AP English Language & Composition – Warren

A Brief Introduction to Rhetoric

To many people, the word rhetoric signals that trickery or deception is afoot. They assume that an advertiser is trying
to manipulate a consumer, a politician wants to obscure a point, or a spin doctor is spinning. “Empty rhetoric!” is a
common criticism – and at times an indictment. Yet the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) defined rhetoric
as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” – in other words, the art of finding
ways of persuading an audience.

At its best, rhetoric is thoughtful, reflective, and leads to effective communication, including the rational exchange of
opposing views. In Aristotle’s day and in ours, those who understand and can use the available means to appeal to an
audience of one or many find themselves in a position of strength. They have the tools to resolve conflicts without
confrontation, to persuade readers or listeners to support their position, or to move others to take action.

Rhetoric is not just for Roman senators in togas. You might use rhetoric to convince a friend that Prince was the
greatest musician of his generation, explain to readers of your blog why Night of the Living Dead is the most influential
horror movie of all time, or persuade your parents that they should buy you the latest smartphone. Rhetoric is also
not just about speeches. Every essay, political cartoon, photograph, and advertisement is designed to convince you of
something. To simplify, we call all of these things texts because they are cultural products that can be “read,”
meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but also investigated. We need to be able to “read between the lines,”
regardless of whether we’re reading a political ad, a political cartoon, or a political speech. The writer, speaker, or
artist makes strategic decisions to appeal to an audience of a text. Even in documentary films, every decision – such
as what lighting to use for an interview, what music to play, or what to show and what to leave out – constitutes a
rhetorical choice based on what the filmmaker thinks will be most persuasive.

And rhetoric is not just for English class. By approaching texts rhetorically in your other courses – whether you’re
analyzing an environmental issue, proposing a strategy to address an economic problem, or arguing causes of an
historical event – you can apply the critical literacy skills that you develop through your study of rhetoric. But there’s
an even bigger picture: informed citizenship. That concept might sound distant and lofty, but democracy should not
be taken for granted. Our nation’s founders may have given us the basic tools for creating a democratic society, but a
government by consent of the people will always need its people to be well-informed and to engage with others in
civil discourse. Otherwise, how can we hope to elect a fair government and create a just society? As informed citizens
and consumers who understand how rhetoric works, we can be wary of manipulation or deceit while still
appreciating effective and civil communication. Understanding rhetoric helps us to spot advertisers’ tricks, to
identify sources of misinformation and propaganda (“fake news”), and to think critically. As a student, it is also
important to go beyond critique to produce effective arguments of your own as you develop a public identity in
various communities – whether at school, on social media, or in “the real world.”

Purpose, Context, Occasion, and Exigence

Purpose is the goal a speaker wants to achieve through his or her rhetoric, and it is important to remember that
rhetoric is always situational. Every text is influenced by historical, cultural, and social movements of its time. We
call these broad influences context. Within that context, a text is informed by exigence – the factors that inspire,
provoke, prompt, or urge the author to create the text – and occasion – the circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes,
and events surrounding its creation. Thus, exigence (the spark) and occasion (the moment) combine within a larger
context (societal situation) to give rise to the text. Sometimes, occasion and exigence are immediately apparent, such
as in the case of an election or natural disaster; in other instances, speakers must clarify, and even argue for, the
urgency of their messages, creating occasions to communicate their messages, as in the case of political protest.

Materials adapted from The Language of Composition, Second and Third Editions – Shea, Scanlon, Aufses, Pankiewicz
AP English Language & Composition – Warren
The Rhetorical Triangle
Another important aspect of the rhetorical situation is the relationship among
the speaker, audience, and subject. One way to conceptualize the relationship
among these elements is through the rhetorical triangle. Some refer to it as the
Aristotelian triangle because Aristotle used a triangle to illustrate how these
three elements are interrelated. How a speaker perceives the relationships among
these elements will go a long way toward determining what he or she says and
how he or she says it.

The speaker is the person or group who creates a text. The speaker might be a politician who delivers a speech, a
commentator who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an
advertisement. Don’t think of the speaker solely as a name, but also consider a description of who the speaker is in
the context of the text. Sometimes, there is a slight difference between who the speaker is in real life and the role the
speaker plays when delivering the speech. This is called a persona. Persona comes from the Greek word for “mask”; it
means the face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience.

The audience is the listener, viewer, or reader of a text or performance, but it is important to note that there may be
multiple audiences. Think, for instance, of someone giving a speech to a particular audience gathered in an
auditorium: those sitting in the seats facing the stage are the primary and intended audience; if the speech, or part
of it, ends up on social media, however, there is another larger, unintended audience that the speaker may or may
not have anticipated. When making rhetorical decisions, speakers ask what values their intended audience holds,
particularly whether the audience is hostile, friendly, or neutral, as well as how informed it is on the topic at hand.

The subject is the topic. And the subject should not be confused with the purpose, which is the goal the speaker wants
to achieve.
__________________________________________________________________________________

Audience Speaker Speaker

Speaker Occasion Purpose
Purpose Audience Audience
Exigence Purpose Context
Context Subject Exigence
Tone Tone Choices
Subject Appeals
Tone

Materials adapted from The Language of Composition, Second and Third Editions – Shea, Scanlon, Aufses, Pankiewicz