
 Treat the seed with thiram @3 gm per kg of seed.
 Spray the crop in the nursery with mancozeb.
 Grow resistant variety like Pusa Bhairav.
2. Bacterial wilt:
 Symptoms are similar as that appear in tomato crop.
 Grow resistant varieties Arka Nidhi, Arka Keshav, Hisar Shyamal.
3. Little Leaf:
 Caused by Mycoplasma transmitted by leaf hoppers.
 The affected plants remain shorter in structure.
 The leaves are malformed, narrow and remain short.
 Floral parts turn into leaf-like structures.
 No fruit bearing takes place.
Management:
 Remove and destroy the affected plant at early stage.

25
PEST
1. Shoot and fruit borer: It is the most serious pest of brinjal crop. Initially, plant shoots wilt and dry.
Later larvae bore below the calyx of fruits. Fruits are filled with frass. The holes are visible on the
fruits when larvae come out.
Management:
 Grow the resistant/tolerant varieties like Pusa Purple Cluster, Arka Kusumkar.
 Avoid ratooning of brinjal crop, close spacing and continuous planting.
 Remove and destroy the infested shoots.
 Foliar application of carbaryl (0.1%)/ fenvalerate (0.01%)/lambda-cyhalothrin (0.004%) is
effective. Observe a waiting period of 10 days for harvesting of fruits after spray of these
insecticides.
1. Epilachna beetle
Yellow coloured nymphs seen on under surface leaves feed on foliage resulting in skeletonization
of leaves.
Management :
 Leaf plucking infested leaves along with nymph is an effective way control of pest.
 Five sprays of cipermethrin @ 30 g a.i./ha or ethofenprox @ 75 g a.i/ at 15 days interval starting
from 30 DAT is effecti.ve for control of jassi and fruit and shoot borer.
 Four sprays of carbaryl (800 g a.i/ha) at days interval starting from 30 DAT is also equally effective
for control·
2. Mites Red spider mites and other mites
Seen on under surface of leaf suck sap and cause characteristic yellowing.
Management
 Spray of neem oil garlic solution in initial stage of attack is effective for control of mites.
 Under severe infestation spray Kelthane (0.03%) or metasystox (0.03%).
Seed Production:
Isolation distance: 50-100m.
Fully Ripe fruits are harvested for seed extraction. The outer covering is peeled off and the flesh with the
seed is cut into thin slices. These are then softened by soaking till the seed is separated from the pulp to
which water is added gradually. Keep the material to stand overnight which make the separation of seed
from the pulp easier. After separation, dip the seed into the water and reject those seeds which float on the
water. Seeds should be dried in partial shade before storing.
Seed Yield: 100-120kg/ha

26
 LECTURE 3
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting - water and nutrient management
– fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulator - physiological
disorders - maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – seed production of bhendi and onion.
OKRA
Botanical name: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) (2n = 130)
Family: Malvaceae
Origin: Ethiopia
Importance and uses:
 Okra is commonly used for its tender pods (Capsule)
It is also frozen, dehydrated and canned
The dried stems and roots of okra are used for clarification of sugarcane juice
Edible oil content in dried okra seeds : 13-22%
Protein content in okra dried seed: 20-24% can be used as animal feed
The oil from its seeds are utilized in perfume industry
Its fibre is used in paper industry
It is also an excellent source of iodine and is useful for the treatment of goiter.
Okra is rich source of calcium, potassium and vitamin C.
Mucilage present in okra fruits is polysaccharides i.e. galacturonic and glucuronic acids.
India is the leading producing country in the world (70% of world production).
3 species are cultivated form: A. esculentus, A. manihot and A. moschatus.
Fruits are also dried or frozen for use during off-season.
The dry fruit shell and stem containing crude fibre are suitable for use in manufacture of paper and
cardboard industry.

When ripe the black or brown seeds are sometimes roasted and used as substitute for coffee.

Developing Variety Special features

institution
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Abhay Developed through hybridization, back crossing and
selection from
(Sel.4)* A. esculentus x A. tetraphyllus ssp. tetraphyllus. Resistant to
YVMV. Tolerant to fruit borer.
Arka Anamika Developed through hybridization back crossing and
selection from A. esculentus x A. tetraphyllus ssp.
tetraphyllus
(Sel 10)* Resistant to YVMV.

IARI, New Delhi Pusa Productivity 8-10 t/ha. Susceptible to YVMV.

Makhmali
Pusa Sawani Initially resistant and later became susceptible to YVMV.
Pusa A 4 Plants with short internodes. excellent shelf life. Resistant
to YVMV, Jassids and fruit borer.

27
 Selection 2-2 Fruits green, tender and long (16-20 cm) and 5 ridged.
IIVR, Varanasi VRO 3* Resistant to ELCV.
VRO 4* Resistant to YVMV and ELCV
Kerala Kiran Shy branching plant with light green and long
Agricultural fruits; Fruit length 2-30 cm; Fruit weight 25-30 g;
University. Salkerthi Attractive and long light green fruits;
Aruna Attractive red coloured long fruits;
Susthira Mosaic tolerant, late and long duration variety suitable for
(A.caillei). homesteads during kharif season.
Tamil Nadu MDU 1 Developed through gamma irradiation of seeds of Pusa
Agricultural Sawani. Plants compact with close arrangement of nodes.
University Susceptible to YVMV.
CO.1 Fruits pinkish red in colour. Susceptible to YVMV.
Haryana Varsha Uphar Derived from Lam selection x Parbhani Kranti. Resistant to
Agricultural (HRB-9-2)* YVMV.

University, Hisar
Hisar Unnat Plants 3-4 branched, early and high yielding (1213t/ha).
(HRB 55)*
Punjab Punjab 7 (P 7)* Developed through back cross method form A. esculentus cv.
Agricultural University, Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp. manihot cv. Ghana. Resistant
Ludhiana. to YVMV. Jassids and cotton boll worm. Petiole base is
deeply pigmented.
Punjab Selection made at F8 generation of cross between F1 of A.
Padmini esculentus cv. Rashmi x A. manihot ssp. manihot with F2 of
A. esculentus
cv. Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp. manihot. Fruits dark green,
15-20 cm long and five ridged. Pigmentation on stem, petiole
and lower basal veins of leaves. Resistant to YVMV, Jassids
and cotton boll worm.
Punjab 8 Induced mutant from Pusa Sawani using EMS (1%). Fruits 5-
(EMS 8) ridged, dark green, medium long. Field tolerance to YVMV
and resistance to fruit borer
MAU, Parbhani Parbhani Kranti* Developed through back cross method form A. esculentus cv.
Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp. manihot.

CSAUA&T, Azad Kranthi Fruits 5-ridged, shining green with long beak.
Kanpur
YSPUH&F, Harbhajan Bhindi Perkins Long Green was released as Harbhajan Bhendi. Fruits
Solan, H.P. long tapered green and 8 ridged.

F1 hybrids developed by TNAU are CO.2 and CO.3, COBhH 1

Climate
Tropical or sub-tropical crop and cannot tolerate frost. Performance is also adversely affected by
drought, low night temperature and shade. Even though fertilization and seed set are affected during high
rainfall, growth of plant and subsequent productivity is exceptionally good rainfall areas. Under high
28
temperature and low humidity, plant growth is stunted and will be shorter in stature. Similarly flowers drop
when day temperature exceeds 42oC.

Soil
Okra prefers loose, well drained and rich soil. The ideal pH for growth of plants is 6-8.

Season
▪ Winter is mild, - throughout the year.
▪ Kharif crop - sown from May to July
▪ Spring summer crop - sowing during February-March
▪ Hills of North India – s own during March-April
Seed rate and spacing
Summer crop 18-20 kg / ha 45 x 20 cm
Kharif crop 8-10 kg/ha. 60 x 30 cm - branching types and
45 x 30 cm - non-branching types
Export purpose
For harvesting smaller fruits for export, three rows planting with a spacing of 20-30 cm between rows
and 20 cm within a row is advantageous. Distance between two sets is kept as 60 cm.
Seed treatment
Soak seeds for 6-12 hours before sowing to enhance germination during summer or GA3 at 10 and
50 ppm or immersing the seeds for 5 minutes in pure acetone
Land preparation and sowing
Field is ploughed thoroughly for 2-3 times for making soil to a fine tilth. Ridges and furrows or
raised beds are prepared and dibbling on sides of ridges or on raised beds sows seeds.
Manuring and fertilizer application
Apply FYM 25 t/ha, N 20 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal and 20 kg N/ha 30 days after sowing.
Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each at 2 kg/ha mixed in 100 kg of FYM before sowing
Irrigation
Water stress at flowering and fruiting stages will drastically influence growth of plants, size of
fruits and yield. Immediately after sowing, field is irrigated. Subsequent irrigation is given at fixed intervals
depending on texture of soil and climate. In black soils, irrigation is done at 5-6 days interval. Interculture
Weed growth should be under control till crop canopy covers fully. This is achieved by frequent
hoeing, weeding and earthing up. Used of weedicides like Lasso (2 kg a.i./ha) or fluchloralin (1.5 kg/ha) or
Metolachlor (1.0 kg a.i./ha) and one hand weeding at 45 days after sowing was very effective and financially
viable under the All India Co-coordinated trials.

Weed management

About two weedings are required till the crop canopy cover the soil surface. Fluchloralin @
1.5 kg a.i./ha as pre-plant soil incorporation and Alachlor @ 2.0 kg a.i./ha Pendimethalin @ 0.75kg
a.i./ha as pre-emergence soil surface spray gives initial control of dicot weeds, though one hand

29
weeding may be required in kharif crop. The soil surface application of weedicides is effective for 4-5
weeks.

Special horticultural practices

1. Ratooning

Ratoon crop in kharif from plants of spring-summer sowing by pruning them at 20-25 cm height.
Arka Abhay and Pusa A-4 are suitable for ratoon crop as given quick branching after pruning.

2. Use of plant growth regulators

Plant growth regulators affect okra in many ways, such as seed treatment by GA (400 ppm) or
IAA (20 ppm) enhanced germination. Post-harvest treatment with cycocel (100 ppm) enhanced shelf
life of fruits.

Harvesting and yield

Maturity indices
▪ Harvest fruits when they attain maximum size but still tender.
▪ Fruits of 6-8 cm long are preferred for export purposes. This is usually attained by 5-6 days after opening
of flower.
▪ Harvesting is done in alternate days with a knife or by bending pedicel with a jerk.
Harvest method
For harvesting, cotton cloth hand gloves should be used to protect fingers from stinging effect. It
is advisable to harvest in morning hours since fruit hairs will be soft. Sprinkling water on pods during night
will keep them cool and fresh for market.
Post-harvest management
Fruits after harvesting are graded and filled in jute bags or baskets or perforated paper cartons and
sprinkled with water. Pre-cooling of fruits before packing maintains turgidity of fruits and will save it from
bruises, blemishes and blackening. This is usually done before packing fruits in perforated cartons of 5-8
kg before transporting to refrigerated van for export.
Yield
 Spring-summer crop : 6.0 – 8.0 t / ha
 Kharif crop: 10 – 12.5 t / ha
Storage: Fresh okra fruits can be stored at 7-9oC at 70-75% relative humidity for a couple of days without
much loss of colour, texture or weight. Fruit can be stored for 2 weeks at 8-10oC at 90% relative humidity.
Pests and Diseases
Diseases
1.Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus Disease
This is the most serious disease of bhendi. Characteristic vein clearing is the typical symptom and
yield loss may be up to 100% depending on stage of occurrence of the disease. Fruits of virus affected
plants turn to cream or white in colour. Virus is transmitted through a whitefly Bemisia tabaci.

30
Management
Removal of weeds susceptible to mosaic from nearby fields, control of white fly, uprooting and
burying of affected plants, adjusting time of sowing and cultivation of resistant varieties like Arka Anamika,
Arka Abhay, Susthira etc. are recommended for raising a disease free crop. Recently, a hybrid COBhH 1
has been released from HC & RI, TNAU Coimbatore which is resistant to YVMV.
2.Cercospora leaf spot
This disease is serious when there is high humidity in atmosphere and is common in a seed crop.
Sooty, black mouldy growth of pathogen appear as under surface of leaves and finally leaves dry off and
fall down. Mature pods are also attacked and show blackish spots.
Management : Spraying with Bavistin (0.1 g /1) or Bordeaux mixture at fortnightly interval will control
the disease.
3. Powdery mildew
This is caused by a fungus Erysiphae chicoracearum under prolonged humid conditions. White
powdery pistules appear on lower surface of leaves resulting in yellowing and death of leaves.
Management : Spraying of wettable sulphur (2g/l) at fortnightly interval is recommended for control.
Insect Pests
1. Jassids (Amrasca biguttula biguttula)
Wedge shaped pale green jassids suck sap from undersurfaces of leaves causing marginal
yellowing, cupping and drying of leaves. Due to intense hopper burn, defoliation also occurs. Infestation is
serious during summer.
Management : Prophylactic spray of neem oil-garlic mixture at fortnightly intervals is advantageous for
avoiding pest incidence.
2. Fruit borer
Borer infestation results in toppling and death of young seedlings, withering and drying up of
individual leaves and central shoot. Fruits will be damaged severely. Spray of carbaryl or thiodan or
endosulfan or fenvalerate or cypermethrin or deltamethrin is effective for control of borer. Summer
ploughing and clean cultivation are also helpful in reducing pest infestation.
3.Nematodes
Root knot nematode infects roots causing galls premature leaf fall, wilting and decline in growth and fruit
production. Symptoms in the field generally appear as well defined patches. Crop rotation with non host
plants like wheat, rice and corn should be practiced as a regular measure. Successive deep ploughing during
summer and soil solorisation gives very good control. Treating field with nematicides also can be adopted.
Seed production
For seed production, adjust sowing in such a way that dry weather coincides with maturation and drying of
pods and incidence of yellow vein mosaic disease is minimum. Being an often cross-pollinated crop,
provide an isolation distance of 400 m from other varieties. Field inspection and rouging should be
conducted at pre-flowering, flowering and fruiting phases. Harvesting of initial two fruits will be helpful in
promoting growth of plants. Average seed yield is 1.0-1.5 t/ha.

31
 ONION
Botanical name: Allium cepa var. cepa (Common onion / big onion)
Allium cepa var. aggregatum (Multiplier onion / small onion)
Family: Alliaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=16
Origin: Central Asia

Importance and uses

 Odour, flavour and pungency, which is due to the presence of a volatile oilallyl-propyl-disulphide.
 It is used as salad and cooked in many ways in curries, fried, boiled, baked and used in making soups,
pickles etc.
 Value addition in onion is done by marketing dehydrated onions and onion flakes.

 Onion bulb is rich in minerals like phosphorus (50 mg / 100 g) and calcium (180 mg / 100 g).
 Onion greens are also used by harvesting crop at pencil thickness and when small bulb is formed.
 India is the second largest producer of onion in the world, next to China and ranks third in export of
onions, next to Netherlands and Spain.
 Maharashtra is the leading onion producing state in India followed by Karnataka and Gujarat.
 Yellow colour of the outer skin of onion bulb is due to “quercetin‟.

 Onion contains an enzyme is called “Allinase‟

 National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic (NRCOG) is located at Nasik, Maharastra.

 New name of NRCOG, is Project Directorate on Onion and Garlic (PDOG), Rajagurunagar,
Maharashtra
 Generally red onion is more pungent than white onion.
 Lasalgoan (Maharashtra) is the biggest onion market in India.

 November – June is the peak period of onion in market.

 Onion is normally regarded as long day plant i.e. bulb formation is promoted by long day conditions.

Varieties
1.Red Coloured: Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Arka Niketan, Arka Kalyan , Pusa Madhavi,
Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa Riddhi ,Udaipur 101, Udaipur 103, Bhima Raj, Bhima Red
2.Kharif Onion: Arka Kalyan, Arka Pragati, N-53, Arka Niketan
3. White skinned varieties: Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Punjab-48, Udaipur-102
4. Yellow skinned varieties: Brown Spanish (Long day variety, suitable for growing in hills), Early Grano
(Good for salad, suitable for green onions).
5. Multiplier Onion: Agrifound Red, CO-1, C-2 (resistant to purple blotch), CO-3 (resistant to thrips),
CO-4 (moderately resistant to thrips), MDU-1.
6. Small Onion: Agrifound Rose (pickling type, suitable for export), Arka Bindu

32
Climate
Onion is a cool season vegetable and grows well under mild climate without extreme heat or cold
or excessive rainfall. It does not thrive when the average rainfall exceeds 75-100 cm during monsoon
period. The young seedlings withstand freezing temperature. The ideal temperature for vegetative growth
o o
is 12.8 – 23.0 C. For bulb formation it requires long days and still higher temperature (20-25 C). Even
though onion is treated as a long day plant, for bulb formation and its development, varieties differ in their
response to length of day. Most of cultivars grown in plains of North India are short day cultivars. Long
day varieties will not produce bulbs under short day conditions and short day cultivars if planted under long
day conditions will develop early bulbs. For seed production, temperature has more relevance than
photoperiod.
Soil
Onion prefers a well drained, loose and friable soil rich in humus. It is sensitive to high acidity and
alkalinity and the ideal pH is 5.8 to 6.5.
Methods of planting
The following three methods of planting are followed depending on soil, topography, climatic conditions
and economic aspects:
1. Raising seedlings and transplanting
2. Planting bulbs directly in the field.
3. Broadcasting or drilling of seeds directly in the field.

Nursery practices

Seeds are first sown in well prepared nursery beds of 90-120 cm width, 7.5-10.0 cm height and
convenient length. Ratio between nursery area and main field is about 1:20. About 45-60 cm distance is
kept between two beds to carry out the operations of watering, weeding, etc. the surface of the bed should
be smooth and well levelled. The soil of the nursery should be treated with Thiram or Captaf @ 0.2% or
4-5g/m2 area. About 5% of area will be required to produce seedlings for one hectare.

Sowing should be done in lines spaced at 5-7 cm distance. After sowing the seeds should be covered
with fine powdered FYM or compost followed by light watering by rose can. The beds should be covered
with dry grass or paddy straw or sugarcane leaves to maintain required temperature and moisture. The
watering should be done by rose can as per the need till germination is complete. The grass cover is
removed immediately after germination. If the seedlings are poor a spray of 0.5% urea can be used.
Seedlings of 15 cm height and 0.8 cm neck diameter are ideal for transplanting and this is achieved in 8
weeks.
However, it varies from 6-10 weeks depending on soil, climate and receipt of rain. There is a
practice of topping seedlings at the time of transplanting if seedlings are over-grown. In the nursery about
8-10 kg of common onion seed is sown for one hectare.
Direct seed sowing

Seeds of big onions are sown directly in the field in Bellary and Dharwad areas of Karnataka. Seeds
are sown by broadcasting or in rows. The distance between rows is 30 cm.

33
 the seed rate for broadcasting or sowing in rows is 20-25 kg per hectare.

Planting small sets

For obtaining an early crop in kharif season, small sets / bulbs are used for planting. Seeds are
sown at the rate of 25 g per square meter in nursery beds for raising seedlings, in mid-January to the
beginning of February depending upon the area. The plants are retained in the nursery bed till April or
May when their top fall. These plants are uprooted along with tops and selected sets or small bulbs (1.5-2
cm or 2-2.5 cm) are stored in a cool and properly ventilated place. The small sets are planted in the field
in August. The sets are planted on ridges which are 30-45 cm apart and the distance between the plants is
10-12 cm.
Planting of bulblets for multiplier onion

The multiplier onions are vegetatively propagated by bulblets. About 1.5 tonnes of bulblets are
required for planting in one hectare. The bulblets are planted on ridges. The distance between ridges is 30-
45 cm and between bulblets 10-15 cm.
Seed treatment

Treated with Thiram @ 2-3 g/kg of seed to avoid damage from damping off disease.
Season of sowing

 Plains: October-November for a rabi crop.

 Hills : March to June.
Preparation of field

Plough the land to a fine tilth and form ridges and furrows at 45 cm spacing. Sow the bulbs on
both the sides of the ridges at 10 cm apart.
Irrigation

Onion being a shallow-rooted crop requires light irrigations. The kharif crop is irrigated 8-10 times
depending upon the rains, about 12-15 irrigations in late kharif crop and 15-20 irrigations in rabi season.
Overwatering or too much soil moisture is harmful as it may favour incidence of purple blotch disease.
Long dry period should also be avoided as it may result in splitting and untimely maturity.

Nutrient management

Both organic manure and fertilizers are applied to the soil at the time of field preparation. The
quantities of manures and fertilizers will depend upon climate, crop season, soil, location and the type of
onion. About 20-25 tonnes of FYM and 100 kg N, 50 kg P and 50 kg K are applied in one hectare. The
entire quantity of P and K and half quantity of N are given as basal application. The other half quantity of
N is top dressed equally twice at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. In the case of the set method of planting
and multiplier onion nitrogen is top dressed at 20-25 days after transplanting.

Weed management

During early stages of the crop, plants grow slowly and it is essential to remove weeds. Pre-plant
incorporation of Basalin (2 kg a.i./ha) along with one hand weeding at 45 days after transplanting is

34
recommended to control weeds. Being a shallow rooted crop, deep interculture operation is likely to injure
roots and reduce yield. Generally two hoeing are essential for making soil loose and to cover bulbs.

Special horticultural practices

Spray Cycocel @ 200ppm + carbendazim @ 1000 ppm at 30 days before harvest to extend the
shelf life of onion.
Maturity indices

The crop is harvested when the tops dry up and fall. Best time to harvest rabi onion is one week
after 50-70 % neck fall. In kharif season, since tops do not fall, soon after the colour of leaves changes to
slightly yellow and tops starts drying, the bulbs are harvested.

Harvesting

The crop is harvested when the tops dry up and fall. After harvesting the bulbs are spread in thin
layers and cured under shade for 3-4 days. The leaves are cut at 1-2 cm above the bulb.

Yield

Big onions - 30-35 tonnes in rabi season and in kharif 25-30 tonnes/hectare.
Post-harvest handling

Drying and curing

The purpose of drying is to remove excess moisture and curing is an additional process aiding the
development of skin colour and to remove field heat before bulbs are stored. Sprouting and rotting are
common problems in storage since bulbs contain high moisture. In northern India for kharif season curing
is required for 2-3 weeks along with the tops. In rabi, bulbs are cured in field for 3-5 days in windrow
method, tops are cut, leaving 22.5 cm above the bulbs and then bulbs are again cured in shade for 7-10
days to remove the field heat. It is done till the neck is tight and outer scales are dried. This will prevent
infection of diseases and minimize shrinkage loss

Grading

Thick necked, bolted, doubles, injured and decayed bulbs are picked out. For marketing internally and
also for foreign markets, grading needs to be practised. Big size bulbs are in demand in Delhi market. In
Calcutta, Patna and Lucknow markets, medium sized onions are in demand. At Bangalore, Bhopal,
Hyderabad and Jabalpur medium to big size bulbs are in demand. Small sized onions are preferred at
Bhubaneswar, Guwahati and other centres in north-eastern region.

Storage

After curing, bulbs are stored in well ventilated rooms by spreading them on dry and damp proof
floorings or on racks. Periodical turning of bulbs and removal of rotten and sprouted bulbs is highly
essential. A pre-harvest spray (1 or 2 week before harvest) of maleic hydrazide (2000-2500 ppm) prevents
rotting and sprouting of bulbs stored at room temperature. The onion bulbs are best stored at 0 oC-2oC
temperature and 60-75 % relative humidity which is possible only in the cold storage. Ordinarily onion
bulbs are stored in indigenously constructed storage structures.
35
Packaging

Onions are packed in jute/gunny bags for transportation to yard. For safe handling 40 kg open
mesh jute bags having 200-300g weight are packed for domestic market. For export common big onions
are packed in 8-25 kg size open mesh jute bags. Bangalore Rose and multiplier onions are packed for
export in 14-15 kg wooden baskets.
Green onion or Spring onion
Consumption of green onion is almost equal to that of dry onion in the world. Both bulb-forming
and non-bulb forming types are used as green onion. For green onion production, seeds are sown in
August, transplanted in October and harvested after 75-80 days at tender stage. Varieties like early Grano,
Pusa White Flat and Pusa White Round are suitable for green onion purposes. Yield ranges from 40-45
t/ha.

Dehydrated onion
Commercial processing plants prescribes a shrinkage ratio of 7:1 to 17:1 with a moisture content
of 4% in final product. Dehydrated onions are sold in many forms as slices, chopped, minced, granulated
and powdered.
Bulbs for dehydration should have the following characteristics:
1. Devoid of any green patches so that it may not develop discoloration on drying. White onions are
preferred to red or yellow onions.
o o
2. TSS should be 15-20 Brix in common onion and 25 Brix in multiplier onion.
3. Onion with small neck and root zone and those with tall globe shape are preferred than flat types to
permit greater efficiency in topping.
4. Large bulbs are preferred due to economy in harvests.
5. Pungency should be high since dehydrated product is primarily sued as flavouring agent.
6. The bulb should have good stability with minimum shrinkage loss and rotting. Moisture content
should be around 80%.
South Port White Globe and White Cresole are primarily used for dehydration in Central California and
Central America. Varieties like Pusa White Red, Pusa White Flat, S-48 and N-257-9-1 and Udaipur-102
are suitable for dehydration purposes.
Seed Production
Onion is a cross-pollinated crop and isolation distance of 1000-1600 m and 500 m is recommended
for production of foundation and certified seeds, respectively. Two methods of seed production are
followed-seed to seed method and bulb to seed method. Even though seed yield is more under seed to seed
method, bulb to seed method is followed for production of quality seeds.
In bulb to seed method, bulbs are produced as for market and bulbs with desired quality are
replanted for seed production. Bulbs are replanted in first fortnight of October. Normally medium sized
bulbs of 2.5 to 3.0 cm diameter are planted on the side of ridges or on beds at 45 x 30-45 cm spacing. 1000
kg bulb is required to plant one hectare. Flower stalks will be produced during third month after planting
of bulbs and seeds ripen within six weeks after formation of flower clusters. Heads are harvested when

36
seeds turn black in colour, but before seeds are shed. Seeds are dried in well ventilated rooms under shade
and are stored. Seed yield is 800 – 1000 kg / ha.
Seed production of varieties which do not store well in storage is done by seed to seed method.

Multiplier Onion
(Syn : Aggregatum onion)
(Allium cepa var. Aggregatum) (2n = 2x = 16)
Multiplier onion is used mainly for seasoning of curries. Unlike common onion, it is propagated
through bulblets. The small bulbs grows into large ones which again break into smaller ones. Unlike
common onion, multiplier onion comes up well under tropical condition with sufficient soil moisture.
Heavy rain during germination and bulb formation stage is highly deleterious for the crop. It prefers well
drained loamy soil.
Varieties
The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University developed four varieties viz., Co.1, Co.2, Co.3, Co.4 and CO On
5 and NHRDF, Dindigul one variety – Agrifound Red. A brief description of the varieties is given below:
COOn 5 - High bulb yield (18.91 t/ha), free flowering and high seed setting ability, propagation through
seeds.
Cultivation practices
As in common onion, field is ploughed to fine tilth and ridges and furrows are prepared at 45 cm
apart. Medium sized bulbs are planted at a distance of 10 cm on either side of ridges. 1500 kg of bulbs are
required to plant one hectare. As in common, seedlings raised from seeds are also used for planting. Cultural
practices are same as in common onion.
Yield : 10-15 t/ha with a crop duration of 2-3 months.
Physiological disorders:
1. Bolting: It means emergence of seed stalk prior to time of bulb formation and adversely affects the
formation and development of bulbs.
Reasons:
 Transplanting of aged seedlings
 Early sowing of seeds in the nursery beds, which result in the formation of small sets.
 Late transplanting of seedlings
 Low temperature (10-12oC) for prolonged period.
Management: Time of planting should be adjusted in such a way that the crop may expose to moderate
temperature at bulbing. Sow nursery at proper time.
2. Sprouting: An important disorder in storage of onion and results in huge losses. It is associated with
excessive moisture at maturity and supply of nitrogen.
Management: Adjust time of planting in such a way that harvesting can be done in dry period. Stop
irrigation as soon as bulbs reach maturity. Spray iron sulphate or borax @ 500-1000 ppm 2-3 weeks prior
to harvesting.

37
 LECTURE 4
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting – water and nutrient
management – fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulators –
physiological disorders – maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – Seed production of
gourds (ash gourd, pumpkin, bitter gourd, ridge gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and watermelon)

ASH GOURD
(wax gourd/white pumpkin/winter melon/white gourd)
Botanical name: Benincasa hispida
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=24
Origin: Java and Japan

Importance and uses

 The immature fruit is consumed as a vegetable

 The mature fruits are used raw, or cooked and for preparing candies
 It is used in the preparation of “Petha” sweet
 “Agra Petha” is famous all over India
 The young leaves, flowers, and immature and mature seeds are also eaten
 It is also used in Ayurvedic medicines
 It lowers the blood sugar
 Ash gourd is considered good for people suffering from nervousness

Climate

 It requires a warm and humid climate and it is sensitive to frost.

 The optimum temperature requirement is 24oC - 30oC. Short-days, low-night temperatures and
humid climate are good for production of female flowers.
Soil

 Well drained sandy loam soils with high organic matter are considered best for ash gourd. Clay soil
is also suitable for growing it under rain-fed conditions.
 Soil pH is 6.0-7.5 but it can be grown also on slightly acidic soil (pH 5.5-6.5).
 In Tamil Nadu the crop is grown in summer along the inner slopes of tanks and ponds when they
become dry.
Seed rate: 5 – 7 kg/ha.

Sowing and spacing

Seeds are sown in hills on either side of the flat or raised beds. Sowing can also be done in hills
along the channels or furrows. The distance between rows is 1.5 – 2.5 m and 0.6 – 1.2 m between hills.
Normally two seeds are sown in each hill but later only one plant is allowed to grow in a hill. In South
India and West Bengal seeds are sown in pits along the channels that are 60 cm wide and 2.0 m apart.

38
The pits of 45cm3 dimensions are dug, at distances of 1.5 m along the channel and 3-4 seeds are sown
in each pit. In riverbeds seed sowing is done in trenches.

Season of sowing

It can be grown in both summer and rainy seasons. It is commonly grown in February-March on
the river bed cultivation. Seeds are sown in June-July for October harvest and December –January for
harvesting during April-May.

Nutrient management

Well rotten FYM @ 15-20 t/ha is applied to the field at the time of preparation of field. Fertilizer
dose of 45-60 kg N, 50-60 kg P2O5 and 60-80 kg K2O/ha is recommended for this crop.

Irrigation

For summer crop, regular and frequent irrigation is needed during the vegetative phase. Depending
upon season and soil type irrigation should be given once in a week. When crop mature, irrigation
intervals may be increased. Less irrigation is needed for rainy season crop.

Use of growth regulators

 As it is a monoecious crop, the number of female flowers decides the fruit yield. Hence, for ash
guard, spraying of Ethrel @ 200 ppm for four times starting from four leaves stage and at weekly
intervals from 15 days after sowing. This facilitate for higher fruit yield.

 Gibberellins can be used to increase stalk length, increase flower and fruit size.

Weed management
Hand weeding may be done 15-20 days after sowing. The crop should be kept weed free for better
growth. A total of 4-5 hand weeding are needed for the whole crop season.

Mulching

Mulching also has beneficial effect in suppression of weeds. Mulching in ash gourd crop with black
polythene film reduces weed growth, accelerates crop growth, induces early bearing and increases
yield.

Maturity indices

The fruit at maturity have a white waxy surface. The mature fruits are harvested when the
ashy/waxy bloom on the fruit surface disappears and the peduncle withers.

Harvesting
Ash gourd starts flowering 60-80 days after sowing. Both the immature and mature fruits are
harvested. After anthesis, the fruits are harvested in about a week for immature fruits. The harvesting
of mature fruits starts after 90-100 days of sowing. Immature fruits need to be sent to the market
immediately after harvesting. The mature fruits are harvested and stored.

39
 Immature fruit Mature fruit

Yield : The average yield of ash gourd is 25-30 t/ha.

Storage
The fruits have good storage quality and can be transported long distance via truck. The mature fruits
can be stored for about 4 – 5 months at room temperature with good ventilation. The fruit is mainly
purchased by the confectioners, who use them to prepare “Petha”. Ash gourd can be stored longer than
any other cucurbits.

Varieties:

Some important varieties under cultivation:

 CO 1, CO 2, Mudaliar from TNAU, Coimbatore.

 Indu, KAU Local from KAU, Trissur; Kerala.

 Karikumbala, Boodikumbala from UAS, Bangalore.

 IVAG-502, Kashi Ujwal, Kashi Surbhi, Kashi Dhaval from IIVR, Varanasi.

 Pusa Ujwal, Ekalavya from IARI, New Delhi.

 APAU Shakthi from APAU, Andhra Pradesh.

PLANT PROTECTION

Pests
1. Leaf eating caterpillar - Affects on flowers and leaves.
Management
 The caterpillars can be totally controlled by using a combination of profenophos with
Chloropyriphos at 2 ml per litres of water.
 High concentration neem sprays are effective & neem cake can be used in the soil just before the
caterpillars enter pupal stage.

2. Fruit fly: Daucus cucurbitae - Affects on immature fruits.

Management:
 Removal and destruction of infested fruits.

 Fruit flies can be controlled by using pheromone traps.

40
 3. Aphids and White flies:
Damage
Transmit virus and also suck the sap from leaves which leads to drying of leaves.
Management
 Aphids can be effectively controlled by using garlic sprays, neem sprays (10 ml per litres) and
also by spray of Dimethoate at 1 ml per litre of water.

Diseases
1. Phyllody:

Caused by Mycoplasma like organisms (MLOs) and transmitted by leaf hoppers.

Symptoms
 All the nodes and internodes of the plant get shrunk & give a mottled appearance.
 Malformation of auxiliary buds is visible & the leaves fail to attain full size.

Management
 By managing the vectors we can prevent the incidence.
 Safest & least toxic way is to use Dimethoate @2 ml per litres of water

2. Mosaic
Caused by virus and transmitted by aphids and white flies.
Symptoms
 A pattern of irregular lines, vein banding in the form of a mosaic appearance is noticed on leaves.
Management
 Vector control: Aphids can be effectively controlled by using garlic sprays, neem sprays (10 ml
per litres) and also by spray of Dimethoate at 1 ml per litre of water.

3. Powdery mildew: Erysiphe cichoracearum

Symptoms
 Powdery growth on leaves and yellowing of corresponding lower surfaces.

Management
 Affected host and alternate hosts destruction.

4. Fruit rot: Fusarium pallidoroseum

5. Storage rot: Fusarium solani and Fusarium moniliformae
 Causes rots during storage and transit.
Management: Spray of Quinoline or Bavistin

41
 PUMPKIN

Botanical name: Cucurbita moschata

Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=40
Origin: Tropical America
Importance and uses
 It is one of the most popular summer vegetable grown all over India on a commercial scale.
 Because of its high carotene content and good keeping quality, it is considered as a vegetable of immense
value.
 In India, perhaps the Portuguese introduced the pumpkin
 It became more popular among the farmers, probably due to its wider adaptability to warm climate in
almost all parts of the country and long keeping quality of the fruits
 Immature and mature fruits are cooked as a vegetable.
 Fully ripen fruits are meshed and used for the preparation of a delicacy called halwa
 Young tender shoots and leaves are also consumed as cooked vegetable in West Bengal and Bihar
 They can also be candied or fermented to give a beverage.
 The Yerusseri prepared from immature fruits is very popular in Kerala.
 Fruit is also mixed with tomato in the preparation of sauce.
 The flowers of pumpkin are more nutritive than fruits.
 The seeds after removing seed coats are used in confectionery.
 The young leaves, flowers and fruits are rich in carotene, a precursor of vitamin A
 Vitamin A content in pumpkin: 1600 IU
 Pumpkin festival celebrated in USA
 Pumpkin is highly cross pollinated-entomophily due to monoecious nature
 Flower of pumpkin have more nutritive value than fruits
Two related species

 Cucurbita pepo - Summer squash (Bushy growth habit)

 Cucurbita maxima - Winter squash (Vine habit)

Climate
Pumpkin requires a warm growing season. It can be grown in relatively cooler climates than the
other cucurbits. Short-days, low-night temperature and high-relative humidity is best for pumpkin
production. The plants can be grown successfully between a temperature range of 25-300C. Above 40oC
and below 15o\C the growth of the plant will be very slow and the yield goes down. It does not tolerate
frost.

Soil
A deep well drained sandy loam soil, rich in organic matter is preferred. Sandy loams are good for
raising early crop whereas clay loams are good for high yield. The long tap root system is adapted to its

42
 growth in river beds. It is sensitive to acidic soils. The pH should be 6.5-7.5. Soil temperature should not
go below 10oC and maximum beyond 30oC, the optimum range is around 20oC – 25oC. Soil moisture
should be at least 10-15% above the permanent wilting point.
Season : summer and rainy seasons. June- July and December- January are suitable seasons.

Seed rate: 1.0 kg /ha of seeds required

Seed treatment : Soak the seeds in double the quantity of water for 30 minutes and incubate for 6 days.
Treat the seeds with Azospirillum just before sowing.

Field preparation
The field is ploughed 4-5 times. Pits of 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm size are dug at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m.
The pits are filled with a mixture of farm yard manure (20-25 t/ha) and top soil and basal dose of fertilizers
are mixed with the soil.

Sowing
In pits, 4-5 seeds are sown and pits are pot watered till germination. The seeds germinate in 7-8
days and after germination 2-3 healthy seedlings are left in each pit and other seedlings are thinned out
after 15 days of planting.

Application of fertilizers
Apply 10 kg of FYM (20 t/ha) and 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture as basal and 10 g of N per pit
after 30 days of planting. Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria @ 2 kg/ha such and Pseudomonas
2.5 kg/ha along with FYM 50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last ploughing.

Use of growth regulators

Ethrel can be applied to increase the female flower production which helps to increase the yield. The
concentration of the chemical is very important. The recommended concentration is 250 ppm. The first
spray has to be given when there are two-true leaves (15 DAS). This repeated once in a week for 3 more
times. In general, high N under high temperature condition promotes maleness in flowering resulting in
low fruit set and low yield. Excessive vine growth can be pruned manually to promote higher female to
male ratio.

Quality seedling production

 Nursery raising
In hi-tech horticulture, use 12 days old healthy seedlings obtained from shade net houses for
planting. Raise the seedlings in pro-trays having 98 cells. Use well decomposed coco peat as medium.
Sow one seed per cell. Water regularly twice a day.
 Fertigation
Apply a dose of 60:30:30 kg NPK/ha throughout the cropping period through split application.
Apply 75% of the phosphorus as superphosphate as basal dose.

43
 Weed management
Regular weeding should be done. Pre-plant incorporation of Alchlor @ 2.5Kg/ha as pre-emergence
can be used for weed control on pumpkin.

Special cultural practices

Trailing - For trailing pumpkin, dried twigs are spread on the ground

Harvesting
The pumpkin crop will reach maturity in about 85-90 DAS depending on the variety and season. It is
better to harvest at tender stage as a vegetable. But for storage and seed extraction, it should be harvested
only after full maturity.

Harvesting indices
Fully matured fruits have to be harvested after the skin colour has turned completely brown from
green colour. The fruit stalk separates from the vine or dried. Fully matured fruits have a long storage-
life and they can also be transported easily to distant markets

Yield : 18-20 t/ha of fruits can be obtained

Varieties
1. CO 1

 Good cooking quality

 The fruits are flattened at the base measuring 34 cm length and 26.0 cm girth.
 Each fruit weighs about 7.0 kg. Yields 25-30 t/ha,
2. CO 2

 Adopts well for high density planting at 2.2 x 1.9 m spacing.

 The crop duration is 135 days with a mean yield of 22.65 t/ha.
 Fruits are small sized, slightly ridged with bright orange colored flesh.
 Each fruits weigh on an average of 1.5 to 1.8 kg.
 The fruits contain 10.8% TSS, 3.4% total sugars, 1.9% reducing sugars, 9.2% starch, 10.0 mg/ of
ascorbic acid in 100 g of pulp, 0.14% acidity with an organoleptic scoring of 75%.
3. Pusa Vikas

 Yield : 30 t/ha
 Vines semi-dwarf to dwarf (2.0-2.5m long); leaves soft with light green or yellow spots; fruits
small weighing 2 kg, flattish round; flesh yellow, rich in vitamin A.
4. Pusa Vishwas

 Yield : 40 t/ha

 Fruits light brown, spherical with thick golden-yellow flesh, weight 5 kg

44
5. Pusa Alankar

 Yield : 43-45 t/ha

 Fruits are green with shining light green stripes, long (25-30 cm); sown during MarchApril in
hills and January- February in plains.
6. Australian Green

 Yield : 25-30 t/ha

 Fruits are dark green with very light green colour stripes, long (25-30 cm); sown during March-
April in hills and January- February in plain.

7. Arka Chandan
 A pure line selection from (IIHR-105) Rajasthan.
 Fruit round with pressed blossom end.
 Rind colour green with white patches when immature which turns to light brown colour with self-
colored patches.
 Thick orange flesh, solid cavity (TSS is 8-10%).
 Fruit weight 2-3 kg.
 Rich in carotene (3331 IU of carotene/100g flesh) Duration 115-120 days.
 Yield is 33 t/ha.
8. Arka Suryamukhi
 It is a variety of Cucurbita maxima
 Fruits are small (1-1.5kg), round with flat ends and deep-orange streamy streaks on the rind
 Flesh is firm and orange-yellow in colour
 Keeping and transport qualities are good
 It is also resistant to fruit fly
 It yields 36t/ha in 100 days duration
9. Ambili

 It is a pure line selection from a local cultivar of Thrissur

 A vigorously growing variety having flat round fruits of medium size (5-6 kg)
 Immature fruits are green and turns tan coloured during maturity
 Leaves are characterized by white spots on the upper surface of the lamina
 Yield is 34 t/ha and matures in 130days

Hybrids
1. Pusa Hybrid 1
 Yield : 52 t/ha
 Fruits flattish round, medium size, weighing 4.75 kg; flesh golden yellow.

45
Crop protection

Diseases
1. Powdery mildew
Powdery mildew can be controlled by spraying Carbendazim @ 0.5 g/lit.

2. Downy mildew
Downy mildew can be controlled by spraying Chlorothalonil @ 2 g/lit. twice at 10 days interval.
Pests
1. Fruit fly
• Collect the damaged fruits and destroy them.
• The fly population low in hot day conditions and it is peak in rainy season. Hence adjust the sowing
time accordingly.
• Plough the field to expose the pupae.
• Use polythene bags fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal + 1 ml Dichlorvos in cotton. Totally 50
traps are required/ha, fish meal + Dichlorvos soaked cotton are to be renewed once in 20 and 7 days
respectively.
• Neem oil @ 3.0 % as foliar spray as need based
Do not use DDT, lindane 1.3% dust, copper and sulphur dust. These are phytotoxic

46
 Bitter gourd / Balsam Pear / Bitter cucumber

Botanical name: Momordica charantia

Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=22
Origin: Tropical Asia (Eastern India and Southern China)
Uses

 It is good for curing blood diseases, rheumatism, diabetes and asthma

 It is used for pickles, canning and dehydration

 The chemical compound, “momordicine”, which causes bitterness in fruits, has been used to
lower the blood glucose in diabetes

Climate
It is a warm season crop of the tropical regions but it grows well also in subtropical climate. It is
grown in the hills in summer season. The optimum temperature requirement is 25oC - 30oC. It is
susceptible to frost and does not grow well under cool conditions.

Soil : Sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best suited for bitter gourd cultivation. The optimum pH
is 6.0-7.0.
Season of sowing : In hills - April to July. Plains: January - March.

Seed treatment : The seeds have to be treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg of seeds. Soaking the seeds for 6
hours will facilitate germination.

Seed sowing and planting

Bitter gourd is mostly direct-seeded. Sometimes, seedlings grown in small poly bags are
transplanted in the field after 15-20 days, mainly for summer crop (January / February – March).
The seed rate is about 4-6 kg per hectare. The crop is planted on flat beds or raised beds, about
120-150 cm wide with 50-60 cm wide furrows on either side. Seeds are sown in hills, about 45-60 cm
apart on both sides of the bed. Generally, 2-3 seeds are sown in a hill.
In rainy season, (June-July) the crop is grown on 15-20 cm high ridges. Germination takes longer
time at low temperatures. The seed germination is optimum at temperature between 25 oC and 35oC and
inhibited at 8oC and above 40oC.

Irrigation
The crop is irrigated immediately after planting. The crop is irrigated at 4-6 days interval in
summer. It requires less irrigation during rainy season depending on the rainfall.

Nutrient management

About 20-25 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure or compost are applied to the soil at the time
of land preparation. The fertilizers required are about 100 kg N, 50 kg P and 50 kg K. Half quantity of N

47
 is applied at the time of bed / pit preparation and the other half quantity of N is applied about 30-45 days
after seed sowing.

Weed management
Apply glycophosphate @ 4.5 kg/ha after the weed emergence and before sowing. Hand weeding
should be done 15-20 days after the sowing. The second weeding may be done 20-25 days after the first
weeding.

Special horticultural practices

1.Training
The plants are trained on pandal or bower made of bamboo poles or galvanized wires and poles. In
most of the parts of northern region the vines are allowed to spread on the bed without any support.

2.Use of plant growth regulators

The sex ratio can be regulated by exogenous application of growth regulators Ethrel @ 250 ppm at
true-leaf stage (2-4 leaf stage) can increases the female flower production in bitter gourd and in turn
increases the yield significantly. Soaking of seeds in Ethrel @ 20 ppm or GA3, MH, AgNO3 @ 3-4 ppm
gave the highest number of female flowers and increases the yield. Application of cycocel @ 250ppm
gave the higher dry matter, acetic acid and TSS content and flesh thickness.

Maturity standards
The colour of tender fruit is light-green to dark-green or whitish green depending on variety. At
fully ripe stage the colour of the fruits turns to yellow or orange and for seed purpose the fruits are
harvested at this stage.

Harvesting and yield

The immature and tender fruits are harvested after 50-60 days of seed sowing depending on the
variety and season. The fruits attain marketable stage for harvesting about 2-3 weeks after anthesis.
Yield of the variety and the F1 hybrid is about 10-15 t/ha and 20-25t/ha.

Post-harvest technology
Harvesting should be done at proper edible maturity. After harvesting remove all fruits affected
with insect pests or diseases and deformed ones. Grading of fruits should be done according to size. The
fruits are packed in separate baskets. By sprinkling water over the fruits, freshness can be maintained for
some time in the initial stage. Fruits can be packed in polypropylene bag for extended shelf-life.

Varieties of bitter gourd

S. Varieties Special features
No.
1. Pusa Aushadhi New variety
2. Pusa Purvi Small bitter gourd variety
3. Pusa Rasdar Suitable for protected structures (Year round cultivation)
4. Pusa Do Mausami Suitable for spring summer and rainy seasons
5. Pusa Vishesh Suitable for pickling and dehydration
6. Arka Harit -

48
7. Arka Anupama -
8. Pant Karela Highly resistant to red pumpkin beetle
9. Priyanka White colour variety
10. Preethi White colour variety
11. Konkan Tara Having long shelf life and export variety
12. VK-1 (Priya) -
13. Kashi Urvasi -
14. Phule Green Gold Tolerant to downy mildew
15. MDU-1 Mutant variety
16. CBM-12 Anti-diabetic variety (Momordica charantia var. muricata)
S. F1 hybrids Special features
No.
1. Pusa hybrid - 1 Suitable for growing in spring-summer season
2. Pusa hybrid - 2 -
3. COBgoH 1 -

49
 RIBBED GOURD / RIDGE GOURD

Botanical name: Luffa acutangula

Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=26
Origin: India
Uses
 The genus “Luffa” derives its name from the product “Loofah”, which is used in bathing sponges,
scrubber pads, doormats and pillows
 It contain a gelatinous compound called “Luffein”

Climate : It is a warm season crop. The optimum temperature requirement is 24oC - 27oC.

Soil : Sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best suited for ridge gourd cultivation. The optimum pH is
6.0-7.0.

Season of sowing
The time of planting usually depends on the season, location and market demand. The crop is grown
in both summer and rainy seasons. Summer season crop is sown in JanuaryFebruary and rainy season
crop is sown in June-July.
Seed treatment : seeds are soaked in water for 12-24 hours before sowing to increase the germination.

Seed sowing and planting

Ridge gourd is propagated through seeds. The crop is grown on flat or raised beds. The rainy
season crop is grown on both the sides of raised beds. The width of bed is about 150-250 cm and 50-60
cm wide furrows are on either side for irrigation. About 2-3 seeds are sown in a hill on the side of the bed
and the distance between hills is about 100-150 cm.
If the seeds were sown in the pits means, the dimensions of the pit are 45 cm x 45 cm and 60 cm
deep and the distance between the pits is 100-150 cm and the row distance is about 200-250 cm. In south
India and West Bengal ridge gourd is grown in pits while in parts of the northern region the crop is grown
on beds. The average seed rate is about 5-6 kg per hectare.

Irrigation
The first irrigation should be given immediately after the sowing. The summer crop is irrigated at
4-6 days interval. However, excessive watering should be avoided. The rainy season crop requires much
less irrigation depending on the rainfall.

Nutrient management
About 20-25 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure or compost are applied to the soil at the time
of land preparation. The fertilizers required are about 100 kg N, 50 kg P and 50 kg K. Half quantity of N
is applied at the time of bed / pit preparation and the other half quantity of N is applied about 30-45 days
after seed sowing.

50
Weed management :Weeding should be done 15-20 days after the sowing. The second weeding may be
done 20-25 days after the first weeding.

Special horticultural practices

1. Training
The vines are allowed to trail on the beds. In the villages, the plants grow on the walls of houses or
huts. The plants in kitchen gardens or in small growing areas are supported on trellis. During the rainy
season it would be useful to have mulching of beds with dried grasses or straw to avoid rotting of fruits
which on contact with the wet soil.

2. Use of plant growth regulators

The sex ratio can be regulated by exogenous application of growth regulators NAA @ 200 ppm at
true-leaf stage (2-4 leaf stage) can increases the female flower production in ridge gourd and in turn
increases the yield significantly.

Maturity standards
Fruits are harvested when they are tender and still immature. The flesh should not turn fibrous and
picking should be done earlier. There are long fruited types of ridge gourd in South India and hence
tenderness would decide edible maturity and not the fruit size.

Harvesting and yield

The immature fruits are harvested after 60-90 days of seed sowing depending on the variety and
season. The fruits attain marketable stage after 5-7 days of anthesis. The fruits at harvesting should not
be fibrous.
yield : variety and the F1 hybrid is about 8-12 t/ha and 20-25t/ha.

Post-harvest technology
Harvesting should be done at proper edible maturity. Grading of fruits should be done according
to size. The fruits are packed in separate baskets. Care should be taken that the fruits should not have any
injury during transit. The fresh and tender fruits should reach the consumer. The harvested fruits can be
stored for 3-4 days in a cool place without any adverse effects.

Varieties of ridge gourd

S. Varieties Special features
No.
1. Pusa Nutan
2. Pusa Nasdar
3. Pusa Sumeet
4. Arka Sujath
5. PKM-1 Induced mutant
6. CO-1 and CO-2
7. Punjab Sadabahar
8. Satputia Hermaphrodite variety
9. Konkan Harita

51
 BOTTLE GOURD

Botanical name : Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.)

Family : Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=22
Origin: Tropical Africa

Uses:
Bottle gourd is extensively grown in India and fruits are available throughout the year.
The name bottle gourd is due to bottle like shape of fruit and its use as a container in the past. Fruits at
tender stage are used as a cooked vegetable and for preparation of sweets and pickles. Hard
shells of mature fruits are used as water jugs, domestic utensils, floats for fishing nets, etc. As a vegetable
it is easily digestible. It has cooling effect and has diuretic and cardiotonic properties. Fruit pulp is used
as an antidote against certain poisons and is good for controlling constipation, night blindness and cough.
A decoction made out of leaf is taken for curing jaundice. Seeds are used in dropsy.

Climate
Bottle gourd is a typical warm season vegetable. Though crop tolerates cool climate better than
musk melon and water melon, it cannot tolerate frost.

Soil
Well drained fertile silt loam is ideal for cultivation of bottle gourd. Crop is quite suitable for river
bed cultivation because of its deep tap root system. A deep soil supports vines for a long period.
Season: Grown during summer and rainy season. In places where water is not scarce, it is grown
throughout the year.

Land preparation and sowing

Land preparation and sowing are similar to that of ash gourd. Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and
furrows are made at a distance of 2.0-3.0 m. After incorporating farmyard manure, seeds are
sown in furrows at a distance of 1.0-1.5 m between plants. When bottle gourd is trained on bower,
follow a spacing of 3.0 x 1.0 m. In sloppy land, sowing is done in pits with 2-3 plants / pit.
Seed treatment : Soaking seeds 12-24 hours in water or in succinic acid (600 ppm) for 12 hours
improves germination.
Seed rate: 3-6 kg/ha.

Training and pruning

As bottle gourd puts forth good vegetative growth, proper training and pruning are
advantageous. Training plants to bower helps to tap sunlight more effectively and yield as high as 80
t/ha was obtained. Axillary buds of growing vines should be removed till vines reach the bower height.
When vine reaches bower, apical bud is removed at 10-15 cm below bower to allow 2 or 3
branches to spread on bower. After formation of 4-5 fruits, vines are again pruned allowing 2-3 axillary

52
buds only to grow on primary vines. It is also advisable to remove all yellow and pale coloured older
leaves near bottom portion.

Intercultural operations: Bottle gourd is highly responsive to heavy application of manures and
fertilizers. Follow fertilizer package and interculture operations as that of ash gourd and bitter gourd.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu Apply 10 kg of FYM (20 t/ha) 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture as
basal and 10 g of N per pit 30 days after sowing.

Harvesting
Fruits are harvested at tender stage when it grows to one third to half. Fruits attain
edible maturity 10-12 days after anthesis and are judged by pressing on fruit skin and noting
pubescence persisting on skin. At edible maturity seeds are soft. Seeds become hard and flesh
turn coarse and dry during aging. Tender fruits with cylindrical shape are preferred in market.
Harvesting starts 55-60 days after sowing and is done at 3-4 days intervals. While
harvesting, care should be taken to avoid injury to vines as well as to fruits. Plucking of
individual fruits is done with sharp knives by keeping a small part of fruit stalk along with fruit.

Yield
Average yield is 20-25 t/ha for open pollinated varieties and 40-50 t/ha for F1 hybrids. Fruits can be
stored for 3-5 days under cool and moist condition. For export purpose, fruits are packed in
polythene bags and bags are kept in boxes of 50-100 kg capacity.

53
 SNAKE GOURD
( Cucumber of the southern barbarians)
Botanical name: Trichosanthes cucumerina (syn. Trichosanthes anguina)
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=24
Origin: India

Uses
 The tender immature fruits are used as vegetable

 It has a compound “Trichosanthinn” which inhibits the growth of immunodeficiency virus

(HIV-1) in human cells.

Climate : Thrives well in humid warm climate. It is susceptible to frost. The optimum temperature
requirement is 25oC - 35oC.

Soil : Sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best suited for snake gourd cultivation. The optimum pH is
6.0-7.0.
Season of sowing : Snake gourd seeds are sown in June-July and December-January
Seed treatment : soaked in water for 12-24 hours before sowing to increase the germination

Seed sowing and planting

Seeds are sown in pits (45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm) dug along the channels of 60 cm width that are 2.5
m apart. The distance between the pits is 150 cm. Seeds can be also sown in hills on the edges of flat or
raised beds of 150-200 cm width with a distance of 60-90 cm between the hills. About 5-6 seeds are sown
in each pit. Later only 2 or 3 seedlings are allowed to grow at each hill and the rest are removed. The seed
rate is about 5-6 kg per hectare.

Irrigation
The first irrigation should be given immediately after the sowing. The summer crop is irrigated at
4-6 days interval. However, excessive watering should be avoided. The rainy season crop requires much
less irrigation depending on the rainfall.

Nutrient management
About 15-20 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure or compost are applied to the soil at the time
of land preparation. The fertilizers required are about 40-60 kg N, 30-50 kg P and 30-40 kg K. Half
quantity of N is applied as topdressing when the fruit set starts.
Weed management : Weeding should be done 15-20 days after the sowing. The second weeding may be
done 20-25 days after the first weeding.

54
 Special horticultural practices

1. Training
The young plants are supported on bamboo stakes and then trained to spread over a pandal or bower
made of bamboo poles or galvanised wire.
In long-fruited varieties, when the young fruit is developing a small piece of stone is tied at the tip or
blossom end of the fruit so that it does not twist or coil and remains straight. The straight long fruits are
preferred in the market.

Harvesting and yield

The tender young fruits that have attained marketable size are harvested at regular intervals of 5-7
days. The fruits become ready for harvesting after 70-80 days of seed sowing, depending on the variety
and season. Generally, the fruits can be harvested after about 2-3 weeks of anthesis. The harvesting
duration is about 135-145 days in long and medium-long fruited varieties and about 100 days in short
fruited variety (CO 2). The fruit size may be extra- long (180-200), long (160-180 cm), medium-long (60-
70 cm) and short (30-35 cm).
The average yield of the variety is about 18-25 t/ha.

Post-harvest technology
Just after harvesting fruits are sent to the markets as they do not have shelf-life more than two
days. In Maharashtra, some people cut the fruits into three to four pieces and tie them before sending to
market on large scale. Nevertheless, generally the whole fruits are packed and then sent to the markets.

Varieties of snake gourd

S. No. Varieties Special features
1. Konkan Sweta Suitable for cultivation in both kharif and hot weather seasons
2. CO-1
3. CO-2 Short fruited variety (Don‟t require pandal)
4. PKM-1 Long fruited variety (Induced mutant)
5. MDU-1 (F1 hybrid) -
6. Swetha -

55
 WATERMELON

Botanical name: Citrullus lanatus / Citrullus vulgaris

Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=22
Origin: Tropical Africa

 Watermelon is used as a dessert and its juice is refreshing in summer

Climate
Watermelon is a warm season crop. The optimum temperature for good plant growth is 24oC- 27oC
and it can grow even when day temperature is 30oC and night temperature 20oC. High temperature and
low humidity are favorable to watermelon for fruit ripening and quality fruits.

Soil
A deep well drained sandy loam soil, rich in organic matter is preferred. Sandy loams are good for
raising early crop whereas clay loams are good for high yield. The optimum soil pH is 6.0-6.5 but it can
be grown on soil pH ranging between 5 and 7.

Season of sowing and planting

Seeds can be sown on the sides of raised beds or furrows and in pits. The distance of planting on
raised beds may be 2.5-3.5 m between rows and 60 cm -120 cm between the hills in a row. Two seeds are
sown in each hill. The width of furrows is 60 cm and 2.5-3.5 m apart and seeds are sown in hills that are
60 cm – 120 cm part. In the pit system 60 cm x 60 cm pits with a depth of 45 cm are dug at distances of
1.5-2.5 m apart. About 4-6 seeds are sown in each pit. Watermelon is an important cucurbit grown on
riverbeds and seeds are sown in trenches.
Direct seed sowing is done in mid January / February – March in the plains of northern India and
in November-December on river beds in north India. It is sown in November / December to January /
February in South India. Watermelon is also transplanted. Seeds are sown in small polybags for raising
seedlings. The seedlings are transplanted in the field at appropriate distances.
Seed rate : About 3.5-5 kg seeds are sown for planting one hectare. It may, however, vary according to
the method and distance of sowing. Seeds are sown about 2-4 cm deep. The seed rate for F1 hybrids is
about 1.5 to 2.5 kg per hectare.

Seed treatment
The seeds of watermelon should be soaked in water overnight and then should be kept in moist
cloth or gunny bag near a warm place before planting. Germination would start within three to four days.
Soaking of seeds in ethephon @ 480mg / litre for 24 hours improves germination in watermelon at low
temperature. Seed dressing with Thiram @ 2g/kg of seeds, controlled fungi effectively and also enhanced
seed germination.

56
Irrigation
The crop requires about 400-700 mm of water. It is irrigated at 4-6 days interval during summer
season. Light irrigation should be given at the time of seedling emergence.
Overwatering may be avoided during fruit ripening.

Nutrient management
About 30-40 tonnes of FYM or compost are applied to the soil at the time of land preparation. The
fertilizer requirements of 60-80 kg N, 40-60 kg P and 60-80 kg K are applied to the soil at the time of
field preparation. Only 1/3rd of N is mixed with the soil at the time of field preparation. The rest quantity
of N is given as top dressing twice during early stages of vine growth , the first after 25-30 days of sowing
followed by the second after another 25-30 days. The F1 hybrids require higher quantities of fertilizers,
200 kg N, 100 kg P and 100 kg K.

Weed management
Light hoeing and weeding are done during early stages of vine growth. The plant growth, fruiting
and productivity are adversely affected when weeds are not removed at the initial stage of plant growth.

Special horticultural practices

1. Use of growth regulators
In watermelon to increase the fruiting and the fruit yield exogenous application of chemicals such
as TIBA @ 25-250 ppm, boron @ 3-4 ppm, molybdenum @ 3-4 ppm and calcium @ 20-25 ppm is
recommended. These chemicals / plant growth regulators must be applied at 2-true leaf stage. Repeat the
spray at 4-true leaf stage.

Harvesting indices and harvesting

Watermelon fruits are harvested at full ripening stage. The fruits ripen in 95-120 days after sowing.
There are certain indications of fruit ripening, such as, withering of the tendril near the place of attachment
of the fruit on the stem, change of ground spot colour of the fruit from green to yellow and dull sound on
thumping the fruit.
Yield : 20-25 t/ha. Storage : Stored for about 2-3 weeks at 13oC-16oC and 80 % relative humidity.

57
58
 LECTURE NO. 5
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting – water and nutrient
management – fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulators –
physiological disorders – maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – Seed production of
cassava and potato
CASSAVA
Botanical name - Manihot esculenta
Family - Euphorbiaceae
Chromosome number - 2n=36
Origin – Guatemala and Mexico (South America)
Importance and uses
 Perennial shrub producing 5-10 cylindrical tubers per plant.

 Two distinct types are present – one without branching at the top and the other with spreading
nature.

 Cassava is a monoecious and cross pollinated

 The economical part of cassava is tubers

 The main constituent of cassava tuber is starch

 The bitter principle of cassava is due to cyanogenic glucoside (HCN) (41mg/kg of tubers)

 The yellow flesh colour of cassava is due to the presence of carotene, the precursor of vitamin A

 It is used for making chips, sago and vermicelli

 Its starch is used as an industrial raw material for production of alcohol, biodegradable plastic and
cattle feed

Climate
Cassava grows well in tropics and subtropics. The optimum temperature is 25oC-30oC for its best
performance. It can withstand high temperatures upto 35oC but the yield is adversely affected when the
temperature is above 35oC. It is photoinsensitive and can be grown round the year.
Soil
Cassava grows on all types of soils, but saline, alkaline and ill-drained soils are not suitable. Red
sandy loam is mostly preferred with pH ranging from 5.5-7.0. It is relatively a drought tolerant crop.
Cassava can recover from the damage of slight moisture stress of shorter duration. Crop is mainly grown
in laterite soils in Kerala and black and red soils in Tamil Nadu.
Varieties
Most of the crop improvement works on cassava are done at the Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
(CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram. Important varieties developed at CTCRI are given below:

59
 H-97: This erect branching hybrid, developed by crossing Manjavella Local with a Brazilian Local, is
characterized by the light sepia colour of emerging leaf with brown tubers; yield 25-35 t/ha in 10 months.
H-165: This is a non-branching hybrid with mature leaves showing drooping nature; tubers are relatively
short with cream coloured rind; yield 33-38 t/ha in 8-9 months.
H-226: This semi-branching hybrid having characteristic green coloured leaves; tuber rind is light purple
and skin is cream with purple patches; susceptible to cassava mosaic disease (CMD); yield 30-35 t/ha in
10 months.
Sree Sahya: This is a multiple hybrid involving five parents. It is non-branching with dark brown petiole
and spiny prominent stipular mark; tubers are long and rind is cream coloured; yield 35-40t/ha in 10-11
months.
Sree Vaisakham: This is a semi-branching hybrid with slightly yellow fleshed tubers which remains
yellow even after cooking; carotene content is 466 IU / 100 g; tuber rind is cream and skin is brown
coloured; yield is 35-38 t/ha in 10 months.
Sree Prakash: This is a short, non-branching, early maturing (7-8 months) variety developed by clonal
selection; highly tolerant to Cercospora leaf spot; yield 35-40 t/ha in 7-8 months.
Sree Harsha: This is a triploid clone developed by crossing a diploid with an induced tetraploid clone of
‘Sree Sahya’; plants are stout, erect and non-branching with tubers of good cooking quality and high
starch content (38-41%); yield 35-40 t/ha in 7-8 months.
Sree Jaya: This is a short-duration (6 months) clonal selection suitable for low land cultivation as a
rotation crop in paddy-based inter-cropping system; tubers are with brown skin and purple rind and
have good cooking quality; yield 26-30 t/ha; susceptible to CMD.
Sree Vijaya: This is also a short-duration (6-7 months) clonal selection suitable for low land cultivated as
a rotation crop in a paddy-based inter-cropping system; tubers are with cream coloured rind and light yellow
flesh due to high carotene; susceptible to mite and scale insect; yield 25-28 t/ha in 7 months.
M-4: This is a non-branching variety with excellent cooking quality; susceptible to mites; yield 18-23 t/ha
in 10 months.
Sree Rekha: Erect branching variety with excellent cooking quality; susceptible to mites; yield 18-23 t/ha
in 10 months.
Sree Prabha: Semi-spreading variety with good taste and quality; yield 35-40 t/ha in 10 months.
 Kerala Agricultural University.
 Nidhi: Yield (25.1 t/ha), tolerant to mosaic, short duration (5-6 months) grayish white stem, petiole
white with red shade, skin light pink.
 Kalpaka (KMC-1: Yield (28.4 t/ha), short duration (6 months), non branching stem, pink tuber
rind.
 Vellayani Hraswa: High yield (44.01 t/ha), short duration (5-6 months), pink tuber rind, excellent
cooking quality.
 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
 CO-1: A clonal selection with tubers having whitish brown skin, creamy rind and 35% starch;
yield 30 t/ha in 8-9 months.

60
  CO-2: A branching variety with tubers having brown skin, creamy white rind and 34.6% starch;
yield 35 t/ha in 8-9 months; suitable for consumption and industry.
 CO-3 : A branching variety having tubers with brown skin and 35.6% starch; yield 42.6 t/ha in 8
months.
 Co (Tp) 4: Selection from Me501, Yield 50 t/h, Starch 40 %, Field tolerant to Red Spider mite
and scales
 CTCRI CO (Tp) 5: Seedling selection, Released during 2007, Yield Potential 30t/ha, Starch
content 26%,Resistant to CMD, Duration 10 months, Suitable to irrigated conditions
Propagation : Cassava is propagated vegetatively by matured stem cuttings / stakes / setts.
 About 8-10 months old stakes from disease free plants are used for planting.
 Sett should be about 25-30 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width having 5-6 buds on each cuttings.
 Cuttings are planted vertically to a depth of 5 cm in flat beds.
 Ridges and furrow system of planting is adopted for the irrigated crop.
 The distance of planting is 75 cm x 75 cm for non-branching types and 90 cm x 90 cm for branching
and semi-branching types.
 About 17,000 setts are needed for planting one ha.
Minisett Technique
For producing minisetts, first step is selection of mature, disease free stems (preferably those
obtained from meristem culture). Two node cuttings are taken from these stems using a sharp hack saw.
Top one-third portion is usually discarded in the traditional system, however in minisett technique it is also
utilized. Tip of the stem (about 5 to 6 cm long) is carefully cut without causing damage.For preventing
dehydration, it is advisable to place the tip cuttings in water. The stem just below the growing tip is very
tender with prominent axillary buds. Hence from this portion, cuttings with four nodes are taken instead .

The next step is preparation of nursery. Select a well drained flat site, preferably near a water source
for the nursery. Shade net house of 35 per cent shade is ideal for the germination and growth of minisetts.
Make raised beds of convenient length and mix the soil with fine sand. Nursery area of 145 m2 is required

61
for producing minisetts for planting one hectare on land. Raised beds of 1 metre width, convenient length
and 20 cm height will be ideal.
Two node cuttings are planted end to end horizontally, about 5 cm deep, with the buds facing either
sides. A spacing of 5 cm is provided between two rows. Growing tips and four node top setts should be
planted erect at 5 x 5 cm spacing to prevent decay due to excess moisture content in these tender parts.
Irrigating frequently, preferably with micro sprinklers help in early sprouting and proper establishment of
the minisetts.Minisetts would sprout in a week’s time.

62
 Roguing of cassava mosaic virus infected plants should be done as soon as such symptoms are
expressed, to keep the nursery disease free. Weekly spray of systemic insecticide like Dimethoate @ 0.05%
to control white files that transmit cassava mosaic virus is advisable. The minisetts will be ready for
transplanting in about three to four weeks time. Minisetts are carefully uprooted from the nursery causing
least injury to the root and plant. Uprooted minisetts are then carefully planted on ridges. Make sure that
there is sufficient moisture in the soil.
Multiplication ratio in cassava planting material by this process is enhanced to 1:60 from traditional
1:10.
Planting
Cassava is grown both under rainfed and irrigated conditions. As an irrigated crop, cassava can be
planted during any part of year, but December-January planting is better. As a rainfed crop, planting is done
during April-May before onset of South-West Monsoon and during September-October coinciding with
North East monsoon.
Sett treatment
Dip the setts in Carbendazim @ 1 g in one lit of water for 15 minutes before planting. For rainfed
conditions, treat the setts with a mixture of potassium chloride @ 5 g/lit and micronutrients viz., ZnSO4
and FeSO4 each @ 0.5% for 20 minutes. Dip the setts for 20 minutes in Azospirillum and phosphobacteria
each at 30 g/l.
Irrigation
Water stress condition should be avoided as it is harmful to the crop. In the irrigated crop, irrigation
is given at 10-15 days interval. The rainfed crop is generally not irrigated. First irrigation is given at the
time of planting. Life irrigation is given on the 3rd day followed by
once in 7 – 10 days upto 3rd month and once in 20 – 30 days upto 8th month.
Nutrient management
About 12 tonnes of FYM / compost are applied to the soil at the time of land preparation. The
fertilizer application varies with the varieties. The long duration (10-12 months) varieties are given 100 kg
N, 50 kg P and 100 kg K per hectare. Half quantities of N (50 kg) and K (50 kg) and full quantity of P (50
kg) are applied as a basal application at the time of field preparation and the rest half quantities of N (50
kg) and k (50 kg) are top dressed after 30-45 days of planting. The fertilizer recommendation for short
duration (6-7 months) varieties is 75 kg N, 50 kg P and 75 kg K as basal application and 35 kg of each N
and K for top dressing after 30-35 days of planting. At the time of each top dressing of fertilizers earthing
up is also necessary.
Weed management
The crop requires light hoeing and weeding during the early stages of plant growth. Earthing up is
also essential at the time of weeding and top dressing of fertilizers.
Inter cropping
Generally cassava is cultivated as a sole or mono crop but intercropping is also practiced. It is
intercropped mostly with short-duration leguminous crops, such as vegetable cowpea (bush type) and
French bean (bush type). In Tamil Nadu, it is intercropped with black gram and multiplier onion. In
intercropping the spacing for planting is 90 cm x 90 cm.
63
Maturity indices
Leaves become yellow and 50 % of leaves become dried and sheds off. The soil near the stem base
of the soil shows cracking. Tubers can be uprooted by using fork or crow bar.
Harvesting and yield
The long duration varieties are harvested 10-11 months after planting and short duration varieties
are harvested 6-7 months after planting. The cooking quality is adversely affected by delayed harvesting.
The average yield is 35-40 tonnes per hectare in long duration types and 28-30 tonnes per hectare in short
duration varieties.
Intercropping
As cassava is widely spaced, intercropping with short duration crops like ground nut, French bean
and bush cowpea will utilize light and water more effectively and give an additional income of Rs.3000-
3500/ha within 3-3½ months. It adds organic manure to soil and controls weeds. Intercrops are to be
adequately manured for avoiding competition with main crop.
Pests
1. Spider Mite
Two groups of spider mites occur during dry season from January to May.
a.(Tetranychus cinnabarinus and T. neocaledonicus) : It feed on under surface of leaves causing
elongated streaks, chlorosis and withering of leaves. In severe cases, it covers the upper surface also.
b.Eutetranychus orientalis and Oligonychus biharensis : feed on upper surface of leaves causing
depletion of chlorophyll, resulting in typical rusted leathery appearance. Curling of leaves starting from
margins is also noticed.
Management : Water spray at run-off level, spraying neem oil or dimethoate (0.05%) is effective for
control of mites.
2. Scale insect (Anoidomytllus albus) attack stem when stacked and occasionally in field causing drying.
Storing of stem in vertical position
Management : Spraying dimethoate (0.05%) will be effective for control of insect.
3. Termites (Odontotermes obesus) and white grubs (Leucopholis coneophora) infest roots causing
drying up of plants. In severe cases, follow soil application of insecticides.
Diseases
1.Cassava Mosaic Disease ((white fly – Bemisia tabaci)
It is the most serious problem of cassava cultivation in Kerala and is caused by Gemini virus.
Infested plants show reduction in leaf size and stunted growth, curling and typical mosaic pattern. Though
quality is not reduced, yield reduction is considerable.
Management : Field sanitation, selection of disease free stem for planting, timely rouging, control of
vector, growing tolerant varieties like H-97, H-165, Sree Vaisakham and Sree Sathya are recommended
for reducing disease incidence.
2.Tuber rot (Phytophthora dreschleri)
This is more in ill-drained soils; infected tubers show brown discolouration of internal tissues and
become rotten and emit foul smell.
Management : Remove infected tubers and apply Trichoderma spp in the soil.

64
 POTATO
(king of vegetables / poor man’s friend / poor man’s strength)
Botanical name - Solanum tuberosum
Family - Solanaceae
Chromosome number - 2n=4x=48
Origin - South America

▪ The potato tuber is a modified stem with few “eyes‟ that are leaf scars with a subtended lateral bud.

▪ Potato is an important source of starch.

▪ It is a rich source of body building substances such as carbohydrates, vitamins (B1, B2, B6 and C),
minerals (Ca, P and Fe) and protein.

▪ It contains all the dietary substances except fat.

The commercial potato generally belong to two species

Solanum andigenum: it is not very common. Plants have thin and long stem, small and narrow leaflets.
Flowers are produced more profusely. It has long stolons and mostly coloured deepeyed tubers.
Solanum tuberosum: It is more common, plants have shorter and thicker stem larger and wider leaflets. In
addition to two species, there are also some important species, which shows resistant to biotic and abiotic.

Classification on the Basis of origin and Response of Day Length

Distant characters S.tuberosum S.andigenum

Origin Andean region Chile region
Day length response Long day plants Short day plants
Polyploidy Many types of polyploids Tetraploids
Distinct varieties ‘Up-to-date’ Magnum’ All the desi varieties like
Bonum’ etc ‘Darjeeling’, ‘Red Round’,
‘Phulwa’ and ‘Gola’

Classification based on crop duration

Character Early potato Late potato
Stolon length Short Long
Stem Hollow Solid
Petioles Broader Narrow
Stolon number Less number More number
Tuber colour White Coloured
Photoperiodism Long day for tuber Short day for
development tuber development
Varieties ‘Satha’, ‘Gola’, Great ‘Phulwa’, ‘Kufri Kissan’,
Scot’, Kufri ‘Kufri Safed’
Chandramukhi’

65
Climate
Potato is a cool season crop. It is grown during summer in temperate climate and in winter or cool
season in tropics and subtropics. Potato is susceptible to frost. The optimum temperature for its good plant
growth is 15ºC - 20ºC. Sprouting of potato is best at 22ºC - 34ºC. The normal temperature for tuberization
is 20ºC. There is no tuberization at 30ºC and above. Short days and low temperatures promote tuberization
whereas, long days promote haulm growth without formation of tubers. Potato is mostly grown as a rainfed
crop in regions receiving a rainfall of 1200 – 2000 mm per annum.
Soil
Potatoes can be grown in all types of soil having pH in the range of 4.8 to 5.4. Well drained fertile
sandy loam soil, rich in organic matter ensures sufficient oxygen for the growth of roots, stolons and tubers,
retain moisture and are helpful in drainage of excess water. Heavy clay soil is not suitable for cultivation
of potatoes.
Varieties and hybrids The Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) is the premier institute working
on research on potato and is situated at Shimla in Himachal Pradesh. The varieties released from CPRI
have “Kufri” as their first name

New variety Specific features

Kufri Sadabahar High yielding variety
Kufri Himalini Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Shaillja Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Girdhari Highly resistant to late blight
Kufri Himsona Highly resistant to late blight
Kufri Kanchan Resistant to late blight & immune to wart
Kufri Sherpa Resistant to late blight & immune to wart
Kufri Swarna Resistant to potato cyst nematode, golden nematode and late blight
Kufri Thenmalai Resistant to potato cyst nematode and late blight
Kufri Dewa Resistant to golden cyst nematode
Kufri Gaurav Nutrient and agronomic efficiency variety
Kufri Muthu
Kufri Thangam
Kufri Malar
Kufri Soga
Early varieties (80-90 days)
Kufri Chandramukhi
Kufri Jawakar
Kufri Laukar
Kufri Sheetman Resistant to frost
Kufri Khyati
Kufri Surya Heat tolerant variety (20oC) & field resistant to leaf hoppers (Hopper burn
resistant variety)
Kufri Ashoka
Medium varieties (90-100 days)
Kufri Bahar
Kufri Sutlej Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Anand Resistant to late blight & tolerant to frost
Kufri Arun Field resistant to late blight & tolerant to frost
Kufri Pukhraj Moderately resistant to late blight
Kufri Pushkar Field resistant to late blight & moderately resistant to early blight
Kufri Lalima Moderately resistant to early blight & resistant to PVY
66
 (Potato Virus Y)
Kufri Kanchan Field resistant to late blight
Kufri Jyoti Resistant to late blight & immune to wart
Late varieties (100-110 days)
Kufri Sindhuri Suitable for dehydrated flakes and canning
Kufri Badshah Moderately resistant to late blight, early blight and PVX (Multiple disease
resistant variety)
Processing variety
Kufri Chipsona -1 Used to make chips, french fries, flakes
Kufri Chipsona -2 Used to make chips, flakes & resistant to frost
Kufri Chipsona -3 Resistant to late blight
Kufri Chipsona -4 Resistant to late blight
Kufri Frysona
Kufri Himsona Used to make chips, flakes

Difference between Early potato Late potato

early and late potato
Character
Stolon length Short Long
Stem Hollow Solid
leaves Broader Narrow
Stolon number Less number More
Tuber colour White Coloured
Photoperiodism Long day Short day

Seeds and sowing

Potato is traditionally propagated through tubers. The eyes on the surface of tubers contain axillary
buds. Potato tubers have a dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks. When the dormancy is over, the axillary buds
start sprouting. Such sprouted tubers when planted in the soil put up fast and vigorous growth. The large
and small sized tubers are used for planting.
Since tubers are sold on weight basis, planting of large tubers is more expensive. Large size tubers are
therefore, cut in pieces, each containing at least one eye. The ideal seed tuber size for planting is 40-50g.
Seed tuber treatment
If cut pieces have to be used, after cutting they should be cured by storing at 10°C - 15°C and 85 -
95% RH for 4 - 6 days to allow the suberization and periderm formation. The seed tubers are cut about 7 to
10 days before planting and treated with fungicides by dipping them for 10 minutes in 0.2% Mancozeb and
spread at a cool place for suberization of cut surfaces to prevent rotting. Potato tuber dormancy can be
broken by soaking tubers in 1% Thiourea + 1 ppm GA3 @ 1 hour. Also use carbon disulphide @ 30 g/100
kg of seed tubers for breaking the dormancy and inducing sprouting of tubers.
Seed rate : About 800-1500 kg/ha of seed tubers are required.
True potato seed (TPS)
TPS is botanical seed produced through sexual reproduction. The cost of seed tubers and spread of
virus disease can be greatly minimized by using „true potato seeds‟. The hybrids developed by Central
Potato Research Institute viz., HPS 1/13, HPS 11/13 and HPS 24/111 are suitable for true potato seed
production. The seeds are raised in nursery beds like other vegetables and seedlings are transplanted 30
days after sowing. For raising one hectare of crop, a quantity of 100-120 g seed is required.
Season of planting
67
In hills
Summer : March – April
Autumn : August – September
Irrigated : January – February
In plains
October – November
Field preparation
The field is prepared by giving thorough ploughing for three to four times. Plough the field to a
depth of 20-35 cm and broke the clods Flat beds of convenient size are formed. In hills, the beds are prepared
across the slope along the contour to prevent soil erosion as well as conserve soil moisture. Since, it is
mainly grown as rainfed crop there.
Method of planting
Potato is planted on ridges that have furrows on either side or in rows on flat beds. Form ridges and
furrows with a spacing of 45 cm between ridges.The distance between rows and plants vary with the size
of seed tuber.
Diameter of tuber from longer axis Planting distance (row x seed)
2.5-3.5 cm 50 x 20 cm or 60 x 15 cm
3.5-5.0 cm 60 x 25 cm
5.0-6.0 cm 60 x 40 cm
Irrigation
The first irrigation is given immediately after planting. Subsequent irrigations are given once in a
week to ten days. The total water requirement varies between 350-550 mm depending upon soil type,
climate and crop duration. Critical water requirement crop stage is during stolon formation, tuber initiation
and tuber development stages.
Nutrient management
Apply 15 t/ha of FYM and 2 kg each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacterium as basal and 120 kg
N, 240 kg P and 120 kg K/ha in two splits; half as basal and the balance for top dressing on 30 days after
sowing. Apply Magnesium sulphate at 60 kg/ha as basal dose.
Fertigation requirement
120: 240:120 kg of NPK / ha. Apply once in every three days throughout the cropping period.

Earthing up and weed management

The first earthing up is done after about 20-30 days of planting when the plants attain a height of
8-10 cm followed by the second earthing after another 25-30 days. Nitrogen is applied at the time of earthing
up. Earthing up is necessary to prevent greening of tubers which occurs when these are exposed to sunlight.
Earthing up and weeding is done simultaneously to control the weeds. Spray of Gramaxone @ 2.5 l/ha in
500 lit of water as post - emergence. The critical period of weed-competition is upto 60 days and it is
essential to keep the field weed-free during that period. Take up the first hoeing on 45th day without
disturbing the stolons and second hoeing is on 60th day.

68
 Use of Plant Growth Regulators

Soaking of potato seed tuber in CCC at 500 mg/l (Schedule and Pandita, 1986), sodium ascorbate
at 100 mg/l (Murthy et al.. 1975) cytozyme at 5 per cent (Pandita and Hooda, 1979), Singh and Kaur,
1981) or foliar sprays with ethephon at 400 mg/l (Murthy and Banerjee, 1978, Pandita and Hooda, 1979
a, Sekhon and Singh, 1985), CCC at 25 mg/l or garlic acid at 10-100 mg/l(Kumar and Agarwal, 1978)
increased tuber yield. Sidda Reddy (1988) also obtained higher tuber yield with foliar sprays of mixtallol
at 1 or 2 mg/l.

Maturity indices
 Harvested when they attain sufficient size.
 Skin slipping from the tuber
 Starch content and leaf senescence or top drying is the harvest indices.
 Sometimes top remains green even when tubers ready for harvest, hence take regular sampling harvest
and check the starch content.
 Harvest the tubers before flowering.
Harvesting
The potatoes are harvested before the temperatures rise above 30ºC. Irrigation is withheld about
15-20 days prior to harvesting. The haulms are cut 15-20 days before digging out the tubers and allowed to
dry. Harvesting of tubers is done carefully by spade so that their skin is not injured or bruised.
Yield
The average yield is about 25-35 t/ha.
Post-harvest technology
After harvesting potatoes are kept in heaps in cool places for 10-15 days for drying and curing of
skin. Heaps 3-4m long, wide at the base and 1m in the central height are the best. In hills the harvested
potatoes are spread in well ventilated rooms for drying. Before grading, all the cut, bruised, rotten and
damaged tubers are sorted out. The good tubers are then graded on the basis of their size preferably in 4
sizes, e.g. small (below 25g), medium (25-50g), large (50-75g) and extra-large (above 75g). After grading
potatoes are packed in gunny bags for transporting them to market or cold storage. The potato tubers can
be stored in cold storage at 1o – 2.7ºC and 90-95% RH. The CPRI has developed a passive evaporative
cooling system (10º-15ºC) for short term (3-4 months) storage. This type of storage does not require
electrical energy. However, it is necessary to check sprout growth in stored potatoes to reduce the storage
losses. The commonly used sprout suppressant is CIPC (isopropyl N-3-chlorophenyl carbomate) commonly
called chloropropham @ 25mg per tonnes of potato tubers. It is, however, more convenient to use liquid
formulation of CIPC than the dust.

69
Diseases and Pests of potato Diseases of potato

Diseases Causal organism Remarks

Late blight Phytophthora infestans Most serious and epidemic
disease of potato
Potato wart Synchytrichum endobioticum Tuber borne disease, Endemic
disease in Darjeeling hills
(Kufri Kanchan – resistant
variety to wart disease)
Black scurf Rhizoctonia solani -
Dry rot Fusarium spp. Storage disease
Soft rot Erwinia carotovora -
Bacterial wilt Ralstonia solanacearum -
Potato scab Streptomyces spp. -
Potato leaf roll Virus Aphids
Latent or faint mosaic PVX and PVS Aphids
Severe mosaic Virus Aphids

Pests of potato

Aphids - Vector for potato virus X, Y &

S
Cut worm Agrotis ipsilon -
Potato tuber moth Pthorimea opercullela 30-70% damage during storage
Nematode
Golden cyst nematode Globodera rostochinensis Serious problem in Nilgiri hills
(Kufri Swarna – resistant
variety)

Physiological Causes Symptoms Remedy

disorders in potato
Physiological
disorders
Greening Exposure to sun light Greening of outer layer Earthing up @ 30 and
& it is associated with 60 days intervals
alkaloid like solanine
Internal brown spot Moisture deficiency Brown spots and Regular watering
discolouration inside
the tubers.
Black heart Poor ventilation & Formation of black Adequate ventilation
restriction for oxygen discolouration inside
exchange during the tubers
storage
Hollow heart Excessive N2 & high Formation of cavities Use of recommended
temperature during inside the tubers of 1-2 nitrogenous fertilizers
tuber formation cm diameter and regular irrigation
Chilling injury Low temperature - -
(0oC) during storage
Freezing injury Low temperature (-1 to - -
-2oC) during storage
Sprouting

70
 LECTURE NO. 6
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting – water and nutrient
management – fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulators –
physiological disorders – maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – Seed production of
moringa and amaranthus
MORINGA
( Horse radish tree/Drumstick/Ben oil tree/ Mother's best friend/ Miracle tree)
Botanical name: Moringa oleifera
Family: Moringaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=28
Origin: North West India
▪ Tree is referred as “Bhramaviruksham” (multiple benefits and miraculous healing properties)
▪ The tender leaves and immature or partially matured pods as well as flowers are used as vegetable

▪ Used as pickles and dehydrated moringa

▪ Its oil has medicinal use and wood is used in the textile and paper industries

▪ Seeds contain an oil called ben or behen oil which has been much used for illumination, soap industry
and highly priced for lubricating watches, computers and other delicate machineries.

▪ Seeds contain 38 -40 % of a non – drying oil which is clear and odourless, never becoming rancid.

▪ The press cake remaining after oil extraction is high in saponin, non-edible, but utilized as manure.

▪ The oil cake is a water coagulant and used for purifying effluent water from rivers, ponds and shallow
wells and it is used as organic substitute for water purifying chemicals such as aluminium sulphate
(Alum).
Difference between annual moringa and perennial moringa

Character Annual Moringa Perennial Moringa

Method of Sexual (Seeds) Asexual (Limb cutting)
propagation
Duration for flowering 3-4 months after sowing 8-9 months after sowing
Plant spread Bushy, dwarf Wide spreading
Spacing 2.5m x 2.5m 5-6 m X 5-6m
Population/ha 1600 277- 400
Number of pods /tree 220 pods/tree/year 600-800 pods/tree/year
Average pod yield/ ha 50 tonnes 27-32 tonnes
Pod characters Long pods, green colour Medium size, depending upon the type
green to light brown colour
Cropping period 3 years ( One main crop and two 10 -15 years and can be maintained for
ratoon crops) several years under very good
management
Origin Annual moringa types have been Perennial types exist from time
developed by continuous selfing of immemorial.
perennial types and propagated
through seeds over years by the
farmers of southern districts of
Tamil Nadu

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Climate
It is a tropical plant and grows well in the plains. It is predominantly a crop of dry and arid tract
where it has been found to perform well with higher yields. It grows well at temperatures between 25oC-
30oC. It is well adapted to arid conditions. It is highly susceptible to frost and high temperature exceeding
40oC causes flower shedding.
Soil
Wide range of soils including sandy red and black soils but sandy loam soil is the best for its growth.
The soil should be rich in organic matter. The optimum soil pH is 6.0 -7.5
Propagation
Moringa is propagated by both seeds and stem (Limb) cuttings. The perennial types are propagated
by one-year old long stem cuttings (90-100 cm length and 5-8 cm diameter). The annual types are grown
from seeds.
Season : Seed sowing is done in June-July and November-December in southern India.
Seed rate and sowing
About 500-600 g/ha of seeds are required. The seeds are sown in pits that are 45 cm3 and spaced
2.5 m x 2.5m. In each pit 10-15 kg FYM is applied before sowing. Two seeds are sown, about 3 cm deep,
in each pit. Seeds can also be sown in small polybags and seedlings are transplanted in the field after one
month of sowing. The stem cuttings of the perennial types are also planted in pits of 1m3 size, spaced 3-6
m apart.
High density planting and fertigation in moringa PKM 1
High density planting at 1.5 X 1.0 m spacing with two plants/hill and plant population 13,333 / ha
along with the application of fertilizer dose of 135: 23 :45 g of NPK/pit (150%) through drip increases the
yield of moringa. In this phosphorus should be applied basally as soil application. N and K can be applied
in the form of urea and muriate of potash through drip.
For PKM-2, the closest spacing of 1.2 x 1.2 m is ideal to obtain the highest yield of 138 t/ha. The
pinching of main shoots on 80th day after sowing will also help register the highest yield of fruits.
After cultivation
1. Gap filling : Gap filling may be done within a month.
2. Pinching : Pinch off the seedlings when they are about 75 cm in height to facilitate more branching.
3. Pruning : For perennial moringa, medium pruning of shoots at 70 cm from the tip has to be followed to
regulate flowering and obtain the highest yield of 37 kg/ tree.
Nutrient management
A fertilizer dose of 45:15:30 g of NPK/pit may be applied 3 months after sowing. Apply 45 g of
N/pit after 6 months when the crop is in bearing. About 75 kg of FYM/Compost is applied to each plant
after one year in June and later the same repeat application every year.
Irrigation The pits are irrigated before sowing and later after three days for better seed
germination. The plants are irrigated once in 10 – 15 days. Regular light irrigation is necessary to avoid
flower drop. Heavy watering also causes flower shedding.
Weed management : Light hoeing and weeding are done to control the weeds.
72
Maturity indices
For consumption, harvest when the pods were still young (about 1 cm in diameter) and snap easily.
When producing seed for planting or for oil extraction, allow the pods to dry and turn brown on the tree
Harvesting and yield
The fruits of annual types are harvested six months after sowing. The average yield is about 250-
400 fruits per tree. After the harvesting is completed, the trees are cut back to one meter height from the
ground for ratooning. The trees are ratooned about three months. The average yield of the annual type is
about 52t/ha.
Special horticultural practices
1.Ratooning Cut back the trees at 90 cm from ground level after the harvest is over. In another 4 – 5
months, plants will again come for harvest. Ratoon crops can be taken for 3 years. Apply the fertilizer dose
of 45:15:30 g NPK/plant, within a week after cutting back along with 25 kg of FYM or compost every year.
After each ratooning FYM/compost and fertilizers, the recommended dose of fertilizers applied to each
tree. The average yield of a tree of perennial type after 8-9 months of planting is about 80-90 fruits per year
in the first two years. The yield of fruits per tree increases with the age of the tree. The yield of fruits in
fourth and fifth year is about 500-600 per tree annually. The trees of the perennial type are retained for
about 12-15 years.
Storage
Annual moringa pods cv. PKM 1 can be stored up 30 days when the moringa pods harvested at
morning (7.00 to 9.00 am), with pedicle (5.0 cm), treated with calcium chloride (1.0%), packed in 100
gauge polyethylene bag, with 0.3% vent packed in jute sacks and stored in cold storage retained the
freshness for 30 days and this treatment combination was found suitable for long distance transport.
Export standards for moringa pods
▪ Length: 18 inch to 24 inch. (1.5 to 2 feet)
▪ Thickness: 0.5 inch to 1 inch as per export standard.
▪ Packing: 5 kg strong carton box
Varieties - Annual Type
1. PKM 1: It is a pure line selection developed at HC & RI, Periyakulam. Flowering starts 90 -100 days
after planting. Harvesting starts 160 -170 days after planting. Pod size is 65-70 cm long. Average yield is
200-225 fruits per tree per year, weighing 33 kg.
2. PKM 2: It is a pure line selection developed at HC & RI, Periyakulam. It is having very long pods (90-
120 cm), high yielding
3. KM 1 (Kudumiyanmalai 1): It is developed through selection. Plants not very tall, easy to harvest.
Average yield is 400 – 500 fruits/ tree annually.
Perennial type
1. Jaffna type : It is an introduction from Sri Lanka
2. Chavakacheri Murungai

3. Chem Murungai: The long pods having red tips. Flowering throughout the year

4. Puna Murungai: Suitable for grown in home gardens

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5. Pal Murungai: Fruits have thicker pulp and better taste

6. Yazphanum Murungai: Suitable for grown in home gardens

7. Kodikkal Murungai: Small trees with smaller leaves. This is a distinct type of perennial moringa which
is propagated by seeds.

8. Moolanoor Murungai

Plant protection
Disease
1. Wilt : Drenching the soil around the plant with copper oxy chloride (2g/l) will prevent wilting of
plants.
Pests
1. Moringa Fruit fly
The developing fruits are generally attacked by fruit fly after 20- 30 days of fruit set. planting;
placement of fermented tomato fruit trap @ 25 / ha; and need based foliar spray of Spinosad 45 SC @
56g a.i. / ha followed by Profenophos 50 EC@ 250g a.i. / ha.
2. Bud worm, leaf caterpillar and leaf webber
Dust Carbaryl 10 D @ 25 kg/ha or spray Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/l.
3. Hairy caterpillar
Use flame torch when the caterpillars settle on the tree trunk.

74
 AMARANTHUS
(Poor man‟s leafy vegetable)
Botanical name: Amaranthus spp
Family: Amaranthaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2x=32, 34
Origin: South East Asia (India)

Importance and uses

▪ It is primarily used as a pot herb

▪ Most common leafy vegetable grown during summer and rainy season in India
▪ The leaves are eaten as vegetable while seeds are eaten as cereal
▪ Amaranthus is a pseudo cereal which can be used as a substitute to cereal
▪ Valuable vegetable for malnutrition in India
▪ C4 vegetable crop
▪ The protein (Lysine) in grain amaranthus ranges from 14-15%
▪ Type of fruit is Glomerule
▪ Leaves and succulent stem are good sources of iron (38.5 mg/100g), calcium (350-400
mg/100g), vitamin A and vitamin C.
▪ It conatain High oxalate (1-2%) and nitrate content
Related species of amaranthus
S. No Features Botanical name
1. Main cultivated species Amaranthus tricolor
2. Short day species Amaranthus cruentus and
Amaranthus caudatus
3. Day neutral species Amaranthus hypochondriacus
4. Ornamental species Amaranthus caudatus (Love lies bleeding)
5. Tetraploid species (2n=64) Amaranthus dubius

Varieties

CO. l Tetraploid variety

(A. dubius) Stem and leaves are dark green; leafstem ratio is 2.0
Suitable for late harvest;
Green yield 8.0 t/ha
Seed yield 1.5 t/ha.

CO.2 Stem and leaves green, leaves lanceolate and slightly elongate, leaf-
(A. tricolor) stem ratio 1.8; suited for early harvest; yield 10.78 t/ha.

CO.3 This is specifically suited for clipping of tender greens and is locally
(A. tristis) known as ‘Araikeera' in Tamil. Leaves are small and green; stem is
slender and tender. First clipping is possible in 20 days after sowing.
Nearly 10 clippings can be taken over a period of 90 days. Due to
very high leafstem ratio, cooking quality and taste are excellent.
Special care is required in land preparation for the variety.

75
 CO. 4 This grain type makes rapid vegetative growth within a period of 20-
(A.hypochondriacus) 25 days. Plants are dwarf; grain yield 2.0-2.5 t/ha in 80-90 days.
CO.5 Leaves double coloured with Green and pink and is free from fibre.
It gives a rosette growth in early stages and first harvest is possible in
(A. tricolor)
25 days; yield 40 t/ha in 55 days.

Sirukeerai (A. polygonoides) is a traditional cultivar in Tamil Nadu, suited for uprooting at 25 days after
sowing; leaves are small, ovate with blunt bifurcated tip and have long petiole; collar region is dark pink
and at leaf axil a miniature branch initiates.

IARI, New Delhi

Pusa Chotti Chaulai (A. blitum): Plants dwarf with succulent, small and green leaves; responds well to
cutting.
Pusa Badi Chaulai (A. tricolor): Plants tall and stem thick with large green leaves; responds to cutting.

Pusa Kirti (A. blitum): Green leaved variety with green and thick stem; leaf lamina broad ovate; ready for
harvest in 30-35 days and extends up to 70-85 days; yield 55 t/ha; specifically suited for summer.
Pusa Kiran (A. tricolor): This is developed by natural crossing between A. tricolor and A. tristis and has
more characteristics of A. tricolor. Leaves are glossy green with broad ovate lamina; leaf-stem ratio is
1.0:4.6; yield 35 t/ha in 70-75 days; suited for kharif season.
Pusa Lal Chaulai (A. tricolor): Upper surface of leaves are deep red and lower surface purplish red; yield
45-49 t/ha in 4 harvests. 3) IIHR, Bangalore
Arka Suguana (A. tricolor): A multicut variety with broad green leaves. First picking starts in 24 days
after sowing and continue up to 90 days. Moderately resistant to white rust. Yield 17-18 t/ha.

Ark Arunima (A. tricolor): A multicult variety with broad dark purple leaves. First picking starts in 30
days after sowing and two subsequent cuttings at 10-12 days interval. Yield 27 t/ha.

Climate
Amaranthus is widely distributed in both tropical and sub tropical regions. Leaf amaranth is a
warm season crop adapted to hot humid climatic conditions. It is grown throughout the year in tropics and
in autumn, spring and summer seasons in temperate regions. Most of leaf types are day neutral in habit
but differ in their day length requirements and respond differently to changes in photo and thermoperiodism.
Grain types, A. caudatus, A. cruentus and A. edulis are short day species while A. hypochondriacus is day
neutral.
Soil
Amaranth comes up well in well drained loamy soil rich in organic matter. The ideal is pH is 5.5-
7.5 but there are types which can come up in soils with pH as high as 10.0. Red amaranth requires bright
sunlight for colour development.
Land preparation and sowing

Amaranth is harvested by pulling out and by frequent clippings (multicut). Cultivation practices
differ according to method of harvest, duration, growth pattern of variety, etc.

76
Land is prepared to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing and harrowing. Well decomposed and powdered
organic matter @ 20-25 t/ha is incorporated with the soil at the time of final ploughing.

Direct sowing
For direct sowing, field is divided into small plots of about 3.0-3.6 m long and 1.5-1.8 m width
with irrigation channels running between every two plots. In case of irrigation by pot watering, reduce
width of plots to 90-100 cm. Amaranth seeds, being small in size, are mixed with fine sand and sown
uniformly by broadcasting. The seeds are covered either by raking up soil and by covering with a thin layer
of sand or soil. This is followed by a light irrigation. Soil is kept moist by frequent irrigation. Grown up
seedlings are selectively pulled out at 30 days after sowing and marketed in small bundles along with roots.
Seed rate for direct sowing is 2.0-2.5 kg/ha.
After first pulling, urea is broadcasted in beds and irrigated for quick growth of remaining seedlings
so that second pulling out is possible 10-15 days after first pulling. This is repeated so that final pulling is
over by 55-60 days after sowing.
Transplanted method

This is mainly practiced for multi-cut varieties. The land, after thorough ploughing and leveling,
is made into shallow trenches / basins of 50-60 cm width and convenient length. Well decomposed
farmyard manure is applied in trenches and thoroughly incorporated in soil by digging. 20-25 days old
seedlings, already raised in nursery, are transplanted in trenches at 2025 x 10-15 cm spacing. Seed
requirement for transplanted crop is only 500 g/ha.
Manures and fertilizers

Amaranth is a heavy feeder and high yielding crop. 20-25 tonnes of FYM and 50:25:20 kg NPK / ha
are recommended as basal dose. Under pulling out method, 20 kg N should be top dressed twice during
subsequent pulling out of seedlings. For clipping varieties, a still higher dose of 75:25:25 is advisable.
Apply N after every clipping or cutting. Foliar spray of 1% urea or diluted cow urine at every harvest is
good for promoting further growth and for high yield.

Irrigation
Grain amaranth is a drought tolerant crop, but leaf amaranth requires frequent irrigation to keep
soil moist. Frequency of irrigation depends on soil.

Interculture
Amaranth is a short duration and shallow rooted crop. Provide light hoeing to prevent soil crust
formation after irrigation and to keep soil loose. Field also should be kept weed-free, especially during
initial stages.

Harvesting
Harvested early in the morning by pulling out or by clipping The greens are ready for
harvest/cutting about 20-25 days or 30-35 days after sowing depending upon the variety. Later on
cuttings are taken at 10-12 days interval. In many places the entire plant with the roots is pulled out.
However, in the multicut varieties, regular clippings are done, once a week. Generally 6-8 cuttings can be

77
taken. The first cutting is done 3-4 weeks after sowing and subsequent cuttings are made at weekly
intervals in Chhoti Chhaulai and 10 days interval in Badi Chhaulai. In the multicut variety, CO3 the
cuttings can be had for about three months.
Yield
Leafy types
▪ 25 days after sowing for Mulaikeerai (10 t/ha)
▪ 40 days after sowing for Thandukeerai (16 t/ha)
Clipping types : 10 clippings at weekly intervals (30 t/ha)
Grain types - Co : 2.4 t grains/ha + 8 tonnes of tender greens.
Post-harvest technology
Grading
A gravity table can be used to separate particles of the same size but of different weight
Packing
After harvesting, the leaves are kept in a bag and usually sold on the day of harvest to avoid quality loss.
Storage
Amaranthus does not stand storage for more than few hours under ordinary conditions. Normally, it is not
stored under CA (Controlled atmosphere) storage
Bolting

Premature flowering or bolting is a serious problem in cultivation of amaranth. Quality and yield
are deteriorated after flowering. Bolting is usually associated with planting of short day varieties during
November-December, deficiency of nitrogen, extreme high temperature and poor soil aeration. Practices
like raising of crop at ideal time depending on locality, frequent application of nitrogen fertilizers and
manures and keeping soil loose by light hoeing prolong flowering.
Seed production

Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for foundation and 200 m for certified seed production in
amaranth. For seed production, seedlings are transplanted at a wider spacing of 3-45 x 30 cm. Crop may
be left for seed production after making one or two cuttings for vegetable harvests. Inflorescence is
harvested when glumes turn brown in colour and seeds turn black. Spikes are initially dried in sun to 15%
moisture. After drying, inflorescence is threshed with pliable bamboo sticks for separation of seeds. Seeds
are then winnowed and sieved through 2 mm sieve. Seeds are finally dried to 7% moisture and stored.
Seed rate varies from 450 kg to 500 kg/ha.
Pests and diseases

Leaf blight and white rust are major problems in amaranth cultivation.

Leaf blight (Rhizoctonia spp).

Most severe during rainy season under warm and humid conditions. White and irregular spots on leaf
lamina making the produce unmarketable.
The package suggested for control of leaf blight is given below:

78
 ▪ Sow resistant green amaranth variety, CO-1 during rainy season
▪ Avoid splash irrigation

Spray Mancozeb @ 4g/1 of cow dung supernatant as fine droplets. Cover plants thoroughly so that spray
solution reaches under surfaces of leaves also

79
 LECTURE 7
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting – water and nutrient
management – fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulators –
physiological disorders – maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – Seed production of
cabbage and cauliflower
CABBAGE
Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Family: Cruciferae / Brassicaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X= 18
Origin: Mediterranean region
▪ Edible part: Head
▪ India is the third largest cabbage producer in the world.
▪ Cabbage has an anti-cancer property, it protects against bowel cancer due to the presence of indole-3-
carbinol
▪ Cabbage juice is used as a remedy against poisonous mushrooms
▪ Shredded cabbage leaves fermented under pressure (sauerkraut) in its own juices with added salt is a
method of preserving cabbage has a curative effect on scurvy diseases.
▪ Flavour of cabbage leaves is due to the glucoside “ Sinigrin”.
▪ Cabbage contains goitrogens which cause enlargement of thyroid glands
Classification
1. Bailey (1930) classified the cultivated Oleracea into 7 divisions.
A. The leaf races grown for the open foliage
i) Branching shrubby kales - B. oleracea var. fruticosa
ii) Common biennial mostly unbranching kales- B. oleracea var. acephala.
iii) Low cabbage like Portuguese kales- B. oleracea var. tronchuda.
B. The head races grown for the compact leaf head or buds
iv) Edible product a terminal head, the cabbage- B. oleracea var. capitata.
v) Edible product lateral small heads or buds, the Brussels sprouts- B. oleracea var. gemmifera.
C. The inflorescence races grown for the modified thickened flower shoots of malformed flowers.
vi). Flowers only partially if at all modified- B. oleracea var. italica.
vii). Flowers thickened and malformed into a head or several head- B. oleracea var. botrytis.
2.Cabbage can also be classified in various ways
1. Place of Origin: (a) B. oleracea var. capitata ssp. mediterranea, e.g. Mediterranean
cabbage (b) B. oelracea var. capitata ssp. orientalis, e.g. Oriental cabbage (c). B. oleracea var.
capitata ssp. europea. E.g. European cabbage.
2. Botanical Colour and Form of Heads : (a) B. oleracea var. capitata L.f. alba, e.g. white cabbage
(b) B. oelracea var. capitata L.f. rubra, e.g. red cabbage (c) B. oleracea var. sabauda e.g. savoy
cabbage.

80
 3. On the Basis of Head Shape (Choudhary, 1976). : (a) Round shape head or ball head type
(Golden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market and Mammoth Rock Red (b) Flat head or drum
head type (Pusa Drum Head) (c) Conical head type (Jersy Wakefield) (d) Savoy type (‘Chieftain’).
4. Classification Based on the Size and Shape of the Head (Allen, 1914):
(a) Wakefield and Winnings Kadt group:- head are small, conical and very early (Jersy Wakefield,
Charleston Wakefield).
(b) Copenhagen Market group:-round heads, early large head, (Copenhagen Market, Golden Drumhead,
Globe, Bonanza).
(c) Flat Head or Drumhead group:-heads flattened from both ends (Pusa Drum Head, Early round Dutch,
All Head Early, Succession, All Seasons).
(d). Savoy group:-leaves are wrinkled; heads are of very high quality, limited commercial use (Drum
Head Savoy, Improved American Savoy, and Chieftain).
(e) Danish Ball Head group:-leaves are thin, heads compact solid, medium sized, good keeping quality,
fine texture (Danish Ball Head, Hollander, Wisconsin Ball Head).
(f) Alpha group:-The earliest group head, very small, solid head limited commercial uses, (Miniature
Marrow). (g) Volga group:-thick leaves, shining blue coloured leaves, loose bottom (Volga).
(h) Red Cabbage group:-similar to Danish Ball Head except red colour of leaves (Red Rock, Red Dutch,
Large Red).
Climate
Cabbage is a cool season crop and thrives best in cool and moist conditions. There are now varieties
which are heat tolerant and can be grown at higher temperature between 25ºC - 30ºC. However, cabbage
looses its flavour when grown under warm and dry conditions. The optimum temperature for growth and
heading is between 15ºC-20ºC. Cabbage can tolerate frost.
Soil
Cabbage is grown on a wide range of soil. For an early crop sandy or sandy loam (light) soils are
considered best but for a late crop where higher yield is the main consideration clay loam or silt loam
(heavy) soils which can retain moisture are more suitable. Due to slow growth on heavy soils, the keeping
quality of heads is improved because of compactness. Cabbage does not grow well in highly acidic soils.
The ideal soil pH is 5.5-6.5.
Season of sowing and transplanting
Seed rate : 500-675 g /hectare.
In plains Early crop : July-August
Mid-season : September
Late crop : October-November.
In hills : March-June
Spacing : Early crop : 60cm x 30 cm or 45 cm x 45 cm,
Mid-season : 60 cm x 45 cm
Late large drumhead types: 60 cm x 60 cm.
Transplanting : The seedlings are transplanted in the field after 30-45 days of sowing.

81
Seed treatment :Hot water treatment of the seeds at 50ºC for 30 minutes to control the seed borne
pathogens is found to be effective.
Irrigation
The seedlings are irrigated immediately after transplanting. The subsequent irrigations are given at
10-15 days interval. The total number of irrigations may be 8-12 during the crop season. There should be
adequate soil moisture at head formation stage. Head splitting or bursting occurs when soil moisture is not
maintained uniformly.
Nutrient management
About 20-25 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure or compost are applied to the soil at the time
of land preparation. Cabbage grows best on nitrogen rich soil. The fertilizers required are about 120 – 180
kg N, 75-80 kg P and 60-75 kg K per hectare is done at ploughing and field preparation. Half quantity of
nitrogen and entire quantity of P and K are applied to the soil at the time of ploughing and field preparation.
The remaining half quantity of N is top dressed four weeks after transplanting. It is beneficial to spray urea
(0.5-1.0%) twice at 15 days interval before head formation.
Weed management
Regular weeding during the initial stages of plant growth is essential. Light hoeing is also required
along with weeding. The plants grown on ridges will require earthing up which can be done at the time of
top dressing of nitrogen.
Special horticultural practices
1. Use of growth regulators
Spray CCC or SADH @ 2500-5000 ppm to increase the low temperature resistance in cabbage.
Maturity standards
As a general rule, cabbage becomes ready for harvesting when the heads are firm but tender.
However, it can be done earlier in early cultivars like Golden Acre and Pride of India when the market
prices are high. Delay in harvesting results in cracking and rotting of heads. Cracking can also occur either
due to watering or rain after a dry spell if the heads are fully matured.
Harvesting and yield
The fully developed compact heads are harvested before they start cracking. The outer non-wrapper
leaves and stem are removed after harvesting the heads. The head maturity varies from 60 to 120 days after
transplanting depending on the variety. The average yield ranges between 25-45 tonnes per hectare
depending on variety and climate. The yield of F1 hybrids are higher, i.e., 50-80 tonnes per hectare.
Post-harvest handling
Grading
For uniformity of the produce, grading of cabbage should be done on the basis of size and firmness
as per standards laid down by Indian Standards Institution because it affects the price of the produce in the
market. For both fresh and stored cabbage, there are grades of different types. Owing to higher prices and
small family norms, the demand of the market is preferably for a head of small to medium size around 1 kg
net weight.

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Packing
In India, cabbage heads are sent to the market in loose condition in trucks or in sacks. But
transportation of early cultivars either loose or in sacks damages the heads due to their succulence and
looseness. To prevent damage to the heads, crates are becoming popular.
Storage
The heads can be stored at room temperature upto 4 or 5 days after harvesting. It is possible to store
cabbage heads upto six months in the cold storage at 0oC-1oC and 98-100% relative humidity under cold
storage conditions. The early varieties can be kept for 1-2 months and late varieties for 5-6 months.
Diseases Fungal Diseases

1.Downy Mildew (Perenospora parasitica)

Plant can be infected at any time during their growing period. Young plants infected early show a
white mildew growth mostly on the under side of leaf. Later, however, slight yellowing shows up the
corresponding upper surface. The young leaf may drop off. Older leaves usually persist and the infected
areas enlarge as they turn tan and papery. When the disease is severe the whole leaf dies.

Control Measures
It can be controlled by spray the seedling in the nursery bed with copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent)

2.Wire Stem (Rhizoctonia solani)

It may attack different stages of growth. Young seedlings suffer the worst. Young plants shows
soft water soaked post on the skin just above the ground. The cotyledons wither and the plant eventually
falls over and perishes. The fungus also causes head rot in cabbage. The first sign of infection is a reddish
brown discoloration on the stem at the soil level. The area is constricted and the plant may be bent or
twisted without breaking.

Control Measures
Regulating moisture levels, seed treatment and soil drenching with Dithane M-45 (0.2 per cent) or Bavistin
(0.1 per cent) can be used for protection against the disease.

3.Black Spot (Alternaria brassicae (Berk) Sacc.)

The first symptom is a small dark spot on the leaf surfaces. As the spot enlarges, concentric rings
develop. The diseased spot enlarges progressively and defoliate plants. It is a destructive disease on seed
crop, affecting pods and seeds.

Control Measures

Spray Captan (0.2 per cent) or Copper oxychloride (0.5 per cent) for the control of disease (Sridhar, 1982).

4.Cabbage Yellow (Fusarium oxysproum f. sp conglutinans (Wollenweber) Snyder and Hansen)

Affected plants have a sickly dwarfed yellow appearance, lower leaves drop one by one and growth
of the plant becomes stunted. The fungus is seed borne and can also in soil persist many years. Disease
development is promoted by warm weather conditions.

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Control Measures
Field sanitation, crop rotation and using disease free seeds are useful for controlling the disease up
to some extent. Since, resistant cultivars are available, it is better to use them rather than to try other means
of control.
5.Black Leg (Phoma lingam)

It occurs in most of the regions especially in area with rainfall during the growing period. The
fungus is carried by the seed and hence it may occur from the early stage. Stem of the affected plant when
split vertically, shows severe black discoloration of sap stream. Whole root system decays from bottom
upward. Frequently, the affected plants fall over in the field.

Control Measures
(i) As the main infection is through seeds, hot water treatment can be prevented
(ii) Spraying Copper oxychloride or with Organomercuric compound and
(iii) Use of resistant variety like Pusa Drumhead.

Bacterial Diseases
6.Black Rot of Crucifers (Xanthomonas capestris pv. Campestris)

Plant become stunted, often one side of cotyledon turn yellow to black bend down and drop off
prematurely. Many lower leaves are also shed off early. The remaining leaves may turn yellow with
blackened veins. Development of ‘V’ shaped chlorotic to yellow lesions take place from the leaf margin.
The vein let turn black and the leaf tissue necrotic and brittle. Lesion progress towards the midrib and from
this systematic infection further spread into stem and root. Vascular tissues in affected parts become
conspicuously black, followed by internal break down of fleshy tissue. Black sunken spots may develop
on succulent seed stocks and siliqua.

Control Measures
Considerable reduction in disease has been observed when seeds are treated with Plantomycin (100
ppm) or Agrimycin 100 (100 ppm) or Streptocyclin (100 ppm) or Auromycin (1: 1000).
7.Club Root (Plasmodiophora brassicae )
This is a typical root parasite. Club root is particularly prevalent in soils with a pH above 7. Once
affected, it causes irregular galls on the roots and these on the lateral roots take the shape of spindle. Leaves
become yellowish and wilt.
Control Measures

(i) At the planting time, 250 ml of 0.05 to 0.10 per cent solution of mercuric chloride may be
applied for direct control.
(ii) Roots are treated with 4 per cent calomel paste before transplanting and (iii) Use of
resistant variety like Badger Shipper.

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Pests

Leaf Webber (Crocidolomia binotalis Zelelr): Adult moths are small and light brown coloured. Eggs are
laid in clusters on the under surface of leaves and held together by gelatinous glue.

Control Measures

(i) Most of the insecticides recommended for diamond back moth control are also effective against
leaf Webber.
(ii) In biological control, major natural mortality factors for leaf webber was recorded parasitization
by Bracon hebetor Say and Palexorusta solennis (Wlk) in the late larval instars (Singh, 1978).
Mustard Sawfly (Althalia lugens proxima)
The blackish caterpillar that attacks all Cole crops and feed on leaves of young seedling in the early stages.
The infested leaves become curl and falls on the ground when touched.

Control Measures

(i) If low infestation and number of attacked plants are few, hand picking of caterpillar, is the best
method of controlling the larvae.
(ii) Dusting the plants with sevin @ 20-25 kg per hectare or spraying the same @ 5 g per litre of water
is also effective to control this insect.
Mustard Aphids (Lipaphis erysimi )

This is a greenish white small insect that attacks cabbage and other cole crops, when there is a cloudy
weather. They suck the sap from the plants. The affected leaves get curled and plants wither and die.
Control Measures

(i) Methyl Dematon or Dimethoate (Rogar 30 EC, Methoate 30 EC, Sumidon, Demidon, etc. @ 1 ml
per litre of water or Phosphomidon (Demacron 100 EC, Sumidon, Demidon, etc.) @ 0.5 ml per
litre of water, starting just after the germination of seed and subsequently at an interval of 15 days.
(ii) Soil application of Phorate 10 G @ 15 kg/ha or Thimmet 10 G @ 12 kg per hectare in two doses
i.e., half at the time of planting and other half at the time of earthing up has also been effective
against aphids.
Diamond Back Moth (Plutella xylostella L.) : A small slender pale green caterpillar that feeds on leaves
and makes holes in them. The infested crop becomes unsuitable for marketing.

Control Measures

(i) Foliar spray twice or thrice Cypermethrin (0.2 kg a.i.) or Femvalerate (0.1 kg a.i. /ha) or Sulprofos
(1.0 kg a.i./ha) or Prothiophos (0.75 kg a.i./ha).
(ii) Mustard as trap crop. Mustard crop should be sown 15 days before cabbage planting.
(iii) Two to three sprays of Dichlorphos @ 1 kg a.i./ha in mustard and two sprays of Cartap
hydrochloride @ 500 g.a.i./ha or 5 per cent neem seed kernel extract in cabbage, starting from
primordial stage of the crop at 15 days interval has been recommended.

85
Cabbage Borer (Hellula undalis F.)

A white brown caterpillar that mines the leaves and feed on shoots. Later, it burrows into the stem
of cabbage. The affected plants wilt, remain dwarf or may even die.

Control Measures

Chemicals recommended for diamond back moth and leaf Webber control are also effective for cabbage
borer.
Cabbage Butter Fly (Pieris brassicae Linn.)

The maggots first attack the young rootlets and then burrow into the main roots. The affected plants become
yellow, wilt and sometimes they may die.
Control Measures

Sprays of 0.15 per cent Carbaryl and 0.4 per cent fungicide give adequate control of the pest (Atwal and
Singh, 1969).

Painted Bug (Bagada crucifer arum Kirk.)

The adult and nymph of this pest suck the sap from the plants and retard their normal growth.
Control Measures

Same as for aphids.

Methods of Seed Production

Being a biennial, cabbage requires two seasons to produce seed. In the first season, the heads are
produced and in the following seasons seed production follows. The seed crop can be left in situ or
transplanted during autumn. In situ method is usually followed for certified seed production and the later
for nucleus seed production.
In situ method, the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in their original position, i.e.
where they are first planted in the seedling stage. In the transplanting method, the mature plants are
uprooted. After removing whorls, the plants are immediately reset in a well prepared new fields in such a
way that he whole stem below the head goes underground with the head resting just above their surface.
There are three methods to produce seed of cabbage.

86
1.Stump Method

In this method, when the crop in the first season is fully mature, the heads are examined for true to type.
The plants with off type heads are removed. Then heads are cut just below the base by means of a sharp
knife, keeping the stem with outer whorl of leaves intact. The beheaded portion of the plant is called
“stump”. The heads are marketed and the stumps either are leaf in situ replanted in the second season i.e.
during autumn. The following spring, after the dormancy is broken, the bud sprout forms the axils of all
the leaves and leaf scars.

Advantages

(i) Gives extra income by way of sale of heads.

(ii) The crop matures 12-15 days earlier than the head intact method and (iii) Seed yield is slightly
increased.
Disadvantages

In this method, flowering shoots are decumbent and require very heavy staking otherwise they breakdown
very easily while interculturing or spraying.

2.Stump with Central Core Method

In this method, when the crop is fully mature in the first season, the heads are examined for true to type.
Plants with off type heads are removed and rejected. Then the heads are chopped on all sides with
downward perpendicular cuts in such a way that the central core is not damaged. This is an improvement
over stump method in that the shoots arising from the main system are not decumbent. During the last week
of February and until 15th March, when the heads start bursting, two vertical cross cuts are given to the
head. Taking care that the central growing point is not injured. In the absence of such cuts, the heads burst
out irregularly and sometimes the growing tip is broken. The operation is completed by going around the
field twice or thrice during this period. Advantages
(i) Shoots arising from the main stem are not decumbent, hence very heavy staking is not required and (ii)
Seed yield is increased.

Disadvantages

The chopped heads cannot be marketed.

3.Head Intact Method

In this method, when the crop is fully mature in the first season, the heads are examined for true to type.
The plants with off type heads are removed from the field. The head is kept intact and only a cross cut is
given to facilitate the emergence of a stalk.
Advantages

(i) The removal for heads (stump method) or chopping of heads on all sides (central
core intact method) is not required. This saves time and labour.
(ii) Very heavy staking is not required. Disadvantages
The seed yield is slightly low as compared to stump, or stump with central core intact method.
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Brief Cultural Practices (in situ Method) Time of Sowing and Transplanting

The sowing time of different varieties should be so adjusted as to complete head formation by the
end of October or first week of November, at that time, the mean temperature falls to 10oC or below, at this
temperature, the heads stand best for over wintering. Early varieties like ‘Golden Acre’ should be sown
from 10th to 25th July and transplanted when the seedlings are three to four week old, during the second
fortnight of August. This sowing time must be strictly adhered to, as the crop from the early sowings has
matured head during September (20oC). The heads get infected with bacterial stock rot, which sometimes
is very severe. The late crop, planted during September does not form heads and bolts directly during spring
and the seed grower is not able to ascertain purity of the crop. Medium late varieties like Bruppe’s Sure
Head, and alter varieties like Drum Head, which takes about 2 to 3 months to produce mature heads, should
be sown during the second and first fortnight of June, respectively and transplanting finished by the first
week of August. The mean temperature 22.5oC, 20oC and 14oC of August, September and October,
respectively, afford optimum requirements for growth and head formation. The later transplanted crop starts
head formation during spring and continues up to June and usually does not produce seed stalks.

Method of Nursery Sowing

The seeds are sown in raised nursery beds in a manner as described earlier in commercial
production of cabbage.

Source of Seed and Seed Rate

Obtain nucleus / breeder’s / foundation seed from source approved by a seed certification agency.
For main season and alter varieties, 375 to 400 g seeds/ha and early varieties, 600-700 g seeds/ha.

Preparation of Land for Transplanting

Prepare the land to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing and harrowing followed by leveling.

Manure and Fertilizers

Cabbage grows satisfactorily only when the supply of organic mater is liberal. For good crop,
apply 500 to 600 quintal of farmyard manure per hectare at the time of land preparation. Apply 100 kg/ha
I nitrogen, 60 kg/ha phosphorus and 60 kg/ha of potash by drilling, or by broadcasting, sufficiently before
transplanting the seedlings. Give another dose of 50 kg/ha nitrogen as surface application at the time of
seed stalk emergence during March. Extra application of nitrogen may be given as and when there is a
need before flowering starts, depending upon the condition of the crop.

Transplanting

Three to four week old seedlings are transplanted. Transplanting should preferably be done in the
evening and the field irrigated immediately afterwards.
Spacing

Late varieties - 60 x 60 cm; Medium varieties 60 x 45 cm; Early varieties 45 x 45 cm.

88
Irrigation

Cabbage requires a continuous supply of moisture. Irrigate the crop as frequently as required.
Heavy irrigation should, however, be avoided when the heads have formed. A sudden heavy irrigation after
a dry spell may cause bursting of heads.

Hoeing and Weeding

At least three weddings and hoeing till the end of October are essential. One weeding and earthling
up during November and December and the second during March when seed stalks have emerged, control
weeds and also help in proper drainage during winter and thereafter.

Staking : After the flower stalk are sufficiently developed, staking is necessary to keep the plants in an
upright position.

Handling the mature head

After the planted crop has fully developed heads at the close of autumn, the next step is the handling
of these plants for seed production. Handling of plants can be done by any one of the three methods i.e.
stump, stump with central core intact methods, described earlier.

Rouging

The first rouging is done at the time of handling of the mature heads. All off type plants, diseased,
or otherwise undesirable types, are removed at this stage. The second rouging is done before the heads start
bursting. The loose leafed, poorly heading plants and those having a long stem with heavy frame must be
rouged out at his stage. It is highly undesirable to keep such poor plants in the seed plots. Subsequent
rouging for off types, diseased plants affected by, black leg, soft rot or leaf spot should be done from time
to time as required.

Harvesting and Threshing

Cabbage starts seed stalk elongation from 10-20th March when the mean temperature rises to 10-
13oC. Flowering and pod formation starts during the first week of April at mean temperature of 13-18.5oC.
From 15th April to 15th May, the crop is in full flush of flowering and fruiting. The ripening of pods
commences by 15th June to 20th June and the harvesting continues up to second week of July. At mean
temperatures below 20oC during June and July, the maturity of crop is delayed at least by a fortnight and
the harvesting may continue up to July end. To avoid shattering of seeds, the whole crop is harvested in
two or three lots with sickles. Generally, the early plants are harvested first, and when the pod colour is
about 60-70 per cent of the rest of the crop changes to yellowish brown, it is harvested completely and piled
up for curing. After 4-5 days, it is then threshed with sticks and sifted with hand sifters. After thoroughly
drying, seeds are cleaned and stored.
Seed yield: 500-600 kg per hectare.

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Seed Certification Standards

I. Field Inspection

A minimum of three inspections should be done, the first before the marketable stage, the second
at the marketable stage and the third at flowering stage.

II. Field Standards

A. General Requirements
1. Isolation

Contaminants Minimum disease(Meters)

Fields of other varieties 1600 1000
Fields of the same variety not 1600 1000
conforming varietal
purity

B. Specific Requirements:
Factors Maximum permitted (per cent) *
Off types 0.10 0.20
** Plants affected by seed borne 0.10 0.50
diseases

III. Seed Standards

Factors Standards for each class
Foundation Certified
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0 per cent 98.0 per cent
Inert mater (maximum) 2.0 per cent 2.0 per cent
Weed seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (minimum) 65 per cent 65 per cent
Moisture (maximum) 7.0 per cent 7.0 per cent
For vapour-proof containers 5.0 per cent 5.0 per cent
(maximum)

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 CAULIFLOWER
Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Family: Cruciferae / Brassicaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X= 18
Origin: Mediterranean region
Edible part: Curd
Classification
Indian Type European Type
Annual and tolerant to heat Biennial and not tolerant to heat
Curd formation at and above 20oC. Curd formation at 5-20oC
Yellow to creamish curds, loose with strong Snow white curds with very mild or no flavour
flavour. (better quality curds).
Plants are short having long stalk and loosely Steady plants and long leaves giving protective
arranged leaves. jacket to curd.
Early in maturity Late in maturity
More variable (heterozygous) Less variable (homozygous)
More self-incompatible. Less self incompatible.
Small juvenile phase. Long juvenile phase.
No need of vernalization but needs cold treatment at Needs vernalization at 7ºC for 8-10 weeks.
10-13 ºC.
Climate
Cauliflower is a thermos-sensitive crop. There are both temperate and tropical varieties grown in
India. The tropical hat tolerant Indian cauliflowers have been classified into four maturity groups depending
on the average temperature requirement for curd initiation and development under north Indian conditions.
The maturity groups are
1. September (20ºC - 27ºC / 30ºC)
2. October (20ºC - 25ºC)
3. November (15ºC - 20ºC)
4. December (12ºC - 15ºC)
The late Snowball types of cauliflower require an average temperature of 10ºC - 15ºC
Soil
Sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best suited for cauliflower cultivation. The optimum pH is 6.0-
7.0. Cauliflower is relatively more sensitive to deficiency of boron and molybdenum, and it has high
requirement of magnesium. The deficiency of magnesium may quickly appear in acid soils. High pH
reduces the availability of boron.
Season of sowing and transplanting
Groups Time of sowing of seeds Time of curd maturity
Early maturity group
I (a) May-June September
I (b) First fortnight of July October to mid November
Mid season maturity group II July-August Late November to mid
December
Mid late maturity group III September Late December to mid
January.
(Snowball type) October Mid January onwards
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Seed rate : 300-500 g /ha
Early variety - n500-700g per hectare.
Transplanting : After 30-40 days of sowing. The seedlings are transplanted in flat beds or on ridges.
Spacing : Early varieties : 60 cm x 30 cm for ad 60 cm x 45 cm for mid - season and late maturing varieties.
During rainy season planting on ridges is preferred.
Seed treatment
Hot water treatment of the seeds at 50oC for 30 minutes to control the seed borne pathogens is
found to be effective.
Irrigation
The seedlings are irrigated immediately after transplanting. Later the frequency of watering will
depend on soil type and season. Irrigations during rainy season may be fewer than in summer and cool
season. During winter or cool season irrigations are at 10-12 days interval and in summer more frequently
at weekly intervals. Overwatering and waterlogging should be avoided.
Nutrient management
About 25-30 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure or compost are applied to the soil at the time
of land preparation. The fertilizers required are about 100 – 150 kg N, 60 - 80 kg P and 80 kg K per hectare
is done at ploughing and field preparation. Only half quantity of N is used for basal application. The other
half quantity of N is top dressed after 30-35 days of enhance the plant growth. This crop is susceptible to
the deficiency of micronutrients like molybdenum and boron. Application of 500g molybdenum and 10-
15kg borax soils (pH < 5.5) may be corrected by liming the soil to increase the availability of molybdenum.
Soils with more than pH 7.0 also affect the availability of boron.
Weed management
Regular weeding during the initial stages of plant growth is essential. Light hoeing is also required
along with weeding. The plants grown on ridges will require earthing up which can be done at the time of
top dressing of nitrogen.
Special horticultural practices
Blanching
Blanching refers to covering of curds. In cauliflower, for getting quality curd, blanching is an
important operation to protect the curds from yellowing due to direct exposure to sun (to arrest enzymatic
activity). A perfect curd is pure white. It is necessary to exclude sunlight to obtain this. The curds may also
loose some of their flavour, because of this exposure. This problem generally occurs in such varieties of
early and mid-season maturity group, which have spreading and open plant type. In some varieties, the curd
remains naturally protected and surrounded by inner whorls of leaves. These are called self-blanching types.
e.g. Pusa Deepali. The common practice is to bring the outer leaves up over the curd and tie them with a
twine or rubber band. By using a different coloured twine each day. It is easy at the time of harvest to select
those tied earlier.

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Maturity standards
In cauliflower, the maturity standards are judged by visual observations. It is better to harvest a
little early than late in case of any doubt. If the harvesting is delayed, loosening of curd will take place
making the curd unfit for marketing.
Harvesting and yield
Care should be taken while harvesting cauliflower to cut the curd immediately when it reaches
prime condition. In case of doubt about the maturity, it is better to harvest early than late. If the harvests
are late, the curd starts loosening because of flower stalk emergence. They may become leafy, ricey or
fuzzy. While harvesting, the stalk is cut off from above the soil surface with a large and sharp knife.
The large leaves are then trimmed away leaving only sufficient outer leaves to protect the curd
from bruising and other mechanical injury in transport. More outer leaves are kept when transporting of
loose cauliflower than when packed in crates. In crates, the outer leaves are trimmed leaving a fringe of
leaves projecting 2-3 cm above the curds.
The average yield of an early variety is about 10-12 tonnes per hectare which is lower than the mid
and late maturing varieties. The curds of early varieties are smaller-sized than late maturing varieties. The
yield of mid and late maturing varieties is around 20-30 tonnes per hectare.
Storage
After harvesting the curds can be stored for 3-4 days at room temperature. In cold storage, the curds stored
at 0ºC and 90-95 per cent relative humidity keep well for about 2-4 weeks.
Physiological disorder
Riceyness
Elongation on peduncle wearing flower buds, rendering curds, granular, loose and somewhat velvety.
Premature initiation of floral bud

Causes:
 Temperature higher or lower than the optimum required for particular cultivars
 Late variety planted early
 Hereditary factors
 Heavy dose of nitrogen and high relative humidity also contributes to riceyness.
Control measures : It can be controlled by cultivation of genetically pure seed and appropriate varieties
with recommended cultural practices.

Fuzziness

It appears as the flower pedicels of velvety curds elongate. The anomaly is both hereditary and
non-hereditary. Cultivation of cauliflower, out of their normal season encourages fuzziness. Sowing good
quality seed in right season under proper cultural practices, minimized fuzziness.

Leafiness

This disorder is commonly seen by formation of small thin leaves from the curd which reduces
quality of curd. Extremely small green leaves appear in between the curd segment due to inheritable or

93
non-heritable factors. Prevalence of high temperatures during curding phase aggravates leafiness. Certain
varieties are more sensitive to leafiness or bracketing than other.

It can be controlled by selection of varieties according to their adaptability.

Browning (Brown Rot or Red Rot)

It is caused by borne deficiency which is influenced by soil pH. The availability of boron decreases
at neutral soil reaction. It is characterized by sign on the young leaves that become dark green and brittle.
The old leaves puckered, chlorotic and often drops off. Sometimes, the downward curling of older leaves
followed by development of blisters when boron deficiency is severe. The leaves remain small and the
growing point may die. However, in later stage, water soaked, light brown to dark brown spots formed on
the stem and branches may ultimately lead to the formation of cavities formed on the stem and branches
may ultimately lead to the formation of cavities and a hollow stem. Curds may also show irregular water
soaked spots. Which alter change to a rusty brown colour. The affected curds remain small and acquire a
bitter taste. This may be controlled by application of borax or sodium borate or sodium tetra borate at the
rate of 20 kg/ha a soil application. In case of acute deficiency, spray of 0.25 to 0.50 per cent solution of
borax at the rate of 1 to 2 kg/ha depending upon growth, soil reaction and extent of deficiency.

Whiptail
Deficiency of molybdenum causes ‘whiptail’ syndrome, especially, in highly acidic soils. Because
high manganese concentrations in such soils hinder the uptake of molybdenum which seldom occurs when
the soil pH is 5.5 or higher. The young cauliflower plants become chlorotic and may turn white, particularly
along the leaf margins. They also become cupped and wither. The leaves blades fail to develop properly,
and the leaves are ruffled and distorted. In older plant, the lamina of the newly formed leaves are irregular
in shape, frequently, consisting of only a large bare midribs and hence, the common name “whiptail”. It
can be corrected by application of lime or dolomite limestone to raise the soil pH up to 6.5 or higher.
Sodium or Ammonium molybdate at the rate of 1-2 kg/ha as soil application can also control “whiptail” of
cauliflower.

Buttoning

Development of small curds with inadequate foliage in cauliflower is known as buttoning. It is

also referred to as premature heading. The leaves are so small that can not cover the formed head.

94
Causes
(i) Transplanting of more than 6 week-old seedlings.
(ii) Planting as early variety in late vice versa leads buttoning.
(iii) Hot and dry weather is unfavorable for vegetative growth of plants, but favourable for inducing curd
formation and inhibits further enlargement. Curds remain very small in size like buttons
(iv) When soil moisture becomes limiting factor
(v) Transplanting of seedlings, obtained from poorly managed nursery bed.
(vi) Slow plant growth in the nursery, over crowding, insufficient water, lack of weeding, bad condition
of the soil, excessive crowding, insufficient water, lack of weeding, bad condition of the soil, excessive
salt concentrations, low lying area or field with shallow and poor top salt may also cause buttoning.
(vii) Vigorously grown nursery plants with thickened stems and sessile foliage

Control Measures

 Nursery should be properly look after to avoid any check in the plant growth
 An adequate amount of nitrogen and water should be applied.
 Do not delay transplanting and
 Cultural practices should be carried out well in time and water logging and overcrowding should be
avoided.

Blindness

It means the plant without terminal buds or when the growing point collapse at an early stage and
the terminal buds fails to develop and plant becomes blind. It occurs in over wintered plants and any
practice interfering in growth of the terminal bud may lead to blindness. Plant grows without terminal bud
and fails to form and curd. It is characterized by the leaves that develop are large, dark green, thick and
leathery owing to the accumulation of carbohydrates. Sometimes, the axillary bud develops but the plant
fails to produce a marketable curd. The main cause of blindness are low temperature when plants are small
and when damage occurs to the terminal bud during, handling of the plants or injury by insect-pests. It can
be controlled by avoiding young plant from low temperature exposure and care seedlings. While planting
and handling, seedlings are avoided damage from insect-pests.

Chlorosis

In cauliflower magnesium deficiency causes chlorosis when grown on highly acidic soils.
Chlorosis shows on interveinal and yellow mottling of lower leaves. The affected leaves turn bronze in
colour and become stiff. In severely deficient plants, abscission of the lower leaves occurs and results into
small curd formation. It can be controlled by applying magnesium oxide @ 300 kg/ha, liming the soil with
dolomite limestone to bring the soil pH to 6.5 are an effective control measure.Use of a fertilizer containing
soluble magnesium, keeps it under control.

Hollow Stem

It may be due to boron deficiency and higher supply of nitrogen nutrition. Hollowness caused by
boron may be identified by water soaked and discoloured tissue, whereas, hollowness caused by nitrogen,

95
the stem is perfectively clear while with no sign of disintegration. It can be controlled by spraying of borax
at 0.1 to 0.3 or soil application of borax @ 15-20 kg/ha. If hollow stem is used by boron deficiency.
However, for normal type of hollowness, spacing the plants closer together or by reducing the fertilizer
doses.

Frost Injury

In cauliflower, leaves of young seedling turn yellowish-white on both the surfaces. Petioles
become flaccid and white, midrib along with adjacent parenchyma and stem may also be injured. Fully
grown curds of cauliflower are more sensitive to frost damage, than the smaller ones. However, in cabbage
the younger leaves are particularly sensitive to frost, as that the centre of the heads turns brown, while,
outwardly the head appears healthy, similar symptoms also occurs in Brussels sprouts. It can be minimized
by irrigating the field on anticipating the danger of frost and by raising the field temperature by creating
smoke.

Pinking

Sometimes curds show pink tinge, this appears due to the exposure of curds to high light intensities.
Under this condition, anthocyanin form and gives rise pink colour curds. This disorder is not so common.

96
97
 LECTURE 8
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting – water and nutrient
management – fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulators –
physiological disorders – maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – Seed production
of carrot, beetroot and radish
CARROT ( Poor man‟s gingeng)
Botanical Name: Daucus carota Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Origin: South West Asia (Afghanistan)
Edible part: Fleshy Tap Root
Chromosome number: 2n =18
Importance and uses
It is an annual herb for root production and a biennial for flowering and seed set
Edible portion is the fleshy tap root composed of an outer cortex (phloem) and inner core
(xylem)
Carotene accumulation takes place first in old phloem cells followed by old xylem vessels and
finally to centre core.
A sweet preparation called „Gajar halwa‟ is a very famous dish in north India
Carrot leaves are a good source of leaf protein. It is used as fodder and for preparation of poultry
feeds.
Purple and black carrots are used for preparation of a beverage called „kanji‟ which is a good
appetizer.
Essential oil separated from seeds is used for flavouring liquors and all kinds of food substitutes.
Isocoumarin is responsible for bitter flavour in carrot
Taste of carrot is mainly due to presence of glutamic acid.
Climate
Carrot is grown as a spring summer and autumn crop in hills and as a winter crop in plains of North
India. Ideal temperature for germination of seeds is 7.2-23.9oC, while for root growth and development it
is 18.3-23.9oC.
1. Tropical types : even at a temperature of 25oC.
2. European types : 4.8-10.0oC for 4-6 weeks
3.Seed stalk formation : 12.2 – 21.1oC.

Soil
Deep and well drained friable soils are essential for proper root development. For early crop, sandy loam
and for heavy yield, silt loam is preferred. Long rooted cultivars perform the best in light soil. In heavy
soils, short stump rooted varieties having round and heart-shaped roots are preferred. In hard soils, roots
will be rough and coarse. The ideal soil pH is 6.6 – 7.1

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Varieties
Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali, Pusa Vristi, Pusa Pusa Yamdagini, Jeno, Imperator, Chantaney,
Rudhira, Pusa Ashita (black coloured), Hisar Danvers, Early Nantes, Nantes, Nantes Half
Gairic, Black Beauty Long, Ooty, Pusa Nayanjyoti(hybrid)

Land preparation and sowing

Soil is ploughed to a fine tilth. Land is then made to ridges and furrows at 30-45 cm apart in small plots
of convenient size for irrigation. Seeds are sown on ridges or on flat beds either by dibbling in lines or by
broadcasting. Seeds are first rubbed to remove fine hairs and mixed with fine sand before sowing to
facilitate even distribution. For sowing in lines, a small furrow of about 1.5 cm deep is made at top or on
either sides of ridges with finger or with sharp end of a stick. Seeds mixed with sand are dropped in furrow
by hand and is covered lightly with soil.

Seed rate : 6 to 10 kg/ha.

Seedlings should be thinned to a plant to plant distance of 5-8 cm, soon after they are established. Give
light irrigation immediately after sowing or to soak seeds in water for 12-24 hours before sowing to hasten
germination.

Manuring

In addition to 20-25 tonnes of farmyard manure, a fertilizer dose of 40-50 kg N, 40-50 kg P2O5 and
80-100 kg K2O is recommended for the crop, of which entire dose of farmyard manure, half N and full P
and K are to be applied as basal dose at the time of final land preparation. Remaining dose of N can be
applied at the time of first hoeing.

Interculture
First irrigation should be given immediately after sowing followed by another 4-6 days after. Soil
should be kept moist by frequent light irrigation for proper growth of roots. Excessive irrigation, that too
towards the last stage, should be avoided as sit may result in excessive vegetative growth.
Since seedlings grow very slowly care should be taken to remove weed growth during initial stages. Carrot
roots do not come up like that of radish and hence, earthing up is not required. Soil should be hoed
frequently to allow proper aeration and to prevent discolouration of crown.

Harvest
Roots grown on ridges are usually harvested after loosening soil with a spade and by pulling out
roots by grasping top. In flat ground, top is removed close to ground and roots are dug out with a spade.
A light irrigation is usually given before harvesting for easy uprooting.
Yield : Tropical types - 20-30 t/ha, European types : 10-15 t/ha.

Post harvest
Harvested roots are put in mulberry basket and dipped in flowering water for washing. Roots are
then partially dried, trimmed and graded before sending to distant markets. Trimming, grading etc. are done

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at a cool place. Fresh Carrot roots can be stored for 3-4 days under ordinary conditions and for six months
at 0oC and 93-98% RH.

Seed production

Tropical annual types produce seeds in plains and temperate biennial types in hills. Both root to
seed and seed to seed methods are recommended for carrot seed production. Seed to seed method is
followed to get more seed yield. Root to seed method is flowed to get quality seeds. However, in this
method, high incidence of root rot is noticed. To check root rot in transplanted crop, planting roots without
cutting is recommended.
Carrot is a cross-pollinated crop due to protandry and pollination is done by honey bees. Being a cross-
pollinated crop, allow an isolation distance of 1000 m from other varieties. Opening of umbel starts from
periphery and completed within 6-7 days. Seed yield is 500-600 kg/ha.

Pests and diseases

Pests and diseases are not major problems in cultivation of carrots. Among pests, carrot rust fly (Psila
rosae) maggots burrow into roots resulting in unmarketable roots. Lycus bug damages seed crop and
reduces viability and germination of seeds. Seed treatment with insecticides controls this pest.
Among diseases, Cercocpora leaf spot and root rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum adversely affect stand
of crop. Watery soft rot caused by Sclerotenia sclerotianum occurs in storage.

Physiological disorders:
1. Root splitting: Splitting or cracking of carrot roots is a major problem.
Possible reasons:
Wider spacing as larger roots tend to split more.
Dry weather followed by wet weather is conducive to cracking of roots.
High nitrogen application
Early cultivars tend to split more readily than late ones.
2. Cavity spot: It appears as a cavity in the cortex. In most cases, the subtending epidermis collapses to
form a pitted lesion.
Possible reasons: Calcium deficiency associated with an increased accumulation of K and decreased
accumulation of Ca.
3. Forking: It is a common disorder in carrot and radish formed by the enlargement of secondary root
growth.
Possible reasons: Excess moisture during the root development. It occurs on heavy soils due to soil
compactness.

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 BEETROOT
Botanical name: Beta vulgaris
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Origin: Mediterranean region
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=18

Importance and uses

Beetroot is rich source of folic acid, essential for pregnant women to reduce risk of spina bifida
Pigmentation in beetroot:
i. Red-violet colour of beetroot is due to β-cyanins

ii. Yellow colour of beetroot is due to β-xanthins

Type of inflorescence in beetroot is large spike which is normally develops 2nd year
Beetroot is wind pollinated crop (anemophilous)
Seed type in beetroot is multigerm or seed ball
Beetroot fruits contain 5-6 seeds
1g of seed ball contains 50 seeds
Staggered sowing commonly recommended for beetroot
Vernalization temperature for beetroot is 4-10oC for 2 weeks
In beetroot, temperatures of 4.5-10oC for 15 days induce premature bolting
 Poor colour development in beetroot is due to high temperature
Varieties

Detroit Dark Red: Roots perfectly round with smooth uniform deep red skin; flesh dark blood red with
light red zoning; heavy yielder with a duration of 80-100 days.
Crimson Globe: It produces round to flat round roots. Outer skin is medium red and flesh is crimson red
without zonations; duration 55-60 days.
Early Wonder: Roots flat globular with dark red skin and dark red flesh and light red zoning.

Ooty-1: This TNAU variety has round roots with blood red flesh colour; yields 28 t/ha in 120 days; it sets
seeds under Nilgiris conditions.
Crosby Egyptian: Roots flat globe with dark purplish red flesh; duration 55-60 days; produces white
zoning under warm weather.
Madhur, Ruby Queen and Ruby Red are a few of the varieties marketed by private seed industry.

Climate
 Prefers cool climate.
 Development of colour, texture, sugar content etc. of roots is best under cool weather.
 High temperature causes zoning i.e., appearance of alternate light and dark red concentric rings in the
root. Extreme low temperature of 4.5-10.0oC for 15 days will results in bolting.
 It requires abundant sunshine for development of storage roots.

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Soil

Deep well drained loam or sandy loams is the best for beet root cultivation. Heavy clayey soils
result in poor germination and stand of crop due to formation of a soil crust after rains or irrigation. Roots
may be misshaped and will not develop properly in heavy soils. Beet root is highly sensitive to soil acidity
and the ideal pH is 6-7. Beet root is one of a few vegetables which can be successfully grown in saline
soils.

Land preparation and sowing

Being a cool season crop, beet root is raised during winter in plains and as a springsummer crop in
hills by March-April. In plains, sowing is practiced during SeptemberNovember.
Land is ploughed to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing making it loose and friable. Clods are to
be removed completely. Apply well decomposed farmyard manure at the time of final ploughing. Flat
beds or ridges and furrows are prepared. Water-soaked ‘seed balls’ which contain 2-6 seeds are drilled 2.5
cm deep in rows at spacing of 45-60 x 8-10 cm. 5-6 kg of seeds is required for one hectare. Staggered
sowing at 1-2 weeks interval ensures steady supply of roots during the season.

Manures and fertilizers

On sandy soils, organic manure @ 25 t/ha is recommended. For an average soil, 60-70 kg N, 100-
120 kg P and 60-70 kg K/ha is recommended. Entire farmyard manure, half of N and full P and K should
be applied basal at the time of land preparation prior to sowing and remaining at 30-45 days after sowing.
Nitrate sources of N are preferred to ammonium sources. Beets have a relatively high boron requirement
and its deficiency causes internal breakdown as black rot or dry rot.

Aftercare
Thinning is an essential operation when more than one seedling germinates from each seed. Moist
soil is essential for seed germination and for further growth. Usually 5-6 irrigations are usually given
during summer and three irrigations during winter in North Indian plains. Field is usually kept weed free
by light hoeing at early stage of crop. Swollen roots are also to be covered with soil by earthing up.
Harvesting

Medium sized tubers are of great demand and tubers are harvested after attaining a diameter of 3-
5 cm. Harvesting is done 8-10 weeks after sowing by pulling the top with hand. Later tops are removed,
graded and marketed. In European countries, where small sized bunches are in demand, tubers are tied in
bundles of 4-6 with their tops. Over matured and oversized tubers become woody and crack. Yield varies
from 25 to 30t/ha and the tuber stores well at 0oC and 90% RH.
Seed production

Unlike other root crops, annual tropical types do not exist in beet root. All cultivars in beet root
are temperate biennial types and seed production is possible in hills 1400 m above mean sea level. A low
temperature of 4.4 to 7.7oC for 6-8 weeks is required for flowers to initiate. Usual method of seed
production is root to seed method. In this method, seeds are sown in July and well developed roots are dug
out during November-December. After selection of root tubers, top is trimmed without injuring crown.

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Then whole tubers of selected plants are transplanted at a spacing of 60 x 45-60 cm in well prepared fields
and irrigated. Harvesting is done during June-July. Cross pollination is due to self incompatibility. Being
a cross pollinated crop, that too wind pollinated, provide an isolation distance of 1000 m for certified seed
production and 1600 m for breeder and nucleus seed production. Average seed yield is 2.0 t/ha.

Physiological disorders
1. Zoning is the physiological disorder of beetroot due to high warm weather (which is marked by the
appearance of alternating light and dark-red concentric circles in the root)

2. Internal black spot or brown heart or heart rot is due to boron deficiency

3. The boron deficiency is common in alkaline soils. Overcome by liming often brings about boron
deficiency.

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 RADISH
Botanical Name: Raphanus sativus
Family: Brassicaceae/Cruciferae
Origin: Europe
Edible part: Primary root and hypocotyl
Chromosome number: 2n=18
 Radish pungency is due to glucosinolates. Major glucosinolates in radish is isothiocyanates.
 Radish is a good source of vitamin-C and minerals.
 Pink skinned radish – rich source of ascorbic acid

Climate
Radish grows best in mild and cool temperature. The Asiatic types are suited to warm conditions.
The European or temperate varieties require cool climate. The roots develop best flavour, texture and size
at cooler temperature range of 10ºC-15oC at maturity. A long day as well as high temperature will result in
bolting before proper root development. The roots also become hard, pithy and pungent during hot weather.
Soil
Light porous soils, like loam and sandy loam with enough organic matter are ideal for growing
radish. Heavy soils or those with rocks, stones or pebbles below the surface are not suitable because in such
soils the root development is poor with branching or forking. It can grow on slightly acidic soils also, with
soil pH 5.5-6.8.
Varieties and hybrids
Asiatic varieties European varieties
Pusa Desi Pusa Himani
Pusa Reshmi Rapid Red White Tipped
Pusa Chetki Scarlet Globe
Pusa Safed Scarlet long
Arka Nishant Pusa Mridula
Chinese Pink White icicle
Japanese White
Kashi Sweta, Kashi Hans
CO-1
Palam Hriday
Pusa Jamuni
Pusa Gulabi
Pusa Shweta

 Off season radish (throughout the year) variety: Pusa Himani

 Giant radish variety (more than 1m long): Jaunpuri or Giant radish or Newari

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 Multiple disease resistant radish variety: Arka Nishant (having resistance to pithiness, pre-mature
bolting, root branching and forking)
Seeds and sowing
Radish is grown from seeds which are either broadcast or sown in rows. It is better to sow seeds on
20-25 cm high ridges as it facilitates irrigation in furrows made along the ridges. The distance between
rows or ridges is about 45 cm. Seeds are sown 1.5-3 cm deep. Seeds germinate in 5-10 days after sowing.
Later after a fortnight the seedlings are thinned out maintaining a distance of 20-30 cm between plants. The
seeds of European types can be sown on 10-15 cm high ridges that are 20-30 cm apart and distance between
plants being 4-8 cm. The seed rate is 8-10 kg per hectare for Asiatic types and 10-12 kg per hectare for
European types.
In the Southern parts of the country, Asiatic radish is sown almost throughout the year, January-
February and June-September/October. The European types can be sown during October-December.
Nutrient management
About 10-15 tonnes of FYM per hectare is incorporated into the soil at the time of field preparation.
The FYM to be applied should be well-decomposed because fresh or undecomposed manure will induce
forking of roots with many fibrous roots. Fertilizers, 80-100 kg N, 40-60 kg P and 80-100 kg K per hectare
are also applied to the soil along with FYM. However, the requirement of NPK will depend on soil fertility
and variety. The temperate varieties will require less fertilizer than the Asiatic types.
Irrigation
The field should be irrigated immediately after sowing if the soil does not have enough moisture at
sowing time. The crop is irrigated at 6-7 days interval during summer and 10-12 days in winter.
Overwatering should be avoided as it is harmful to root development.
Weed management
About 2-3 light hoeings and weeddings are required. One earthing up is required at the early stage
of plant growth and another at the beginning of root development. Light irrigation should be given after
earthing up..
Harvesting and yield
The roots should be harvested at tender stage as the delay in harvesting may result in pithiness of
roots. If the soil is dry at harvesting time, it is better to irrigate the field one or two days prior to harvesting.
The roots are pulled out by hand ensuring that the roots do not break or get damaged during harvesting.
The average root yield of Asiatic types is about 15-20 tonnes per hectare and 5-7 tonnes per hectare
in the European types. Generally after harvesting the roots are washed, graded and packed for transportation
to the market. The roots can be stored for two months in cold storage at 0oC and 90-95% relative humidity.
Pest and diseases
1. Most serious pest in radish is aphids

2. Mustard saw fly (Athalia lugens proxia) is the most common occurring pest in radish

3. Radish phyllody is a serious problem in seed production

4. Yellow disease in radish is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. conglutinans

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5. Clubroot is a soil borne disease caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae

6. White rust is caused by Albugo candida

Physiological disorders in radish
1. Pore extent: pores are formed by the collapse of parenchymatous cells in root tissue, caused by excessive
root growth

2. Pithiness of root is more in summer crop and is due to excess NPK and soil moisture stress

3. Hollow rot is a physiological disorder of radish due to high temperature during 15-60 days of sowing

4. Wart is due to soil moisture deficit

5. Akashin is caused by boron deficiency

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 LECTURE 10
Climate and soil – varieties and hybrids – seeds and sowing – transplanting – water and nutrient
management – fertigation – weed management – use of micronutrients and plant growth regulators –
physiological disorders – maturity indices – harvest and yield – pest and diseases – Seed production of
French beans and peas
French bean/Kidney bean/Haricot bean/Snap bean/Navy bean/Common bean
Botanical name; Phaseolus vulgaris
Family: Fabaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=22
Origin: South Mexico and Central America
Climate

French bean is a day neutral cool season vegetable and tolerates high temperature better than peas.
Optimum monthly temperature for cultivation of French bean is 15-25oC compared to 10-18oC for peas. It
is sensitive to high rainfall, frost and high temperature. Pole types tolerate high rainfall better than bushy
varieties
Soil : Soil requirements are same as that of pea. Ideal soil pH for growth of French bean is 5.5 – 6.0

Varieties

Bush type
Arka Suvidha Photoinsensitive, resistance to rust
Arka Anoop Photoinsensitive, resistance to bacterial wilt and rust
Arka Sharath Photoinsensitive
Arka Bold Photoinsensitive, resistance to bacterial wilt
Kashi Param -
Phule Suyash -
Pant Anupama Resistance to angular leaf
Pusa Parvati X-ray mutant of Wax Pod
Arka Komal Introduced from Australia
Contender Introduced from USA
Premier Introduced from Sweden
Bountiful Introduced from USA
Jampa Introduced from Mexico, resistance to wilt
Giant Stringless Introduced from
Pole type
Kentucky Wonder Introduced
Pusa Himalata -

Specific features of important variety

1. Resistance to anthracnose variety: Tweed Wonder

2. Pusa Parvati is resistant too mosaic and powdery mildew
3. Among pole types, Kentucky Wonder is most commonly grown varieties in India
Season
In plains of North India, French bean is sown during two seasons viz., July-September and January-
February. In hills, sowing is done from March to May.

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Land preparation and sowing

Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and divided into plots of convenient size. Ridges and furrows are
prepared by ploughing after a basal dose application of farmyard manure. Field is irrigated once and seeds
are sown under optimum moisture condition on side of ridges 2-3 days after irrigation. Spacing and seed
rate vary with varieties. Early varieties are sown at a spacing of 45-60 cm x 10-15 cm and seed rate
required is 80-90 kg / ha. Pole types are sown at 1.0 m apart in hills @ 3-4 plants / hill and seed rate is
much less (25-30 kg/ha.).

Manure and fertilizers

French bean responds well to application of lime and fertilizers. In addition to 20-25 t. of farmyard
manure, 50 kg N, 75 kg, P2O5 and 75 kg K2O are recommended. Half of N along with full P and K should
be applied as basal dose at the time of making ridges and furrows or one or two weeks after germination.
Apply remaining dose of N, one month after first application.

Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu

Apply FYM 25 t/ha at the last ploughing. N 90 kg and P 125 kg/ha should be applied on one side
of the ridges. For rainfed conditions of Shevaroy hills, apply as a basal dose of 62.5 kg/ha of Phosphorous
as super phosphate and with another half of 62.5 kg/ha Phosphorous as
FYM enriched super phosphate.

Intercultural operations

French bean is a shallow rooted crop and only light inter-cultural operations are practiced. During
early stages of crop, weeding followed by fertilizer application and earthing up can be synchronized. A
pre-sowing application of Fluchloralin @ 2.1 /ha checks weed growth for 20-25 days. Water stress
influences yield of French bean and crop is most sensitive at flowering and fruiting stages. 6-7 irrigations
are required during growing season.
Staking is an important operation for pole types and bamboo sticks or any locally available materials
should be erected when plants start vining. Individual vertical stakes and horizontal canes at 40 cm
distance are erected for encouraging growth and spread of plants.
Application of plant growth regulators like PCPA (2 ppm) and NAA (5-25 ppm) has favourable effect
on fruit set and yield.
Harvesting and yield

Pods are harvested at full grown stage but immature and tender. Pods are ready for harvest 7-12
days after flowering depending on varieties. In bush varieties, 2-3 harvests and in pole types 3-5 harvests
are made. Quality of beans varies with harvests and best quality fruits are obtained in initial harvests
compared to later harvests. Loss of crispness during storage and in last harvest is attributed to loss of
water and increase in water soluble pectin.

Seed weight is a major indicator of green bean harvest maturity. Yield of tender pods varies from
8-10 t/ha in bush varieties and 12-15 t/ha in pole types. Dry beans are harvested when majority of pods
are fully ripe and colour turns yellow. Seed yield varies from 1250 to 1500 kg / ha.
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Physiological disorders
1. Transverse cotyledon cracking (TCC) is a major physiological disorder in French bean

2. Hypocotyl cracking or necrosis is the germination disorder of French bean is due to low calcium content
in seed

3. Low protein in French bean is due to calcium and magnesium deficiency.

Pest and diseases
1. Rust: Uromyces phaseoli – epidemic diseases in India

2. Common bean mosaic is most serious virus disease and transmitted by aphids

3. Ashy stem blight is caused by fungal (Macrophomina phaseoli) – seed borne disease

4. Common blight is bacterial disease (Xanthomonas phaseoli) - seed borne disease

5. Bean common mosaic (BCM) is a major problem - seed borne disease

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 PEAS
Botanical name: Pisum sativum
Family: Fabaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2X=14
Origin: Central Asia
Basal on maturity period

• Early types – green pods will be ready for harvest by 65 days after sowing.
• Mid season types – pods will be ready for harvest by 85-90 days after sowing.
• Late main season types – pods will be ready for harvest by 110 days after sowing
Based on height of plant

• Bush or dwarf types

• Medium tall

• Tall
Usually dwarf types are early and mid season types are medium tall. Late types are tall andrequire
support.

Varieties and hybrids

Early varieties Specific features

Ageta Resistant to Fusarium wilt
Alaska, Early Superb, Little Introduced from England
Marvel, Meteor
Arkel Introduced from England
AP-3
Asauiji
Early Badger
Kashi Kanak, Kashi Nandhini, Kashi Udai

Specific features of important variety

1. All over India grown varieties – Bonneville, Arkel, Pusa Pragati

2. Whole pod (snap pod) edible group – Arka Sampoorna, Arka Apoorva, Oregon Sugar and Swarna
Tripti

3. New variety – Pusa Shree

4. Snap pea varieties – Sugar Stick, Sugar Snap, Sugar Bon, Sugar Lady

5. Suitable for both fresh market and dehydration variety – Arkel

6. Suitable for dehydration – Arkel (Wrinkled and dark green seeds)

7. Smooth seeded variety – Asauiji and Meteor

8. Wrinkled seeded variety – Arkel and Bonneville

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9. Resistant to fusarium wilt and suitable for canning – Early badger

10. Resistant to powdery mildew – JP 83, Pusa Pragati, Palam priya

11. Edible podded variety – Mithi Phali

12. Resistant to powdery mildew and edible podded variety – JP 19

13. Resistant to powdery mildew and early maturing variety – Kashi Mukti

14. Edible podded variety of garden pea (pods soft without any parchment layer) – Sylvia

15. Branching habit pea variety – Lincoln

Climate

Pea is typically a cool season crop and thrives well in cool weather. Optimum temperature for seed
germination is 22oC. Even though seeds germinate at 5oC, speed of germination is less. At higher
temperature, decay of seedlings is more. Early stage of crop is tolerant to frost. But flowering and fruit
development are adversely affected by frost. Optimum monthly mean temperature for growth of plants is
10-18.3oC. As temperature increases the maturity is hastened and yield is reduced. Quality of pods
produced is also low at high temperature due to conversion of sugars to hemicellulose and starch.
Soil

Crop prefers well drained, loose and friable loamy soil for early crop and clayey soil for high yield.
Ideal pH is 6.0-7.5 and it grows under alkaline soil. If soil is acidic, liming is recommended.
Season

In plains of North India, pea is sown from beginning of October to middle of November. Yield is
drastically reduced when crop is sown after 4th December (Chaubey, 1977). Crop sown in September will
be susceptible to wilt disease. In hills, pea is sown in March for summer crop and in May for autumn
crop.
Sowing and seed rate

Soil is prepared to a fine tilth by disc ploughing followed by one or two harrowing. Seeds are sown in
flat or raised beds by broadcasting or by dibbling at 2.5-5.0 cm depth. Early varieties are sown at a closer
spacing of 30 x 5-10 cm and the seed rates is 100-120 kg/ha. Mid season and late varieties are sown at
wider spacing of 45 x 10 cm. Late varieties are sown on either edge of raised beds which are 120-150 cm
wide with furrows in between. Seed rate for late varieties is 80-90 kg/ha. Overnight soaking of seeds in
water or GA 3 (10 ppm) improves germination.

Manure and fertilizers

A crop yielding 4-5 tonnes of green peas removes 55 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O. High does of
N have adverse effect on nodule formation and N fixation. N at 25 kg/ha is sufficient to stimulate early
growth of pea. Phosphatic fertilizer increases yield and quality by increasing N fixation and nodule
formation. Potassium fertilizers also increase N fixation ability of plants and yield. In addition to 10
tonnes of farmyard manure, a fertilizer dose of 25 kg N, 70 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O are recommended for
one hectare and the entire dose is drilled at the time of sowing seeds. If fertilizers are coming in contact

111
with seeds, there will be severe injury to seeds. Fertilizer should be applied in bands at 7-8 cm away and
2.5 cm deeper from seeds. Application of sodium molybdate @ 40 kg/ha either as per or post emergence
spray is reported to increase yield and collar rot resistance in peas.

Application of fertilizers in Tamilnadu

Apply FYM at 20 t/ha and 60 kg N, 80 kg P and 70 kg K/ha as basal and 60 kg N/ha 30 days after
sowing.

Irrigation
Pea, like any legume vegetable, is sensitive to drought and excessive irrigation. Excessive irrigation
immediately after sowing results in poor germination due to hard crust formation. Excessive irrigation in
earlier stags increases vegetative growth. Light irrigations t 10-15 days intervals is given for pea.
Flowering, fruit set and grain filling periods are critical stages and care should be taken to irrigate crop at
these stags. Four irrigations at pre-bloom, pod set and fruit picking stages are recommended for variety
Bonneville under Bangalore conditions.

Weed control

Care should be taken to remove weeds in early stags of crop. Lasso (alachlor) @ 0.75 kg a.i. or
tribunal @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha or pendemethalin 0.5 kg a.i. / ha as pre emergence spray along with one hand
weeding at 25-45 days after sowing is very effective for weed control.

Inter-culture

When plants are 15 cm high, tall varieties should be stacked with wooden sticks or twigs for trailing.
A single row of stakes fixed in middle of raised bed will support both rows of plants in each bed.

Earthing up and hoeing is also important operations in peas and helps in root development and growth
of plants. This is usually done after weeding and fertilizer application.
Maturity index : Peas for fresh market are harvested when they are well filled and when colour changes
from dark green to light green. Toughness of seeds is determined using Tendrometer, especially for
processing purposes.
Harvesting : Usually 3-4 harvests at 10 days intervals are possible.
Yield :
Green pod yield : Early varieties : 2.5-4.0 t/ha
Mid season varieties : 6.0-7.5 t/ha
Late varieties : 8.0-10.0 t/ha
Shelling percentage ranges from 35-50.
Seed yield : 2.0 to 2.5 t/ha.
Storage : Green pods can be stored at 0ºC and 90 - 95% relative humidity for one to two weeks. The
pods will freeze at -10ºC.
Grading, packing and marketing

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 When peas are prepared for market, the over matured yellow pods, flat pods, diseased and insect
damaged pods and trash should be removed before the peas are packed. Peas are packed for marketing in
baskets, gunny bags and boxes of various types.

Plant protection
Pest
1. Pea aphid is a serious pest causing curling of leaves and pods.
Diseases Diseases Causal organism
Root rot Aphanomyces euteiches
Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni
Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporium pv. Pisi
Rust Uromyces pisi
Near wilt Fusarium oxysporium pv. Pisi (race-2)

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 LECTURE 11
Protected cultivation of vegetables (Tomato, Capsicum and Cucumber)
Agriculture highly depends on environment and it‟s very difficult to get favourable climate and other
conditions for optimum growth and development as per crop requirements. Open field cultivation are having a
high direct effect of the prevailing weather conditions on crop growth and also on population dynamics of viruses,
fungus, bacteria, insects etc. the fast changing climatic conditions happening across the globe has changed the
climatic characteristics of a season. Therefore, there is a need to develop suitable technologies to sustain these
challenges. Every protected structure has its own limitations and advantages, but the basic benefit is that it
provides extra protective shelter restricting or minimizing the exposure of the crops to various biotic and abiotic
factors which are high in open field condition.
Looking to the increasing population, climate change, decreasing land holdings, increasing pressure on natural
resources and high demand of quality horticultural fresh produce we are forced to shift towards protected
cultivation.
Protected cultivation is the modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth.
Modifications can be made to both the aerial and root environments to increase crop yields, extend the growing
season and permit plant growth during periods of the year not commonly used to grow open field crops. Protected
cultivation/Greenhouse technology has been in use for crop production for more than fifty countries all over the
world. China is believed to have adopted plastic greenhouse concept to a great extent of about 2.5 million
hectares, Japan with about 42,000 hectares adopting protected cultivation /greenhouse for intensive crop
production. In India even after concerted efforts the national coverage of area under protected cultivation has
only increased hardly up to 30,000 hectares, which includes plastic mulching, plastic low tunnels, walk in tunnels,
insect proof nets, shade net houses, naturally ventilated poly houses etc.
SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
Cultivation in Problematic Zones
There is about 75 million ha of land in India comprising of such problematic conditions as barren
anduncultivable, cultivable wasteland, fallow land, desert, sever cold. If a small portion of this area put
undercultivation using greenhouse technology, then income generation of local habitat could be increased
substantially.
Greenhouse Complexes around Metropolitan and Other Big Cities
A conservative estimate revels that there is a large and sustained demand of fresh vegetables, fruits and
ornamental plants throughout the year in almost every big city. These big cities also experience the need of off-
season and high value crops. To meet the city requirement greenhouse cultivation may be a right option.
Export of Agricultural Produce
Agriculture in India is being considered increasingly to reduce the foreign trade deficit and there has been
good international market for horticulture produce, especially, flowers from India. Promotion and greenhouse
cultivation of export oriented crops seems to be possible source of foreign earnings. Such facilities should be
constructed near the lifting point to reduce the burden on transportation cost.

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Protected structures for Plant Propagation
Greenhouse technology is being considered as an suitable approach for raising of seedlings and cuttings which
require control environment for their growth. The existing nurseries without a greenhouse facility could be
converted into a greenhouse for improving the capacity as well as quality of the plant material. Even different
type of plant material can be propagated using the greenhouse facility. In temperate climatic zone, the plant
propagation through greenhouses would mean a considerable reduction in the total time required for preparation
of saplings.
Greenhouse Technology as Base for Other Biotechnology
The hydroponics or nutrient film techniques require control environmental condition of growing plants.
Similarly, material generated though tissue culture and biotechnological methods also need to be propagated in
control environment. Greenhouse technologyis the best-suited answer to carry out such type of studies.
Cultivation and conservation of Rare Plants
India has a wide variety of orchids/herbs, which have been identified for large scale cultivation. The
greenhouse could provide the right type of environmental condition for the intensive cultivation of these plants.
Advantages of protected cultivation
 Off-season crops can be grown
 Year round production of crops and protects the crop from rain, hail stones, storms, wind & frost in winter.
 Higher production per unit area is obtained by utilization of space viz., vertical tier system of crop
production.
 Export of high value horticulture commodities
 Consumption of irrigation water and wastage of fertilizers is minimized
 Infestation of pests and diseases is reduced.
 Suitable for tissue cultured production plants.
 Increases carbon-dioxide levels, leading to better photosynthesis.
 Plant growth is improved and crops mature faster. Use of water is optimized due to reduced
evapotranspiration; up to 40-50% of water can be saved.
 Use of UV stabilized film filters out harmful ultra-violet rays.
 Cultivation in problematic agro climates and in problematic soil.
 Demand for fresh vegetables around metropolitan cities that sustains greenhouse production.
Challenges or Constrains for protected cultivation in India
 Lack of trained professionals and skilled manpower for protected cultivation
 Improper guidance about region specific design of protected structures
 Improper guidance and minimum availability of crop varieties suitable for protected cultivation
 The available planting / seed materials are too costly
 Lack of understanding of the quality of basic steel and cladding material used for fabrication of structures.

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 1. PROTECTED CULTIVATION IN TOMATO
Introduction
India is the world‟s fifth largest producer of tomato accounting for 6.0% of world production. Tomato is the
3rd most important vegetable of India by sharing 8.5% of total vegetable production. The total tomato production
is 8.6 million tonnes and its productivity is 14 t/ha which is half of the world productivity. Orissa, Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka are the major tomato growing states.
Uses
Although the ripe tomato contains as much as 93-94% water, it has high nutritive value being a good source
of vitamins and minerals. It is very appetizing and removes constipation and has a pleasing and refreshing taste.
Climate and soil
Tomato prefers moderate temperature and thrives well in the temperature range of 25-30oC. The prevalence
of low temperature and high humidity causes severe disease infection. The soil should be well drained, loamy
with adequate organic matter (>2.0%). Crops are successfully grown in the moderately acidic soil (pH 6.0-7.5).
The pH can be maintained by adding lime/dolomite @ 100g/m2
Varieties suitable for protected cultivation
Indeterminate tomato varieties are suitable for protected cultivation. Avtar, Indam hybrid, All Rounder, Arka
Meghali, Arka Surabhi are suitable varieties for protected cultivation.
Seed rate: 100-150 g / ha
Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g or Carbendazim @ 2 g
per kg of seeds 24 hours before sowing. Just before sowing, treat the seeds with Azospirillum @ 40 g / 400 g of
seeds.
Protected nursery
 Prepare the nursery area of 3 cents with slanting slope of 2 % for the seedling production to cover 1 ha.
 Cover the nursery area with 50 % shade net and cover the sides using 40/50 mesh insect proof nylon net.
 Form raised beds of 1 m width and convenient length and place HDPV pipes at 2m interval for further
protection with polythene sheets during rainy months.
 Mix sterilized coco-peat @ 300 kg with 5 kg neem cake along with Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each
@ 1 kg. Approximately 1.2 kg of coco-peat is required for filling one pro-tray. 238 pro-trays (98 cells) are
required for the production of 23,334 seedlings, which are required for one hectare adopting a spacing of 90
x 60 x 60 cm in paired row system.
 Sow the treated seed in pro-trays @ one seed per cell.
 Cover the seed with coco-peat and keep the trays one above the other and cover with a polythene sheet till
germination starts
 After six days, place the pro-trays with germinated seeds individually on the raised beds inside the shade net
 Water with rose can every day and drench with NPK 19:19:19 @ 0.5% (5g/l) at 18 days after sowing

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Transplanting
The healthy seedlings should be transplanted on the raised bed with the bed width of 1.5m. There should
be a path of 0.6m between two beds. 20-25 days old seedlings should be planted at the distance of 1.0 x 0.8 cm.
before planting the root of seedlings should be dipped for 15 minutes in Trichoderma and Pseudomonas culture
@ 10%. Planting should be preferably done in small pits for better root development.
Inter-culture and irrigation
Tomato is a shallow rooted crop and the roots are restricted within 15-20 cm of soil so light earthing up should
be done after 30 days and 45 days of planting. Good quality water should be applied at 10 days interval. The
plants should be provided with strong multiple stakes after one month of planting.
Nutrient management
FYM should be applied @ 5.0 kg/m2 along with neem cake @ 200g/m2. At the time of transplanting seedling
should be treated with Azospirillum + PSB (20%) for 15 minutes. The addition of vermicompost @ 1kg/m2
further improves the production.
Fertigation schedule
Recommended dose: 200:250: 250 kg / ha
75% of RD of P applied as superphosphate as basal application= 1172 kg/ha 1. 19:19:19 = 132 kg / ha
2. 12:61:0 = 62 kg / ha
3. 13:0:45 = 500 kg / ha
4. Urea = 223 kg / ha

CO2 enrichment : Raising CO2 level from 350 ppm to 1000 ppm to increase the plant vigour and early fruit
production.
Crop duration : 110- 115 days from transplanting (135 - 140 days from sowing)
Harvesting
Most of the varieties ready for picking in 75-85 days after transplanting. Harvesting is done in early
morning/late evening. Harvest the cherry tomatoes with stalk or with calyx
Yield
 Yield of full mature/ripe stage is 250-300t/ha

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  Yield of cherry tomato is 100-150t/ha
Packing and storage
 The fruits packed in container of 400-500 kg capacity
 Mature green fruits (12-14oC + 90-95%) for 7-21 days
 Full
2.Protected cultivation Capsicum
Introduction
Capsicum is also known as bell pepper or sweet pepper. It is one of the leading vegetable grown in protected
structure. It is rich in vitamin A and C. It is mainly grown in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka and hilly regions of Tamil Nadu. This crop gaining popularity in peri-urban production systems
because of easy access to urban markets with superior quality.
Climate
It is a cool season crop. Higher temperature results in rapid plant growth and affects fruit set. So, day
temperature less than 30oC are ideal. Ideal day and night temperature for flowering is 25-28oC and 16-18oC
respectively. Shading is required during summer to avoid temperature in protected structure and moderately high
humidity of 50-60% is preferred.
Soil
Red or sandy loam soil with pH 5.5-6.8 is ideal. High acidic soil has been reclaimed by lime. Capsicum has
bidirectional root system, so the soil should be loose with high organic matter.
Hybrids suitable for protected cultivation
Hybrids with indeterminate growth habit are ideal for protected cultivation and it grows up to a height of 2m
and above. Capsicum fruits with green, yellow, red, orange and black colour are having great demand in urban
markets.
IIHR, Bangalore : Arka Basanth ,Arka Gaurav
Indo-American Hybrid Seeds (IIHR) : Bharat
Syngenta Seeds Private Limited : Orobelle, Indra
Namdhari seeds : NS-280 ,NS-281
Raising of nursery
Portrays (98 cells) are filled with growing media. Coco peat is a commonly used growing media in portrays
and it having high water holding capacity. Sow one seed per cavity and again spread the thin layer of coco peat
on it. Filled trays are staked one above the other and covered with plastic sheet to create humidity for faster
germination.
Growing beds
Dig the soil, so that clods are broken and soil loosens to bring fine tilth. Beds of 1m width and 15cm height
are prepared leave 50cm for working space between beds. In heavy soils mixing of sand up to 25% is required to
promote aeration at the root zone.

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Disinfecting of growing beds
Beds are drenched with 4% formaldehyde (4ml/m2) and covered with polythene sheet. Cover the beds with
polythene sheets for 3-4 days. Four days after formaldehyde treatment, the polythene cover must be removed and
the beds are raked repeatedly every day.
Mulching
100 micron thickness polythene mulch film of 1.2m width is used as mulching material. Holes of 5cm diameter
are made on mulch film at the spacing of 45 cm x 30 cm.
Transplanting
Seedlings of 30-35 days old, vigorous and uniform in size are selected. Plant the seedlings in the holes made
in the polythene mulch film. So that seedlings do not touch the film.
Water and nutrient management
 Apply FYM @ 25 t / ha as basal before last ploughing.
 Apply @ 2 kg/ha of Azospirillum and 2 @ kg/ha of Phosphobacteria by mixing with 20 kg of FYM
 Apply 75 % total recommended dose of super phosphate i.e., 703 kg / ha as basal.
 Install the drip irrigation with main and sub main pipes and place lateral tubes at an interval of 1.5 m.
 Place the drippers in lateral tubes at an interval of 60 cm and 50 cm spacing with 4 LPH and 3.5 LPH
capacities respectively.
 Form raised beds of 120 cm width at an interval of 30 cm and place the laterals at the centre of the each bed.
Before planting, wet the beds using drip system for 8-12 hrs.
 Planting to be done at a spacing of 90 x 60 x 60 cm in the paired row system, using ropes marked at 60 cm
spacing.
 Spray Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i. /ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i/ha as pre-emergence herbicide at 3rd day after
planting.
 Gap filling to be done at 7th day after transplanting

Fertigation schedule for capsicum F1 Hybrid

Recommended dose: 250:150:150 kg / ha

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75% RD of Phosphorous applied as super phosphate = 703 kg / ha 1. 19:19:19 = 79 kg /ha
2. 13:0:45 = 300 kg /ha
3. 12:61:0 = 37 kg /ha
4. Urea = 416 kg /ha
Harvesting indices
Capsicum reach full size after 5-9 weeks of fruit set. Full colour will be form after 3-4 weeks. From full bloom
to coloured fruit development it may took 7-12 weeks.
Harvesting
 For green colour type: 60 DAT and continued upto 170-180 days
 For yellow / red colour type: 80-90 DAT and continued upto 240-270 days
 Fruits that are mature green, when it is 75% yellow and 100% red are harvested and kept in cool place
avoiding direct exposure of sunlight. Harvest the fruits with sharp knife close to the stem.
Yield : 100-120 t/ha. An average initial fruit weight may vary from 180g at first harvest and 100g in last harvest.

3. Protected cultivation in Cucumber

Botanical name: Cucumis sativus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2x=14
Origin: India
Introduction
Is an important summer vegetable crop. Green house cucumbers are parthenocarpic (produce fruit without
fertilization of ovules) and the fruit are usually seedless and does not require peeling, when ready for harvest,
cucumbers are usually eaten as in salads.
Uses
 Diuretic in nature and removes the accumulated old waste in the body
 Helps to relax nerves and muscles and keeps blood circulation smoothy
Hybrids suitable for protected cultivation
1. KCPH-1 and 2 from Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala
2. Deltastar, Valleystar, Multitier from Rizwan Seeds Company
Optimum growing condition for cucumber
Optimum growing temperature 25-30oC
Limiting factors for sowing Temperature less than 15oC
Seed to transplant 2-3 weeks
Vegetative to flowering 3-4 weeks
Flowering to harvest 3-4 weeks
Duration of harvest Up to 3 months
Soil pH 5.5 to 7.5
Salinity tolerance Moderate
Irrigation Drip irrigation is mostly preferred

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Post-harvest storage temperature 10-12oC
Post-harvest storage humidity 85-95%
Field selection and soil environment
Greenhouse cucumbers generally grow quite well in a wide range of soil pH (5.5-7.5), but a pH of 6.0-6.5 for
mineral soil and pH of 5.0-5.5 for organic soil are generally accepted as optimum. EC should around 1mmho.
Excess sodium and fluoride may affect proper plant growth. Ideally, the land should be gentle sloping to facilitate
drainage.
Land preparation
Land is ploughed 4-5 times to a fine filth and well rotten farm yard manure @ 20-25 tones/ha is incorporated
in the soil at the time of final ploughing. If soil is infested with nematodes, white ants or red ants apply Carbofuron
@ 25kg/ha. Apply Azospirulum and Phosphobacteria @ 2 kg/ha and Pseudomonas @ 2.5 kg/ha along with FYM
50 kg and neem cake @ 100 kg before last ploughing. Application of bio control agents like Trichoderma viridae
@ 2kg/ha and Paecilomyces lilacinus @ 2kg/ha along with 100kg FYM to planting beds, if soil is infested with
nematodes
Seed rate: 600-700g/ha (for F1 hybrids)
Nursery management
Pro-trays can be used for growing seedlings. Watering will be done lightly using a rose can and timed in the
morning to avoid conditions conducive for the development of diseases. It will take about 20 days for
transplanting.
Transplanting
Transplanting is best done in the evening when the weather is cool. Transplant directly into already prepared
holes. Spacing ranges from 90 x 45 cm, or 90 x 60 cm depending on soil condition and water availability.
Nutrient management
For growing cucumbers in greenhouses add the required calcium and phosphorus as possible as a base
dressing, because these nutrients store effectively in the soil and their absence from liquid feeds prevents most
clogging problems of the irrigation system. Provide calcium in the form of finely ground calcite lime @ 800kg/ha
and phosphorus in the form of super phosphate @ 250kg/ha. Also, supply a good portion of potassium sulphate
@ 500kg/ha and magnesium sulphate @ 250kg/ha. The ratio of potassium to magnesium in the soil should be
2:1. For supply of nitrogen, pre plant application of ammonium nitrate @150kg/ha. Make the final decision on
the base fertilization after receiving the soil test results. To correct micronutrient deficiencies, foliar feeds can be
applied along with regular pesticide applications. Avoid excessive nitrogen, it leads to excess vegetative growth,
poor fruit set, smaller fruits, hollow fruits and poor keeping quality.
Fertigation schedule
Recommended Dose: 150:75:75 Kg/ha

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*75% RD of Phosphorus applied as superphosphate = 352 Kg/ha
1. 19:19:19 = 55 kg/ha
2. 13:0:45 = 144 kg/ha
3. 12:61:0 = 9 kg/ha
4. Urea = 275 kg/ha
pH: The pH of the nutrient solution should be maintained at 5.5 – 6.5.
Electrical Conductivity (EC): The EC of the nutrient solution should not exceed 2.2 dS/m.
Weed management
Weed control in a soil system is very much like cultivation in the field, because there are no herbicides labelled
for greenhouse use. However, fumigation will reduce the requirement for weed control. Cultivation can begin
when weeds and grasses are very small, and should be done as shallow as possible to reduce root damage.
Cultivation is usually accomplished by running a rototiller between the rows. Soilless systems normally do not
require weed control programs because the system itself usually prevents weed growth.
Maturity indices
Time from transplanting to harvesting is 4-6 weeks in summer and 11 weeks in winter. Fruits are ready for
harvesting two weeks after flowering for the long varieties and 7-10 days after flowering for European varieties.
Harvest the fruits during morning hours. Cut the fruits with 1-2 cm of stalk remains at the end of fruit.
Harvesting
Cucumbers are harvested as immature fruit when full length has been reached. At suitable harvest maturity, a
jellylike material has started to form in the seed cavity. Cucumber production will be reduced if the fruit are left
on the plant for too long. Cucumbers are hand harvested, normally 3 times per week, depending on the weather
and growth stage of the plant.
Yield : 100-300 t/ha. An average fruit weight may vary from 180g at first harvest and 100g in last harvest.
Post-harvest handling
Cucumbers lose moisture quickly and have the tendency to soften during storage. Marketable cucumbers
should be sorted according to size and quality and individually wrapped in clear plastic. The optimum storage

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temperature for cucumbers is 10-12.5ºC, at relative humidity of 95% RH. Storage or transit temperatures below
this range should be avoided as this will result in chilling injury after 2- 3 days.
Standards for the export quality fruits : The fruits should be dark green, firm with crisp with good flavour

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 RVS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
(Affiliated to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3)
Thanjavur – 613 402
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HOR 211 – PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF VEGETABLES AND SPICE CROPS (1+1)

• Study of vegetable cultivation : Olericulture

• Vegetables are know to the cheapest source of natural “ Protective food”
• ICMR recommendation for balance diet: 300 g og vegetables/day/capita
 125 g – Leafy vegetable
 100 g – Root and tuber crops
 75 g – Other vegetables
• Netherland is the largest exporter of vegetables in the world
• Post harvest losses of vegetables in India : 25%
• Vegetable processing and export of India : 10%
• Traditional vegetables : Onion, Potato, Okra, Bitter gourd, Chilli
• Non traditionl vegetables : Celery, Sweet pepper, Baby corn, sweet corn, peas, french bean, cherry
tomato

Vegetable Gardening

 Kitchen Garden : Raising of vegetables crops in the backyard of a house but with the growing
demand for the valuable land in urban areas
 5 cents (200m2) land supply adequate vegetables for 5 members family
 Home garden or Kitchen garden is most ancient type of garden
  Market Gardening : Supply of vegetable for local market . Intensive method of vegetable
cultivation.
 Truck gardening : Supply of vegetable for distant market Extensive method of vegetable
cultivation
 Floating garden is located at Dal Lake, Jammu Kashmir
 Vegetable Forcing : Growing of vegetables in offseason under forcing structure that admit light
and induce facourable environmental conditions for plant growth.

Research Institutes
  Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New delhi
 Central tuber crops research institute (CTCRI), Thiruvananthapram
 Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla
 International Potato Centre (CIP) , Lima in peru
 Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi
 Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Hessaraghatta, Bangalore
 Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut
 National Research Centre For Onion and Garlic, Naski, Maharashtra
 National Bureau of Plant & Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi

Solanaceous vegetables
TOMATO

BN : Solanum lycopersicum F : Solanaceae 2n =2x = 24

Introduction
• Origin : Peru

• Tomato is considered as “Poor’s man orange” in Inida and “Love of apple” in England
• Fruit Type : Berry
• Edible part : Fruit
• Self pollinated and short day plant
• Largest producer state in India – Karnataka
• Leading tomato producing country – China> India > USA

• Tomato is called as “ Protective Food”

• Cultivated tomato originated from Lycopersicon esculentum var cerasiformae
• Rich in vitamin C (20-25 mg/100 g)
• Alkaloid principle in tomato - Tomatine
• Tomato seeds contain 24% oil
• Tomato TSS vary ranges from 4.5 – 7%
• pH for Processing tomato juice should be low– 4.5

• Processed product of tomato especially “ Puree” and ”Paste” have great demand in export
• Red colour in tomato due to the pigment lycopene (30-50 µ/g)
• Lycopene is highest at 21-24°c and drops off above 27°c temperature
• Lycopene have anticancer activity
• Tomato is Climatric fruit
• Father of tomato : Dr.Goutham Kallo
• Maturity stages of tomato
 Fruits fully grown, colour changes from green to
yellow
1. Mature green  Cavity filled with seeds surrounded by jelly like
substance
 Harvest for long distance market
 Firm fruits
Turning or breaker
 1/4th portion of fruit changes to pink, but the
2.
shoulder still yellowish green  Harvest for local
stage
market
 3/4th of fuirt surface turns pink
3. Pink stage
 Fruits have Maximum acidity
 Entire fruit turns red or pink but flesh remains
4. Light red firm
 Harvest for local market
Red ripe or hard ripen  Fully ripened and coloured
5.  Flesh become soft
stage  Harvest for processing and seed extraction

• S. lycopersicum has five forms

Cerasiformae – Probable ancestor of cultivated tomato, also known as cherry tomato
Pyriformae – Pear Tomato
Commune – Common tomato
Grandifolium – Potat leaf type
Validum – Upright tomato
• Muller (1940) divided the genus lycopersicon into 2 sub genera
Eulycopersicon – Red fruited and self compatible
L.esculentum ( Large fruits)
L.pimpinellifolium (Small fruits born in clusters)
Eriopersicon – Green fruited self incompatible
L.hirssutum, L.peruvianum, L.pissisi, L. Glandulosum, L.cheesmani etc.,
Rick (1976) divided genus Lycopersicon into two groups
Esculentum Complex - Crossable with cultivated tomato
 Peruvianum complex – Not crossable with cultivated tomato
• Training and pruning – Required in Indeterminate varieties (Single stem system)
• Staking – It is done for indeterminate types.
• Boron deficiency in tomato causing fruit cracking
• Blossom end rot in tomato is due to calcium deficiency

• Abnormal growing conditions during blossom formation are the main cause of cat-faced fruits in
tomato
• Puffiness in tomato due to non-fertilization of ovule, embryo abortion after fertilization
• Light red stage is suitable for local market
• Red ripen stage is suitable for processing and seed extraction
• Best method of seed extraction : Alkali Treatment
• Normal varieties set flowers ar 15-20°C
• Hot set varieties : 20°C
• Cold set varieties: below 15°C
• No. 1 canned vegetable
• Source of resistant in Tomato
L. pimpinellifolium – Fruit rich is vit.C
L. pissisi – Free from bitterness
L. cheesmani – Tolerant to salinity
L. pennellii – Drought tolerant
L.peruvianum – Resistant to Root knot nematode

VARIETIES
Sel 12 First Root knot nematode resistant variety developed in India

Pusa Ruby and Arka Saurabh Suitable for processing and fresh market

Pusa sheetal Cold set variety ( for low temperature) -8°C

Pusa Hybrid 1 Hot set variety (high temperature)

Pusa Sadabahar For high and low temperature region

Arka Meghali and Paiyur 1 Suitable for rainfed conditions

Flavrsaur Transgenic variety , having long shelf life

 Pusa Hybrid 2 Highly resistant to root knot nematode

Roma Suitale for long distant transport and processing

Induced mutant suitable for long distant transport , Green
PKM 1
shoulder type
CO 3 (Marutam) Mutant of CO.1, Suitable for HDP
Triple disease resistant variety of tomato (ToLCV, BW and early
Arka Rakshak
blight)
Severianin Parthenocarpic variety

BRINJAL/EGG PLANT/AUBERGINE
BN : Solanum melongena F: Solanaceae 2n = 2x = 24
• Origin – India (Indo-Burma)
• Fruit type : Berry
• Edible part : Fruit
• Progenitor of cultivated brinjal : Solanum incanum India stands II in brinjal production after China.
• Anthocyanin pigment in brinjal is responsible for purple colour of fruit skin
• Brinjal is a day neutral crop
• Heterostyly is common feature in brinjal
• Bitter taste in brinjal is due to glycoalkaloids (Solasodine)
• Discolouration of brinjal is due to polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
• Brinjal is a self pollinated (30-40%) crop but cross pollination (60-70%) occur (Often cross pollination)
• Often cross pollination occur due to heterostyly
• Solanum torvum can be a resistant root stock for grafting in cultivated S. melongena Grafting in
brinjal is done to overcome soil born diseases.
• White brinjal is suitable for the diabetics patient
• Green brinjal type has more shelf life (4 weeks)

Brinjal flower type (Heterostyly)

1. Long style – Stigma well above the anther. Maximum fruit setting (70-86%)
2. Medium style – Stigma and anthers at same level. Fruit setting (12.5 -55.5%)
3. Pseudo shot style – Style short . No fruit set
4. Short style – Style rudimentary. No fruit set
• Little leaf of brinjal causal organism – Mycoplasma and transmitted by Jassids
• Low temperatre induce more short style flowers
• Orobanche spp. (root parasite) is the serious weed of brinjal
• Shoot and Fruit borer (Leucinodes orbanalis) – Major pest in brinjal
3 Brinjal cultivar species
1. Esculentum - Round and egg shape
2. Serpentium - Long, slender type
3. Depressum - Early and dwarf

VARIETIES

• Annamalai – Aphid resistant

• KKM 1 – Milky white cultivar
• PKM 1- Induced mutant of local cultivar “Puzhuthikathiri”
• Vaishali : Bicoloured variety
• Hissar Jamuni – Suitable for rotoon crop
CHILLI

BN : Capsicum annum F: Solanaceae 2n =2x = 24

• Origin : Tropical America/Mexico

• Fruit type : Multi seeded berry
• India share in total export of chilli in the world is 4%
• The most important chilli growing state in Inida is Andhra Pradesh
• Chilli is often cross pollination crop
• Capsaicin : Pungent principle (rich in placenta)
• Red colour of chilli is due to : Capsanthin and capsorubin (rich in pericarp)
• Green chilli rich in rutin
• Rich in Vit A and C than tomato (Vit. A- 870 IU/100g, Vit C 321 mg/100g)
• Richest source of fibre (6.8 g/100g)
• Formula for Capsaicin : 𝐂𝟏𝟖𝐇𝟐𝟕𝐍𝐎𝟑
• Formula for Capsanthin : 𝐂𝟒𝟎𝐇𝟓𝟔𝐎𝟑
• Green to dry chilli ratio – 10:1
• Seed rate : 1-1.5 kg/ha
• Highest pungency chilli : Bhoot Jolokia/Naga king chilli
• Lowest pungency chilli : Bell Pepper
• Paprika chilli type is suitable for colour extraction (Non pungent red chilli)
• Capsicum frutescens : Tabasco pepper (Oleoresin extraction)
• C.annum and C.fruitescence – White flower
• C.pubescence – purple flower
• NAA and Tricontinol is used to control fruit drop
• Punjab Sadabahar – multiple disease resistant variety
• Pungency of chillli is measured by Scoville Heat Units (SHU)
• Variety having thin pericarp, less seed and strong spike- Suitable for drying
• Blossom end rot (BER) in capsicum due to excess ‘N’ with water stress
• Dry chilli contain
Stalk - 6%
Pericarp – 40%
Seed – 54%

VARIETIES
• Samba type: K 1, K 2, CO 1, CO 3, CO 4 (Vegetable type), PKM 1, MDU 1
• Gundu type: CO 2, PMK 1 (for semi-dry conditions in Southern Districts) and PLR1
• Vegetable Chilli : CO-4
• Paprika variety – KTPL-19 , Arka Abhir, Pnjab Lal

Chilli Varieties

• Punjab Lal – Suitable for colour extraction

• CO 3 – Dual purpose , suitable for close planting
• Pusa Jwala – Triple disease resistance (Thrips, mite and aphid)
• Jwala Mukhi : Suitable for HDP
• Arka Abhir , Punjab Lal - Suitable for colour extraction
• Bhaskar : Yellow anther type
• Bharat is a 1st hybrid of capsicum developed by private sector
• Highest pungent hottest chilli in the world : Bhoot Jolokia
CAPSICUM
• Lowest pungency : Bell pepper
• Sweet pepper is also know as Shimla Mirchi
• Capsicum has bidirectional root system
• Seed rate : 250 -300g/ha (hybrids) • See rate for varities : 1.25 kg/ha
Capsicum Varieties
• California Wonder Arka Gaurav Arka Athulya
• Sweet Banana Arka Basant Pusa Deepti
• Yolo Wonder Pusa Meghdoot
• Chinese Giant Arka Mohini

POTATO

Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae 2n=4x=48

• Origin : South America
• Fruit type : Berry
• Potato is a auto tetraploid crops
• Rank as a fourth major food crop of the world next to wheat,rice and maize.
• Potato is the third most important food crop in the India after rice and wheat
• India rank 4th in area and 2nd largest production of potato after china
• Ancestor of potato : Solanum stenotomum
• Potato are rich source of carbohydrate
• Potato is stable food in Ireland
• Optimum temperature for tuberization : 18 - 20°C
• Potato is a self pollinated crop
• Potato is a long day plant but cultivated as short day plant in india.
• Short day condition : promotes tuber formation
• Solasodine is the alkaloid principle which is present in potato
• Propagated through tuber
• Seed rate : 3000 to 3500 kg/ha of seed tubers
• Each seed tuber weighing 40-50g
• Seed plot technique was given by Pshkarnath (1965)
• True Potato seed (TPS) concept was given by Dr.S.Ramanujan
• TPS : Botanical seed produced through sexual reproduction
• Seed rate of TPS : 100-150g
• TPS is botanical seed produced through sexual reproduction
• Potato tubers born at stolon ends
• Suberization occurs in Potato
• Suberizatin : Healing of wound by formation of periderm (25° C)
• Top portion of the plant in called halum
• Curing is an important post harvest practices in potato
• Potato tuber dormancy broken by soaking tuber in 1% Thiourea +1 ppm GA3 for 1 hours
• Central Potato Research Instiute (CPRI) ,Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
• International Potato Centre, Peru
• Best storage method for potato : Cold storage
• Sprouting of potato tubers is controlled by Maleic Hydrazide @ 2000 ppm
• Kufri Sindhuri : Suitable for dehydrated flakes and canning
• Chipsona 1 and Chipsona 2 : Suitable for chips making
• Kufri Frysona : Suitable for processing into French Fries
• Kufri Sahyadri : Resistant to potato cyst nematode
• Up-to Date : Popular variety in India
• Greening is a major physiological disorder in potato
• Potato Tuber Moth is the major storage pest in potato

OKRA

Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae) 2n = 2x=130 (amphidiploid)

Origin : Africa
India is the largest producer of okra in the world (72% of world production)
After Onion Okra accounts 70% of the 30% exchange earnings from export
Okra rich in Iodine content
Fruit type : Capsule
Cultivated okra is polyplid inn nature
Progenitor of cultivated Okra : (Abelmoschus tuberculatus)
Abelmoschus esculentus is amphidiploid in nature.
Often cross pollinated crop due to protogyny
Export standard length of fruit : 6-8 cm
Seed shattering is a major problem for okra seeds production

YVMV vector – White fly (Bemisia tabaci)

YVMV is most devasting disease of okra, yield loss (50-90%)
Abelmoschus manihot spp.manihot and Abelmoschus tuberculats are tolerant to YVMV
Shoot and fruit borer is the most common occurring pest in okra
Yield loss in okra due to YVMV is 50-90%

Varieties
YVMV resistant variety – Pusa A-4, Arka Anamika,Varsha Uphar, Hissar Unnat, Azad Kranti,
Parbhani kranti, Punjab Padmini, Cultivated Okra
Export Variety : Pusa A4, Parbhani kranti, Varsh Uphar
Suitable for ratooning : Arka Anhay, Pusa A-4
MDU 1 is an inducted mutant from Pusa Sawani by using gamma rays
Parbhani Tillu : Suitable for processing (Induced mutant )
CO 2 : Suitable for dehydration
Pusa Sawani : Day neutral, Tolerant to salinity, spineless

AMARANTHUS

BN : Amaranthus sp F: Amaranthaceae (2n = 2x = 32, 34 or 34)

• Origin : India
• Amaranthus also known as Chauli
• Poor’s man vegetable
• Rich in Vit.A and Fe
• Amaranthus is a cross pollinated crop
• Amaranthus is C4 plant
• White rust is most serious disease in amaranthus
• Type of Flower : Glomerule
• Fruit : Utricle
• Two anti-nutritional compound in amaranthus: Oxalates and Nitrates
• Leaves are eaten as vegetable , seeds are eaten as cereal (pesudo cereal) • Grain amaranthus are rich
in protein (14.5% to 15.1%) and starch (62%)
• Seed rate for direct sowing is 2.0-2.5 kg/ha.
• Seed requirement for transplanted crop is only 500 g/ha
• Grain type of amaranthus : CO 4 (A.hypochondriaus)
• Most cultivated species are monoecous is nature
• Bolting is serious problem in amaranthus (Premature flowering)
• Grain type amaranthus require long day condition for its growth and all other varities require short day
condition.
VARIETIES
• CO 1 – A.dubius (Mulaikeerai)
• CO 2 – A. tricolor (Thandu keerai)
• CO 3 – A.tristis (Araikeerai) – Clipping type
• CO 4 – A.hypochnondriacus : Dual purpose variety (leaf cum Grain type)
• CO 5 – (Sirukeerai) Tetraploid variety
• Pus Lal Chaulai – Suitable for kitchen garden, Deep red colour leaf • Multicut variety : Arka
Suguna, Arka Arunima

MORINGA / DRUMSTICK
BN : Moringa oleriferae F: Moringaceae 2n=2x=28
• Origin : South West India
• Rich in vit.C
• Cross pollinated crop
• Ben oil is extracted from the seed of moringa
• Edible part : Immature pod and seeds
• Winged seed type
• Perennial type of moringa is propagated through limb cutting
• Annual type is propagated through seed (625g/ha)
• Ratooning is followed in moringa
• PKM 1 – Annual moringa
• Export variety of Moringa : Valayapatti
Moringa Ecotypes
1. Jaffna moringa Perennial type which bares 60-90 cm long pods with soft flesh
and good taste.

2. Chavakacheri muringa Perennial type producing 90-120 cm long pods.

3. Chemmuringa This perennial type flowers throughout year and bears red
tipped fruits.

4. Yazhpanam muringa Same as Jaffna type

5. Pal muringai Pods having thicker pulp and better taste
6. Puna muringa Thinner fruits.
7. Kodikal muringa Short pods of 15-20 cm long and is usedd as support for betel
vine plants. Propagated by seeds

CARROT
Dacus carota F: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) 2n=2x=18
 Origin : South west Asia (Afghanistan)
 Edible part : Enlarged fleshy taproot
 Fruit type : Schizocarp
 Inflorescence : Compound Umbel
 Carrot is a modification of tap root
 Carrot is a long day plant
 Highly Cross pollinated crop due to Protandry, Andromonoecious and male sterility
 Carrot flower are protandry in nature
 Male sterility is present in carrot
 Carrot is rich source of vitamin A
 Carrot are rich in “carotene” contenet
 Isocoumarin is responsible for bitter flacvour in carrot
 Inhibitor present in carrot seed is “Carrotal”
 Asiatic type carrot contain more anthocyanin pigment
 Kanji is an appetizing juice which is prepared from black carrot
 Tropical red carrot used of sweet preparation – Gajar Halwa
 Good quality carrot contain maximum cortex (Phloem) and inner core (Xylem)
 Annual herb for root production and biennial for seed production
 Heart shape carrot variety : Oxheart
 Optimum temperature for colour development : 15.6 to 21.1°c
 Optimum temperature for root formation : 18.3-23.9°C
 Higher accumulation of carotene occurs in older cell of phloem
 Carrot is gross feeder of Potash (K)
 Seed rate – 5-6 kg
 Earthing up is not required for carrot
 Steckling : Portion of stem used for seed production
 Storage for 6 months @ 0-4.5°c and 93-98%
 Cavity spot of carrot is due to the deficiency of calcium
 Aster Yellow is a disease of carrot
 Asiatic and European type of carrot
 Asiatic /Desi/Tropical carrot European/Temperate carrot
Heat tolerant Cold tolerant
Deep red or purple coloured Orange coloured
High yielding and low in carotene Rich in carotene
Produce seed undeer topical condition Proudce seed only in temperaate region
Rich in anthocyanin pigment Less anthocyanin
Annual for root and seed production Biennial for seed production
Eg : Pusa Vasuda, Pusa Asita, Pusa Vrishti, Eg : Pusa Nayanjoythi, Pusa Yamadagni,
Pusa Rudhira, Pusa Meghali, Pusa Kesar, Imperator, Chantenay, Zeno, Royal
Pusa Kulfi Chantenay, Oxheart, Danvers, Nantes, Ooty 1
VARIETIES

• Pusa Asita – 1st Black carrot

• Pusa Kulfi – Creamy/Yellow root colour
• Pusa Rudhira, Pusa Yamadagni – Red self colour core variety
• Pusa Meghali – High vit A, Seed production in plain (Tropical Variety)

• Exotic cultivars : Nantes, Chanteney, Danvers

• Pusa kesar, , Pusa Yamadagni, Pusa Vasuda, Pusa vrishti
• Carrot variety released from HRS, Ooty- OOty-1
• Pusa Asita, Kashi Krishna : Black carrot variety
• “Chantaney” is a variety of carrot – Suitable for canning and storage
• “Imperator” is a variety of carrot
 RADISH
Raphanus sativus F: Brassicaceae 2n=2x=18
• Origin : Mediterranean region
• Fleshy root radish is modified form of root is known is fusiform
• Radish is a good source of Vitamin C
• Suitable for intercrop and companion crop
• Radish pungency is due to 4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothiocyanate (Isothiocynate)
• Pink skinned radish is rich source of ascorbic acid
• Inflorescence type : Terminal raceme
• Fruit type: Siliqua
• Radish seed viability period : 4-5 years
• Radish is cross pollinated crop due to sporophytic self incompatibility
Rat tail Radish : Raphanus sativus var caudatus
Delayed harvesting of radish cause Pithiness of root
Earthingup is important operartion in radish
Akashin is a physiological disorder of radish due to boron deficiency
White rust of radish is caused by Albugo candida
• Phyllody is a seed disease
• China Rose is a variety of radish
• Arka Nishant – resistance to pithines , forking and premature bolting
• Pusa Chetki – Suits for hottest month, tolerant to high temperature
• White Icicle is a variety of Radish
• Pusa Jamuni – purple colour flesh variety
• Pusa Gulabi : Pink flesh
• Pusa Mirdula, Scarlet globe : Red colour variety

BEET ROOT

Beta vulgaris Family : Chenopodiaceae 2n = 18

Origin : Mediterranean area

Ancestor of beetroot : Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima
 Beetroot is rich source of folic acid, essential for pregnant women
Lobg day plant and protandry in nature
Pollination : Cross pollination
Root formation in turnip is called knob formation.
Beet root inflorescence is called as spike
Seed type : Multigerm/seed ball
Storage temperature – 0°c and 90% RH
Beet root seed contains 5-6 seeds
Beet root seeds are botanically called as Capsule
1g of seed ball contains 50 seeds
Beetroot is wind pollinated crop
Pigmentation in beetroot is due to beta cyanin pigment
Thinning is essential practice in beetroot
Zoning is the physiological disorder o beetroot due to high warm weather
Beet mosaic yellow virus is transmitted by aphids
Poor colour development in beetroot is due to high temperature
Varieties: Detroit Dark Red, Crimson Globe, Crosby Egyptan, Erly Wonder, Ooty-1 , Khavskaya,
Ruby Queen, Avon Early

ONION

Allium cepa Alliaceae 2n = 2x=16 Origin : Central Asia

• Allium is Greek word

• India is the second largest producer of onion in the world
• Netherland is the leading exporter of onion followed by Spain
• Maharashtra is the leading state in terms of area and production
• National Research Center for Onio and Garlic (NRCOG), Nasik, Maharashtra
• Directorate of Onion and Garlic Research (DOGR) Nasik, Maharashtra
• Ancestor of onion : Allium vaviloi
• Onion belongs to monocotyledon family
 • Shallow rooted crop
• Edible Portion of onion is modified stem is known as Bulb
• Common onion is propagate through seed
• Small onion is propagated through Bulb
• Onion seed viability: 1 year
• Required bulbs : 1000 – 1200 kg/ha
• Reqirement of bulbs for seed production : 1500kg/ha (2.5-3cm dia)
• Tree onion produce top sets or bulbils
• Highly cross pollinated due to Protandry
• Cytoplasmic male sterility is found in Onion
• Bolting :Seed stalk initiation and development
• Onion is used against sun stroke
• Pungency in Onion is due to allylpropyl disulphide
Onion contains an enzyme is called ‘Allinase’
Yellow colour of the outer skin of onion bulb in onion is due to Quercetin
Onion bulb is richest source of Vanadium
Red onion is more pungent than white onion
Ideal TSS content for dehydration industry :>18%
• White Onion varieties have low TSS : 10-14%
• White onion are best suitable for dehydration industry
• Optimum temperature for onion bulb formation : 15.5-21°C
• Temperature is important for seed production
• Day length is important for nlb production

Storage in Onion
• Sprouting is the major post harvest problem in Onion
• Malic hydrazide and gamma irradiation : Control of sprouting
• Onion postharvest losses :30-60%
• Onion bulb storate : 0-4.5°C, 65-79% RH
• Kharif crop : Preharvest MH spray @ 25ppm will check the sprouting
• Rabi Crop : MH has not be used
 • For getting best quality onion seed, bulb to seed method is followed
• For getting higher yield of onion seed, seed to seed method is followed
• CURING is done to remove excess moisture from the outer skin , which will increase shelf life
• Jute bags are used for onion packaging for distant marketing
• Multiplier onion Varieties : CO-1,2,3,4, CO(On)5,MDU 1, Agrifound Red, Arka Ujjwal
• Yellow skinned varieites : Arka Sona, Arka Pitamber, Early Grano, Bermuda yellow
• White Onion : Bhema Shweta, Agrifound white, Arka Swadista (Processing variety) ,Udhaipur 102,
Punjab-48
• CO(On)5 – Set seed in plains
• Geeen Onion : Pusa Soumya (Spring onion/Bnching Onion)
• Small Onion Export Variety : Arka Bindu, Agrifound Rose
• Bellar Onion export variety : Phule Swarna, Aeka Niketan, Pusa Madhvi, Agrifound large red,
Agrifond Dark red
• Long day variety : Brown Spanish
• Hybrids developed by CMS ssystem : Arka Kirtiman, Arka Lalima
• Pusa Riddhi : High antioxidant
• Early Grano : Suitable for salad purpose, Green onion, Non bolting variety
CASSAVA/TAPIOCA

Manihot esculenta 2n=2x=36 Euphorbiaceae Origin : Mexico (South America)

• Cassava is monoecious and higly cross pollinated crop (Potogynus)

• Commercially propagated through setts (Set cuttings)
• Recommended length of cutting for planting (Tradition method) -15-30cm
• Minisett technique – 2-3 nodes, Horizontal planting
• TCS seed rate : 1.5kg/ha
• Inflorescence type : Racemose
• Short day plant
• Photosynthesis of cassava having a combination of C3 and C4
• Rich in starch/carbohydrate (25-40%)
• Nigeria is the leading country in cassava production
• Cassava is grown as a rainfed crop inn Kerala and AP
• In TN it is grown as rainfed and irrigated crop
• Sago is a byproduct of cassava
• Cassava are rich in starch content
• Byproducts : Chips, Sago, Vermicelli
• Starch is used as a filler materials in paints, medicine and health drinks
• Starch is used as industrial raw material for production of alcohol and biodegradable plastic

• Bitter principle of cassava is due to cyanogenic (HCN) glucosoides

• Yellow colour of cassava tuber is due to presence of Beta carotene (Vit.A)
• Spacing
Irrigated conditio : 75 x 75 cm (17,777 sets)
90 x 90 cm (123,45) – Kanyakumari district
Rainfed conditio : 60 x 60 cm (27,777)
• CTCRI –Central Tuber crop reseach Institute, Thiruvananthapuram
• Cassava mosaic virus (CMV) is the major disease which is causd by white flies
VARIETIES
Triploid variety of cassava : Sree Harsha
Industrial Variety : H-7, H-165, CO 2, MVD 1
Cooking quality : Sree Jaya, Sree Vijaya
Yellow flesh variey : Sree visakam
CO-3 Resistant to Cassava Mosaic virus

*NOTE : Refer your notes for varieties

 CABBAGE

Brassica oleraceae var. capitata Brassicaceae 2n=2x=18 O: Mediterranenan

• Edible part of cabbage : Head

• India rank third in cabbage production
• Flavour in cabbage leaves is due to the glucosides “Sinigrin”
• Sauerkraut is fermented product of shredded cabbage
• Progenitor of cabbage : Brassica oleraceae var. sylvestris
• Cabbage has anti-cancer property, due to the presence of Indole-3-carbinol
• Cabbage are protogynous in nature
• “Pride of India” is the variety of Cabbage
• Sporophytic Self incomptability is found in cabbage
• Optimum temperature for growth and head formation in cabbage :15-20°C
• Head compactness is determined by Pearson formula : Z=(C x 100)/W3
• Seed rate : Early Var : 500g/ha, Late var : 375g/ha
• Seed production method in cabbage
A. Seed to seed method : for production of foundation and certified seed
B. Head to seed method (3 types) ; For nucleus and breeder seed production
1. Head intact method
2. Stump method
3. Stump with central core method

• Blackleg is common disease in cabbage which occur in saline soil

• White and Savoy cabbage : C6 Salt index
• Red cabbage : C4 salt index
• Red cabbage : Brassica oleraceae var. capitata f. rubra
• Savoy Cabbage : Brassica oleraceae var. capitata f. sabauda Eg: Chieftain
• White cabbage : Brassica oleraceae var. capitata f. alba
• Pusa Ageti is the first tropical variety of cabbage
• Bolting in cabbage is due to early sowing, warm winter, extreme change in temperature and poor
growth of seedling
 Varieties

Red cabbage Variety : Red Acre

Savoy Cabbage variety ; Chieftain
• “Sri Ganesh Gol” is hybrid of cabbage
• “Pusa Mukta is variety of cabbage
• “Red Acre” is a cultivar of cabbage

CAULIFOWER

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Brassicaceae 2n=2x=18 O: Mediterranean

 The name cauliflower has originated from latin word ‘Caulis’ (Cabbage) and ‘Floris’ (Flower)
 Cauliflower curd is a prefloral fleshy apical meristem.
 Edible part of cauliflower is know as “Curds”
 India is the largest producer of cauliflower in the world
 Progenitor of cauliflower : Brassica oleraceae var. sylvestris
 Orange cauliflower : Rich in Beta carotene
 Type of inflorescence : Racemose
 Fruit :Siliqua
 Snowball variety are late type
 Blanching is common practice in cauliflower for protect curd from yellow colour after the direct
exposure to sun and to arrest enzymatic activity
 Scooping is followed in cauliflower
 Scooping : Removal of central portion of curd for easy initiation of flower stalk
 Self blanched variety of cauliflower : Pusa Deepali, Pusa Himjyoti and Hisar-1
 “Whiptail” in cauliflower is due to molybdenum deficiency
 Cauliflower is thermosensitive crop
 Sporphytic self incomptability is found in Cauliflower
 CUCURBITS
 Fruit is Pepo botanically
 Cucurbits are susceptible to frost
 Cucurbits are C3 plants
 Crops which are propagated throug Vegetative method : Pointed gorud (Parwal), Ivy gourd
 Bitter gourd rich in vit.C, Pumpkin contain high carotene
 Meta-xenia commonly found in ccumber and bottle gourd.
 Meta-xenia : Bitter pollen or foreign pollen fertilizes the non bitter or normal ovule causes bitterfruit
 Bitter principle in cucurbits due to the presence of ‘Cucurbitacins’
 Sex ratio in cucurbits : 25-30:1 or 15:1
 Hermaphrodite is considered as primitive sex form in cucurbits
 Long day and high temperature promotes male flower in cucurbits
 Growth regulator application in ccurbits is done at 2-3 leaf stage
 Ethylene is used for female flower production
 Short day treatment : Female flower is more
 Ash gourd : Longest storage among cucurbits
 Pointed gourd, Bitter gourd, Snake gourd bears white flowers, all others Ccurbit crops which bear
yellow flowers

BITTER GOURD
(Balsam Pear or Bitter Cucumber)

Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae 2n=2x=22

 Origin : Indo-burma
 Bitter gourd fruit are rich in Iron
 Bitter taste of fruit is due to momordicin
 Cheratinn- cucurbitacin like alkaloid
 Short day help in increasing female flower production in bitter gourd
 Progenitor of bitter gourd – Momordica charantia var.abbreviata
 Bower ssystem followed in bitter gourd
 Ethrel spray increases female flower in bitter gourd
 For enhancing the female:male ratio : MH @50-150 ppm and CCC @50-100 ppm
  For induction of hermaphrodite flower : AgNo3 @ 400 ppm at pre flowering stage
Varieties
 Pusa Vishesh : Suitable for pickling and dehydration
 Konkan tara : Long shelf life and export variety
 White bitter gourd : Priyanka, Preethi
 COBgoH 1 , Pusa Do Mausami

WATERMELON
Citrullus lanatus 2n= 2X = 22 Origin : Tropical Africa
• Pusa bedana: First seedless watermelon released in India , Triploid watermelon

• Sugar baby: High TSS

• Arka Madhura : Triploid seedless watermelon

• Edible portion : Endocarp (Placenta)

• Watermelon egiseed type : Seeds are covered with flesh pericarp

• Blossom end rot of watermelon is due to high temperature, irregular moisture supply and calcium
deficiency
• White heart is the physiological disorder of watermelon

• Yellow flesh variety : Swarna, Durgapra Kesar

• Water melon contains 95% of water and is a richest iron containing cucurbitaceous crop.

• Most of cultivars have deep pink or pale pink coloured flesh - lycopene and anthocyanin
pigments.

• Watermelon crop is grown in river bed in India

• Maturity indices
 Attains maturity 40-45bdays after blooming
 Withering of tendril
 Change in belly colour or ground spot into yellow and
 By thumping test, on thumping the fruit it gives a dull sound
 On pressing the fruit ripe fruit will give a crisp cracking noise. Fruit is separated for vine with
the help of knife.
 BOTTLE GOURD
Lagenaria siceraria 2n = 2x = 22 Origin : Africa and India

• Processed product : Tutty fruity

• Nail test done for maturity
• Female: Male

SNAKE GOURD

 “Trichosanthin” compound used for anti-HIV activity in snake gourd

 Flower colour of snake gourd is in white
 Commonly followed training system in snake gourd is bower or arbour syste

RIDGE GOURD

• Flower colour of ridge gourd is pale yellow

• Flower colour of sponge gourd is deep yellow
• Anthesis time for ridge gourd is during evening hours
• Anthesis time for sponge gourd is during morning hours
• Sponge gourd fruits contain higher protein and carotene than ridge gourd 6. Seed rate for ridge
gourd is 4-5kg/ha
PUMPKIN

• Pumpkin festival is celebrated in USA

• Vitamin A content in pumpkin is 1600 IU
• Optimum temperature for pumpkin cultivation is 18-24oC