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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2711-0

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

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 PREFACE

Manufacturing managers and engineers are ever concerned with improvement in quality,
reduction in both manufacturing cost and delivery time. The globalization of economy
requires introduction of new products with enhanced features at competitive costs.
Another challenge is the reduction in product life span. This necessitates considerable
time compression in product development cycle. Yet another significant trend is mass
customization which calls for extreme flexibility in manufacturing. The massive
outsourcing in manufacturing is another important development in recent years.
The new edition of CAD/CAM/CIM has been bought out to focus on the response
of CIM technology to address to these challenges. Manufacturing in the new millennium
is moving towards more and more sophistication in exploiting the capabilities of computer
hardware and software. Robust design methodologies and integration of shape design
and functional design are included in the present edition. Optimized manufacturing is a
possibility now with the extensive use of FEA. Apart from design optimization, FEA is
used to model and simulate complex manufacturing processes to evolve several iterations.
This enables engineers to make right parts first time every time. An additional chapter
on simulation softwares has been added in the present edition to introduce this powerful
tool to the students.
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of our erstwhile colleagues
in the PSG CAD/CAM Centre as well as Krishnaveni and Sasikala in word processing
the earlier editions and Govindaswamy for helping with some chapters in the present
edition. Acknowledgements are due to K.J. Reddy for providing some models for
reproduction in this edition and to Pradeep for critical suggestions. The excellent support
and encouragement extended by Padmini, Anitha and Hari during the revision of this
edition is gratefully acknowledged.

P. Radhakrishnan
S. Subramanian
V. Raju
CONTENTS

PREFACE (v)

1. COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 TYPES OF MANUFACTURING 3
1.3 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING 4
1.4 CIM HARDWARE AND CIM SOFTWARE 6
1.5 NATURE AND ROLE OF THE ELEMENTS OF CIM SYSTEM 7
1.6 DEVELOPMENT OF CIM 10

2. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT THROUGH CIM 13

2.1 INTRODUCTION 13
2.2 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT CYCLE 13
2.3 SEQUENTIAL ENGINEERING 16
2.4 CONCURRENT ENGINEERING 18
2.5 COMPARISON OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING AND SEQUENTIAL ENGINEERING 19
2.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING 21
2.7 CONCURRENT ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 23
2.8 SOFT AND HARD PROTOTYPING 25
2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING 25
2.10 KEY FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SUCCESS OF CE 26
2.11 EXAMPLE OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING 26
2.12 TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE MANUFACTURABILITY AND REDUCE LEAD TIME 27
2.13 IMPROVING THE DESIGN 32
2.14 TAGUCHI METHOD FOR ROBUST DESIGN 34
2.15 VALUE ENGINEERING 34
2.16 PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT 35
viii Contents

3. PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS 41

3.1 INTRODUCTION 41
3.2 GRAPHIC PRIMITIVES 42
3.3 POINT PLOTTING 43
3.4 DRAWING OF LINES 43
3.5 BRESENHAM’S CIRCLE ALGORITHM 47
3.6 ELLIPSE 55
3.7 TRANSFORMATION IN GRAPHICS 55
3.8 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN GRAPHICS AND WINDOWING 55
3.9 VIEW PORT 56
3.10 2-D TRANSFORMATIONS 56
3.11 HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS 60
3.12 COMBINATION TRANSFORMATIONS 61
3.13 CLIPPING 63
3.14 3-DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS 63
3.15 PROJECTIONS 64
3.16 SCAN CONVERSION 66
3.17 RENDERING 69
3.18 RASTERIZING POLYGONS 69
3.19 HIDDEN SURFACE REMOVAL 70
3.20 ANTI ALIASING 72
3.21 REFLECTION 73
3.22 SHADING 75
3.23 GENERATION OF CHARACTERS 76

4. COMPUTER HARDWARE 77
4.1 INTRODUCTION 77
4.2 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 78
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS 79
4.4 DATA COMMUNICATIONS 83
4.5 DESIGN WORK STATIONS 89
4.6 ARCHITECTURE OF A TYPICAL GRAPHICS WORKSTATION 90
4.7 INTERACTIVE DISPLAY DEVICES 93
4.8 INPUT DEVICES 97
4.9 OUTPUT DEVICES 100

5. OPERATING SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTS 103

5.1 INTRODUCTION 103
5.2 OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) 104
5.3 COMPARISON OF COMMANDS IN POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEMS 106
5.4 UNIX - OPERATING SYSTEM 108
5.5 ARCHITECTURE OF UNIX SYSTEM 109
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Contents ix

5.6 GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES (WINDOWS ENVIRONMENT) 113

5.7 MS WINDOWS 114
5.8 WINDOWS NT 115
5.9 LINUX 120

6. GEOMETRIC MODELING TECHNIQUES 121

Contents
6.1 INTRODUCTION 121
6.2 GEOMETRIC MODELING 123
6.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID MODELING 128
6.4 COMMAND, MENU AND ICON DRIVEN SOFTWARES 136
6.5 FEATURES OF A DRAFTING PACKAGE 138
6.6 DRAWING UTILITIES 139
6.7 ENTITIES 142
6.8 EDIT COMMANDS 143
6.9 BLOCKS AND SYMBOLS 143
6.10 DISPLAY 144
6.11 CROSS HATCHING AND PATTERN FILLING 144
6.12 DIMENSIONING 145
6.13 ENQUIRY COMMANDS 146
6.14 3-D DRAWINGS 147
6.15 PLOTTING A DRAWING 149
6.16 CONFIGURING THE DRAFTING SOFTWARE 149
6.17 CUSTOMISATION 149
6.18 DRAWING INTERCHANGE FILES 150
6.19 DRAWING OFFICE MANAGEMENT 150
6.20 SURFACE MODELING 152
6.21 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES 154
6.22 DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES 155
6.23 CUBIC SPLINES 156
6.24 BEZIER CURVES 159
6.25 B-SPLINES 161
6.26 NURBS AND B-SPLINES 162
6.27 REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES 163
6.28 DESIGN OF SURFACES 163
6.29 PARAMETRIC DESIGN OF SURFACES 163
6.30 BICUBIC POLYNOMIAL SURFACE PATCHES 164
6.31 BEZIER BICUBIC SURFACE PATCHES 165
6.32 CUBIC B-SPLINE SURFACES 166
6.33 SURFACE MODELING IN COMMERCIAL DRAFTING AND MODELING SOFTWARE 166
6.34 THE CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS 174
6.35 SKETCHING THE GEOMETRY 176
6.36 UNDERSTANDING CURVE AND SURFACE DESIGN 177
6.37 OTHER FEATURES USEFUL FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 185
6.38 DATA TRANSFER TO OTHER SOFTWARES 185
x Contents

7. FINITE ELEMENT MODELING AND ANALYSIS IN CIM 189

7.1 INTRODUCTION 189
7.2 GENERAL STEPS INVOLVED IN FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 191
7.3 TYPES OF ANALYSIS 193
7.4 DEGREES OF FREEDOM 195
7.5 INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS 196
7.6 ELEMENT AND STRUCTURE STIFFNESS EQUATIONS 196
7.7 ASSEMBLY OF ELEMENTS 212
7.8 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PACKAGES 215
7.9 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PROCEDURE 216
7.10 ARCHITECTURE OF FINITE ELEMENT SOFTWARE 221
7.11 USING A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS PACKAGE FOR SIMPLE PROBLEMS 222
7.12 ELEMENTS IN A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS SOFTWARE 223
7.13 EXAMPLES OF SOLUTION USING A SOFTWARE 228
7.14 MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS 242
7.15 WELDING SIMULATION 243
7.16 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS APPLICATIONS TO METAL FORMING 244
7.17 SIMULATION OF HEAT TRATMENT 245
7.18 PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING 245

8. CIM DATA BASE AND DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 247

8.1 INTRODUCTION 247
8.2 DATABASE REQUIREMENTS OF CIM 249
8.3 DATA BASE 249
8.4 DATABASE MANAGEMENT 251
8.5 FEATURES OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 251
8.6 DATABASE MODELS 252
8.7 DBMS ARCHITECTURE 255
8.8 QUERY LANGUAGE 255
8.9 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE [SQL] 256
8.10 SQL AS A KNOWLEDGE BASE QUERY LANGUAGE 257
8.11 PRODUCT DATA MANAGEMENT (PDM) 258
8.12 ADVANTAGES OF PDM 260

9. COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING 263

9.1 INTRODUCTION 263
9.2 PROCESS PLANNING 263
9.3 STRUCTURE OF A PROCESS PLANNING SOFTWARE 266
9.4 INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR PROCESS PLANNING 266
9.5 OPERATION OF A TYPICAL COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING SOFTWARE 267
9.6 CAD BASED PROCESS PLANNING - CERTAIN LIMITATIONS AND PROBLEMS 270
9.7 GROUP TECHNOLOGY 272
Contents xi

9.8 CODING STRUCTURES 274

9.9 OPITZ CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 275
9.10 THE MICLASS SYSTEM 277
9.11 THE CODE SYSTEM 277
9.12 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY 277
9.13 PROCESS SELECTION 279

Contents
9.14 EXPERIENCE-BASED PLANNING 279
9.15 HAND BOOKS/DATA BOOKS/MANUALS 280
9.16 DECISION TABLES AND DECISION TREES 280
9.17 PROCESS CAPABILITY 280
9.18 METHODS OF COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING 282
9.19 VARIANT PROCESS PLANNING 282
9.20 GENERATIVE PROCESS PLANNING 284
9.21 IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS 288
9.22 PROCESS PLANNING SYSTEMS 289

10. PLANNING OF RESOURCES FOR MANUFACTURING THROUGH

INFORMATION SYSTEMS 293
10.1 INTRODUCTION 293
10.2 BACKGROUND 294
10.3 ROLE OF MRP-II IN A CIM SYSTEM 295
10.4 MAJOR MODULES OF A MANUFACTURING RESOURCES PLANNING (MRP) SOFTWARE 296
10.5 MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS 296
10.6 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 304
10.7 FINANCIAL APPLICATIONS 307
10.8 MARKETING APPLICATIONS 311
10.9 MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS 313
10.10 COMMON ACRONYMS USED IN AN MRP-II ENVIRONMENT 314
10.11 STATUS OF MRP-II SOFTWARE 314
10.12 DYNAMIC ENTERPRISES 315
10.13 ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP) 316
10.14 SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT 320
10.15 VIRTUAL MANUFACTURING 322
10.16 SELECTION OF AN ERP PACKAGE 322
10.17 ERP IN INDIA 323
10.18 DYNAMIC ENTERPRISE MODELLING (DEM) 323

11. MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION 327

11.1 INTRODUCTION 327
11.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION SYSTEMS 328
11.3 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 329
11.4 PARTS OF A TYPICAL PLC SYSTEM 332
11.5 OPERATION OF A PLC 333
xii Contents

11.6 PROGRAMMING OF PLC 333

11.7 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION OF PLC IN A CNC MACHINE 335
11.8 FACTORY LEVEL CONTROL 338

12. CNC MACHINE TOOLS 341

12.1 INTRODUCTION 341
12.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A NUMERICAL CONTROLLED MACHINE 342
12.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 351
12.4 TYPES OF CNC MACHINES 353
12.5 FEATURES OF CNC SYSTEMS 373
12.6 DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL (DNC) 379
12.7 FUNCTIONS AVAILABLE IN A TYPICAL CNC SYSTEM 384
12.8 STANDARD CONTROLLERS 386
12.9 SOME OF THE FEATURES AVAILABLE IN TYPICAL HIGH END CNC SYSTEM 387
12.10 GENERAL PROGRAMMING FEATURES OF CNC SYSTEMS 389
12.11 PROGRAMMING OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS 403
12.12 HINTS FOR PROGRAMMING 414
12.13 EXAMPLE OF PROGRAMMING A VERTICAL MACHINING CENTRE 423
12.14 CNC TURNING A GEAR BLANK 431
12.15 CNC TURNING A CASTING 442
12.16 CNC PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AND VIRTUAL MACHINING USING CAM
TECHNOLOGY 451
12.17 TECHNOLOGY OF CAM 454
12.18 PROCEDURE OF CAM 455
12.19 MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 459
12.20 TOOL MOTION PARAMETERS 462
12.21 AUXILIARY NC SEQUENCES 463
12.22 CL DATA FILES 463
12.23 NC POST-PROCESSING 464
12.24 VIRTUAL MACHINING 464
12.25 SUMMARY 465

13. ROBOTS IN COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING 471

13.1 INTRODUCTION 471
13.2 DEFINITION OF A ROBOT 472
13.3 TYPES OF ROBOTS 474
13.4 PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES 481
13.5 PROGRAMMING ROBOTS 484
13.6 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CAD/ROBOT LINKAGE 493
13.7 SIMULATION 494
13.8 ADAPTIVE CONTROL 494
13.9 ROBOT OPERATION 495
Contents xiii

13.10 ENDS-OF-ARM-TOOLING 496

13.11 CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATION 496
13.12 APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS 496
13.13 THE INTEGRATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL ROBOT INTO A CIM SYSTEM 500
13.14 PRESENTATION OF WORK TO ROBOTS 501
13.15 PRODUCT DESIGN FOR AUTOMATIC MANUFACTURE BY ROBOTS 501

Contents
13.16 MANUFACTURERS OF ROBOTS 502

14. COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY CONTROL 505

14.1 INTRODUCTION 505
14.2 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) 506
14.3 QC AND CIM 507
14.4 INSPECTION AND TESTING 508
14.5 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC) 509
14.6 OBJECTIVES OF CAQC 509
14.7 ROLE OF COMPUTER IN QC 509
14.8 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE 510
14.9 NON-CONTACT INSPECTION METHODS 512
14.10 POST PROCESS METROLOGY 516
14.11 COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION USING ROBOTS 517
14.12 INTEGRATED COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION SYSTEMS 518
14.13 FLEXIBLE INSPECTION SYSTEM (FIS) 520

15. FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORKING 523

15.1 INTRODUCTION 523
15.2 PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING 523
15.3 NETWORK TECHNIQUES 526
15.4 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) 526
15.5 COMPONENTS OF A SMALL LOCAL AREA NETWORK 528
15.6 NETWORK WIRING METHODS 529
15.7 NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS 532
15.8 NETWORKING STANDARDS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT 533
15.9 EXAMPLES OF NETWORK STANDARDS 536
15.10 ETHERNET 537
15.11 ISSUES IN INTER-SYSTEM COMMUNICATION 538
15.12 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS 540
15.13 SYSTEM SECURITY 541
15.14 MANAGING REMOTE SYSTEMS IN A NETWORK 541
15.15 DESIGN ACTIVITY IN A NETWORKED ENVIRONMENT 542
15.16 ENGINEERING CHANGE CONTROL 542
15.17 NETWORKING IN A MANUFACTURING COMPANY 542
15.18 NETWORK FILE SYSTEM (NFS) 543
xiv Contents

15.19 INTERNET 548

15.20 HARDWARE ELEMENTS OF A NETWORK 551
15.21 ATM (ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE) NETWORKS 554
15.22 ENTERPRISE WIDE NETWORK 555
15.23 DOCUMENT AND WORKFLOW MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 557
15.24 A CASE STUDY OF APPLICATION OF GLOBAL NETWORKING 562

16. COLLABORATIVE ENGINEERING 565

16.1 INTRODUCTION 565
16.2 FASTER DESIGN THRUOGHPUT 566
16.3 WEB BASED DESIGN 567
16.4 CHANGING DESIGN APPROACHES 568
16.5 EXTENDED ENTERPRISES 571
16.6 SOFTWARE FOR COLLABORATIVE DESIGN AND ENTERPRISE-WIDE PRODUCT
VISUALIZATION 572

17. GRAPHIC STANDARDS 575

17.1 INTRODUCTION 575
17.2 STANDARDS FOR GRAPHICS PROGRAMMING 576
17.3 FEATURES OF GKS 576
17.4 OTHER GRAPHICS STANDARDS 578
17.5 PHIGS 578
17.6 OPENGL 580
17.7 PARASOLID 581
17.8 ACIS 583
17.9 EXCHANGE OF CAD DATA BETWEEN SOFTWARE PACKAGES 584
17.10 DXF FILES 585
17.11 INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (IGES) GRAPHICS STANDARD 587
17.12 PRODUCT DATA EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (PDES) 590
17.13 OTHER DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS 590
17.1.4 PRODUCT DATA TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT FOR COMPUTER AIDED CONCURRENT
ENGINEERING 590

18. CIM MODELS 597

18.1 INTRODUCTION 597
18.2 ESPRIT - CIM OSA MODEL 599
18.3 THE NIST - AMRF HIERARCHICAL MODEL 601
18.4 THE SIEMENS MODEL OF CIM 602
18.5 THE CIM MODEL OF DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION 603
18.6 THE IBM CONCEPT OF CIM 604
18.7 PRESENT SCENARIO 607
Contents xv

19. FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS 609

19.1 INTRODUCTION 609
19.2 SUBSYSTEMS OF FMS 610
19.3 SCOPE OF FMS 611
19.4 FMS COMPARED TO OTHER TYPES OF MANUFACTURING APPROACHES 611

Contents
19.5 TYPES OF FMS 612
19.6 BENEFITS OF FMS 620
19.7 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF FMS 622
19.8 OPTIMISATION OF FMS 627
19.9 OPERATIONAL ELEMENTS OF A TYPICAL FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING CELL 628
19.10 TYPICAL FMS LAYOUT 638
19.11 FMS DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA 639

20. SHOP FLOOR DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS 641

20.1 INTRODUCTION 641
20.2 SHOP FLOOR CONTROL 643
20.3 SHOP FLOOR DATA COLLECTION 646
20.4 TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS 646
20.5 DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES 647
20.6 AUTOMATIC DATA COLLECTION SYSTEM 648
20.7 BAR CODE TECHNOLOGY 648
20.8 OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION 650
20.9 MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION 651
20.10 VOICE RECOGNITION 651
20.11 SMART CARDS 651
20.12 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS (DAS) 652

21. SIMULATION IN MANUFACTURING 653

21.1 INTRODUCTION 653
21.2 TYPES OF SIMULATION 654
21.3 TECHNIQUES OF SIMULATION 655
21.4 SIMULATION PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 656
21.5 SIMULATION SOFTWARE PACKAGES 656
21.6 APPLICATION OF SIMULATION 657
21.7 PROCEDURE FOR SIMULATION USING SOFTWARE 659

INDEX 667
 CHAPTER
COMPUTER INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING 
An overview of CIM is presented in this chapter. A brief account of the evolution of CIM is
included. The major functions carried out in a manufacturing plant are surveyed and the
different levels of integration are identified.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) encompasses the entire range of product
development and manufacturing activities with all the functions being carried out with
the help of dedicated software packages. The data required for various functions are passed
from one application software to another in a seamless manner. For example, the product
data is created during design. This data has to be transferred from the modeling software
to manufacturing software without any loss of data. CIM uses a common database
wherever feasible and communication technologies to integrate design, manufacturing
and associated business functions that combine the automated segments of a factory or
a manufacturing facility. CIM reduces the human component of manufacturing and
thereby relieves the process of its slow, expensive and error-prone component. CIM stands
for a holistic and methodological approach to the activities of the manufacturing enterprise
in order to achieve vast improvement in its performance.
This methodological approach is applied to all activities from the design of the product
to customer support in an integrated way, using various methods, means and techniques
in order to achieve production improvement, cost reduction, fulfillment of scheduled
delivery dates, quality improvement and total flexibility in the manufacturing system.
CIM requires all those associated with a company to involve totally in the process of product
development and manufacture. In such a holistic approach, economic, social and human
aspects have the same importance as technical aspects.
CIM also encompasses the whole lot of enabling technologies including total quality
management, business process reengineering, concurrent engineering, workflow
automation, enterprise resource planning and flexible manufacturing.
A distinct feature of manufacturing today is mass customization. This implies that
though the products are manufactured in large quantities, products must incorporate
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