Contents

2 .................... ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ Live stock toxicosis

16 .............. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ Small animal toxicosis
Livestock
toxicities
 Live stock

Mycotoxins

Aflatoxicosis
Cause 1. Aspergillus flavus / Parasiticus → Aflatoxins
2. Risk factor → Feed stuff storage in high temperature and moisture
Species 1. Poultry (most sensitive), but other species affected (as Ruminant, Horse, dog,..)
Toxic effect 1. On liver (Metabolized here)
- Acute: Enlargement, Necrosis, Icterus, Hemorrhage (coagulation defects), sudden death
- Subacute: Nonspecific signs of Vomiting, anorexia, weakness, sudden death
Control 1. Monitor for aflatoxin level in feed stuff
2. Dilution of contaminated feed stuff with non-contaminated ones → ↓ disease severity
Rx 1. No Specific Rx, poor prognosis; IV fluids, Antioxidants (NAC, sAME), GIT support

Ergot alkaloids
Ergotism Fescue foot/lameness

Claviceps purpurea → On Neotyphodium

cereal grains (ryes or coenophialum
fungus wheat) → sclerotia (hard, (Endophyte) → On
black, elongated) → toxic tall fescue grass →
ergot alkaloids Ergot alkaloids
Remember; Clavicle on cereals (Ergovaline)
= Claviceps on cerals
Species Livestock (Cattle, sheep, horse)
Time Last summer Late fall and winter
Effect 1. Vasoconstriction → Lameness, necrosis 1. As ergotism
of Extremities, gangrene, Hoof Slough

2. Cattle
2. ↓ Prolactin → Agalactia - Early Parturition and abdominal fat necrosis
3. Heat intolerance → Hyperthermia, (lipomatosis)(felt like floating corks on rectal
Hyper-salivation exam)
3. Mare
- Delayed parturition and Oversized fetuses

Water deprivation sodium ion toxicosis (salt toxicity)

1. Reported in all animals. In US, it's common in Swine, cattle & poultry
2. Sheep are relatively resistant, and pigs are the most sensitive
 Toxic plants

Conium maculatum (Poison hemlock)

Spp All livestock & human

Toxins 1. At least 8 toxic piperidine alkaloids
2. Coniine in seeds & mature plants; g-coniciene in young
plants
Signs 1. Neurologic ds (Muscle Paralysis) → Respiratory failure
- Trembling, weakness especially hind limbs
- Muscle paralysis → weak rapid pulse, Irregular heart rate and respiratory rate →
Respiratory failure, coma & death
2. A mousy odor in breath & urine (Pathognomonic)
3. Arhrogryposis & other congenital defects in cattle, sheep & pigs

Sorghum vulgare (Durra ‫دراوة‬, Milo, Sudan grass, Johnson grass)

Spp 1. Primarily in Horse, and also Cattle & sheep

Toxins 1. Cyanide →
2. Nitrate
Signs ▪ Horse (Cystitis-ataxia syndrome) d/t LMN myelomalacia of nerve
roots
- Posterior incoordination (Swaying rear limb gait & knuckling) &
Urinary incontinence
▪ Signs of Cyanide and Nitrate poisoning
Cyanide Nitrate
Similar 1. Dyspnea & ataxia & sudden death d/t Tissue anoxia
signs - Cyanide Prevent release of O2 from hemoglobin d/t inhibition of cellular respiration
- Nitrate Reduce blood O2 carrying capacity d/t Methmoglobin
1. Very intensely red mucous membrane 1. Cyanotic /gray mucous membranes
Different 2. Bright red blood (Cyanohemoglobin) 2. Chocolate brown blood (Methemoglobin)
signs 3. Bitter almond odor from GIT during
necropsy

Locoweed / Milk vetches (Astragalus, Oxytropis)

LMAO
Toxin 1. Swainsonine
Effects ▪ Ass'd w/ high mountain disease in cattle raised on high altitude; Think LOCOweed
makes cows HIGH
1. It ↑ the severity and prevalence of Right sided CHF (d/t pulmonary hypertension from low
O2)
- Condition develops more quickly (1-2wk) and incidence can be 100%
2. Locoweed toxins excreted in milk can cause CHF in nursing calves
▪ Neurologic signs of cerebral disease (LOCOISM) in Livestock
1. Behavioral changes, depression, ataxia, circling, vision loss
2. Pathology: Neurovisceral cysotplasmic vacuolation
▪ abortions
 Ruminant

Mycotoxins

facial /Skin eczema (pithomycotoxicosis)

Pithy spores cause skin trouble

Cause 1. Pithomyces chartarum → Sporidesmins
Effect 1. Enlargement and fibrosis of liver and bile ducts → Icterus & Bile
duct obstruction and failure to excrete phylloerythrin →
Photosensitization of non-pigmented skin → Facial eczema
(sheep) and skin eczema (cattle)

Lupinosis (Quinozolidine alkaloid)

Cause 1. Sweet lupines plant (Contain quinozolidine alkaloids) infected

with Phomopsis elptostromiformis → Produce Phomospins
exacerbating the toxicity
Effect 1. Pregnant dams
- Arthrogryoposis (Deformed joint/Crooked limbs) & Cleft
palate in Calfs & lambs
- Infectious cause of arthrogryoposis is Blue tongue, akaban
2 Adult → inappetance, convulsion, dyspnea or death from
respiratory paralysis
3. Hepatic damage (w/ fungus infection)
- Icterus & Photosensitization (Similar to Pithyymycotoxicosis)

Rx 1. Poor prognosis, No effective treatment

4-Ipomeanol toxicity (moldy sweet potato); Fusarium spp

Cause 1. Fusarium Solani → On Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) → Pneumotoxin

(4-ipomeanol)
Effect 1. Ingestion cause Bovine pulmonary emphysema & Edema
▪ There are other indistinguishable conditions
DDx
1. Perilla ketone (Purple mint) toxicity
- Ingestion of Perilla frutescens (Purple mint) → Pneumotoxin

2. Acute bovine pulmonary emphysema and edema (ABPEE; Fog fever)

- Ass'd with L-tryptophan in lush pastures, which is converted into pneumotoxic compounds (3-
methylinoole) that damage respiratory epithelial cells

3. Feedlot acute interstitial pneumonia

 Secondary photosensitization
Patho 1. Presence of Hepatotoxic agent lead to accumulation Phylloerythrin (a Photosensitizing
agent) derived from microbial breakdown of chlorophyll in GIT
2. Phylloerythrin absorbs and release light energy in skin causing secondary photosensitization
Cause 1. In ruminant (Cattle & sheep) → Mycotoxins as
- Pithyomycotoxicosis (Pithymyces caratarum) → Facial (sheep) & skin (cattle) Eczema
- Sweet lupine plant w/ Phomopsis (fungi)
2. In Cattle, Sheep, Horse
- Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in plants as Senecio spp (Ragwort, wooly
groundsel), Crotalaria (rattleweed), Amisinckia (Tarweed) → Hepatotoxic
(Megaloctosis, fibrosis, bile duct hyperplasia)
2. Sheep
- Horse brush (Tetradymia spp) plant → Pig head photosensitization
- Artemisia nova (Black sage)
Note 1. PRIMARY photosensitization occur in absence of hepatic disease when a photo dynamic
agent is ingested, injected or absorbed as
- Hypericin from Hypericum perforatum (Sr. John's wort) plant in all live stock (Horse,
cattle, sheep, goat)
- Fagopyrin from fagopyrum esclentum (Buckwheat)
- Tetracycline

Toxic plants

Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa pine)

1. Only Cattle is the most sensitive

2. Toxin → Both needle & bark contain isocupressic acid
3. Toxicity is chronic occur 2-21d after eating 5-6 pounds of pine
needles per day for 3 days
4. Cause Vasconstriction & ↓blood flow to uterus and other tissue
& ischemic necrosis of CL leading to
- Edema of vulva & udder & bloody mucoid vaginal discharge
- Late term abortion followed by retained placenta & metiritis
- Non aborted calves → Born weak and die from starvation d/t low
colostrum or milk produced

Quercus spp (oak poiaoning) (‫)عم جرجس بيحب المعيز‬

‫شجر البلوط‬
Toxins 1. Gallotannin (Tannin & gallic acids)
2. Goats and wild ruminants are highly resistant d/t saliva protein
Spp bind tannins and also tannase enzymes in rumen mucosa
3. Cattle is mostly affected (more in young growing calves); Horse
susceptible but rarely affected
1. Multisystemic → Severe GIT irritation and Hepatoxicity,
Nephrotoxicity
Signs - Rumen stasis, abdominal pain, Constipation followed by hemorrhagic diarrhea
- Hematuria, PU/PD
- Icterus, Pale swollen kidney & Peri-renal edema, S/C edema, Ascites, hydrothorax,
ulcer & hemorrhage of intestine mucosa
DDx Pigweed (Amaranthus spp) poisoning and aminoglycoside poisoning
Prevention 1. Provide adequate feed esp. during spring & time of drought (↑ oak trees)
2. Remove Oak trees & acrons from pasture
 Oxalate toxic plants
Spp 1. Primarily Sheep and sometimes cattle
1. Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Greasewood), Halogeton spp, Rumex SHR‫ سكر‬GD
spp (Dock), sugar beet tops ‫سهر سكر جد‬
Plants 2. Amaranthus (Pigweed), Oxalis (Sorrel), Chenopodium All On Campus
(Lambsquarter) Parent Seek Leaves
3. molds (Aspergillus niger) in contaminated food also produce oxalate
1. Oxalates occur in plants in form of salts; Ca, Na, and K
Overview 2. Ca oxalate is insoluble & lost In GIT
3. Na & K oxalate are soluble
- Bind to Ca in rumen & lost in GIT Or Absorbed & react w/ Ca in body fluids
Effect 1. Hypocalcaemia, Urine oxalate crystals (Urolithiasis), Renal failure (Ca oxalate in renal
tubules)
2. Dullness, Anorexia, separation from heard
3. Excessive salivation w/ frothing, progressive incoordination, coma, irregular breathing
and death
Rx Ca IV and feed additives & lime water to ppt the oxalates

Bracken fern toxicity (Pteridium aquilinum)

Toxin 1. Glycosides and thiaminase
Effect ▪ Cattle
Chronic, small 1. Enzootic hematuria (in cattle & sheep)
amount over months - Hemorrhagic cystitis & bladder neoplasm
Large amount over 1. Bone marrow suppression/ aplastic anemia
few months - Pancytopenia → Neutropenia and thrombocytopenia occur
before anemia d/t short half-life of WBCs & platelets (days to
weeks) compared to RBCs (months)
- Petechial hemorrhage in nasal & vaginal mucosa, and melena
▪ Sheep
1. Bright blindness with tapetal hyper-reflectivity d/t Retinal degeneration
▪ Horse
1. Bracken fern contains thiaminases lead to thiamine deficiency → Neurologic signs
(Weight loss, lethargy, ataxia, tremors, recumbency, death)
Dx 1. Monitor CBC for early indications esp. thrombocytopenia and neutropenia
Rx 1. Severe bone marrow suppression → Euthanasia & remove other cattle from bracken
fern infested pasture
2. Less severe cases → Antimicrobial and Blood transfusion can help

Cardiomyopathies in cattle
Causes 1. Gossypol (Cottonseed), Cassia poisoning (Coffe senna)
2. Glycoside toxic plants as oleander
- Commonly when Neibhor's children cut the the oleander and fed it to them
- Cause also bloody diarrhea
2. Ionophore additives, VIT E & Selenium, Copper deficiency (myocardial fibrosis)
3. Lymphosarcoma 2.
 Fluorosis & Enamel hypoplasia in cattle
Overveiw 1. When chronic fluoride ingestion occur during tooth development, amelogenesis &
dentinogenesis
2. Exposure after teeth are fully formed doesn’t result in dental lesions
Signs 1. Mostly the incisors (but also all teeth): Staining, mottling, excessive erosion, hypoplasia,
hypoclacefication
2. Osteofluorosis and lameness

Ionophore toxicity (Monensin & Lasalocid)

1. You may see FLUIDS (Ascites, hydrothorax, pulmonary edema) d/t cardio-toxic effect

White muscle disease (Nutritional myodegeneration); Vitamin E & selenium deficiency

▪ Pathophysiology
1. Potential affected muscles are Gastrocnemius, semitendinosus,
Semimembranosus, gluteal, and diaphragmatic muscles → white striations in
muscles (Skeletal, diaphragmatic, and cardiac )
‫أغلب االصابة في عضالت الرجل والحجاب الحاجز والقلب‬
2. Image show pale heart w/ white, chalky plaque in left ventricles
▪ Classic case
1. Young fast growing foals, calves, lambs, kid & pigs from dams fed selenium-
deficient forage
2. History of recent vigorous excercise
2. Muscular weakness, swelling & stiffness (Irregular gait esp. hindquarters,
hunched-back), recumbent but BAR (bright, alert, responsive)
3. Dyspnea, tachycardia, arrhythmias, and ultimately death
4.In Foals: Dysphagia may be the primary signs due to tongue weakness
- Ass'd w/ Non-exertional myopathy
▪ DDx: Cl. Chauvii (Blackleg): Fever, crepitus under skin
▪ Dx: For confirmation → Collect liver and whole blood for selenium levels
▪ Prevention: Oral or injectable selenium supplementation in at risk pregnant dams
▪ Riboflavin (B2) deficiency: Photophobia, lacrimation and finally retinal degeneration

Molybdenum poisoning & associated Copper deficiency

Cause 1. Molybdenum & other mineral as iron, sulfur lead to copper deficiency
Signs 1. Gastroenteritis → Peat scours or teart (Greenish diarrhea w/ gas bubbles)
2. Emaciation, reduced fertility & libido and milk production
3. Achromotrichia ( Hair depigmentation esp. around eye "Spectacles") & Rough coat
4. Pica, Microcytic hypochromic anemia
5. Joint pain/lameness, Bone fracture (Osteoporosis)
6. In sheep; Ataxia & Sway back (also Selenium deficiency)
Rx 1. Injectable copper and Cu dietary supplement
2. If molybdenum content of forage over 5ppm, use 1% copper sulfate CuSO4 in salt to get
Cu level back up
Prevention Keep Coppe: molybdenum ratio of 6:1

GIT Mineral toxicity in cattle

Arsenic 1. found on pesticide contaminated foliage and pressure treated wood
2. Severe gastrioentritis as hemorrhagic diarrhea (as in dogs) w/ colic
Copper 1. Rare in cattle
(Sheep) 2. Less in goats than sheep, d/t they excreted copper more efficiently
3. When fed toxic levels, copper accumulated in liver until sudden release under stress leading
 to Sever GI signs & Acute hemolytic crisis
- Icterus, Port wine colored urine, Gun metal grey kidney (From HBuria), Enlarged
spleen w/ dark brown-black parenchyma
Lead 1. Diarrhea or constipation, but more of CNS Signs (encephalopathy, Blindness, head
pressing, maniacal excitement, death)

Ammoniated feed toxicity or NPN or Urea toxicity or Bovine bonkers

Overview 1. Occur when HiGH quality forages as ryegrass haylage is ammoniated in order to
increase digestibility and protein content
- This shouldn't applied on High quality forage; but ammoniated LOW quality forages are
relatively safe nitrogen source
- Other sources of urea toxicity would be molasses, protein tub supplements
2. The toxic compound will be 4-methylimidazole from reaction of ammonia w/ soluble
sugars
Signs 1. Bovine bonkers (Wild aberrant behavior & running around), Convulsion, tremors,
hyper-salivation and acute death
2. High ammonia odor from rumen; rumen pH = 9 (N=5.9-6.2)
DDx 1. Grass tetany (hypo Mg) is very similar w/ tetany, convulsion and acute death; but more in
lactating cows and no ammonia
Rx 1. Not antidote; supportive w/ VINEGAR & Cold water (to prevent breakdown of urea to
absorbable form of ammonia
- Best result if the animal is still ambulatory
2. IT's often impossible to treat before animal dies d/t rapid progression
- If possible: IV fluids, relive bloat, anticonvulsants (Dizapam, pentoparbital Na)

Nitrate poisoning in cattle

▪ Etiology
1. Nitrate ingestion from water, fertilizers on the pasture, or in the feed
2. Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in rumen and absorbed into the body and causes methemoglobinemia with
subsequent hypoxia
▪ Classic case
1. Tissue anoxia → Cyanotic /gray mucous membranes, cold extremities, tachycardia, dyspnea,
weakness & ataxia
2. Abortion after poisoning by 5 – 14 d
▪ Dx
1. Chocolate Brown blood (methemoglobinemia)
2. Nitrate/nitrite Measurement
- Plasma (antemortem); ocular fluid (Post-mortem) or fetal fluid (if abortion)
▪ Rx: Methylene blue slowly IV, and supportive care
Cyanide poisoning
Spp 1. Ruminant are more sensitive than monogastric animals (as horse)
Source 1. Ingestion of plants containing cyanogenic glycosides
2. In fertilizers, pesticides, and industrial chemicals
MOA 1. Prevent release of O2 from hemoglobin due to inhibition of cellular respiration rather
than direct effect on hemoglobin
- Through binding to iron (ferric ion) in mitochondrial cytochrome chain, preventing
transferring electron to O2
‫يعني بالبلدي خاليا الجسم مش بتقدر تاخد االوكسيجن من الهيموجلوبين‬
Signs 1. Similar signs to nitrate poisoning but differ in
- Bright sherry red mucous membrane d/t O2 retained
- Bright red blood (Cyanohemglobin)
- Bitter almond odor emanates from GIT during necropsy
2. Acute death can occur w/ normal blood and mucous membrane; and often diarrhea &
hematochezia prior to death
 Horse

Mycotoxins

Fumonisin (Fusarium spp) mycotoxins

Cause 1. F. Verticilloids "Moniliforme" or Proliferatum → Fumonisin
Effect 1. Leukoencephalomalacia → Liquifactive necrosis of white matter or cerebrum →
(Brain, Blindness, circling, seizures, recumbency
liver) 2. Hepatic Necrosis & Hemorrhage → As Aflatoxins

Slaframine (Black patch disease)

Rhi-cola- Red -Slaf- fluids
Cause 1. Rhizoctonia legmunicola grown on Red Clover (Trifolium
prantense) in wet, cool years → Slaframine (cholinergic agonist)
Effect 1. Profuse excretion of all type of fluids (Slobbers in horse)
- Salivation, lacrimation, Diarrhea, urination
Dx 1. Signs + Black patches of fungus on forages
Rx 1. Atropine to reduce secretion

Toxic plants

Stringhalt

1. Spasmodic upward overflexion of hind limb towards abdomen that occurs at

every stride of walk.
2. Etiology Ass'd w/ Lathyrism (Sweet pea) In US, & Hypochoeris radicata (flat
weed) in Australia.
3. Probably Peripheral neuropathy: Nerve damage causes abnormal activity
spindles → muscles contract either too early or too late, or too much or too little

Centaurea spp. (Russian knapweed, Yellow star thistle)

Overview 1. Normally found in Mediterranean area & Russia but

introduced into western US
Toxins 1. Dopaminergic neurotoxins cause nigropallidal
& Action encephalomalacia
- Liquefactive necrosis of neurons in globus pallidus and
substantia nigra
2. Toxicity develops ONLY with chronic ingestion of large
volume & horses develop a taste for the plant
Signs 1. Called Chewing disease →
- Involuntary chewing movements, twitching/curling of lips and facial hyper-tonicity
- Unable to eat or drink d/t inability to prehend or chew & swallow
- Seen w/ their head deep into water bucket trying to drink
Rx 1. Irreversible; Euthanasia
Prevention 1. RUMINANT (Not affected) can be used to control spread of these weeds

Bracken fern toxicity (Pterdium aquilinum)

1. Brecken fern contains thiaminases lead to thiamine deficiency → Neurologic signs (Weight loss,
lethargy, ataxia, tremors, recumbency, death)
 Mare reproductive loss syndrome (MRLS)
1. Ass'd w/ Wild cherry trees, Eastern tent caterpillars & weather changes that affect pasture
conditions
2. Eastern tent caterpillars (Malacosoma americanum) → Contain toxin in exoskeleton and bacteria in
hair causing abortion

Foal Hyperplastic goiter & Hyperthyroidism

Cause 1. Born to dam fed inadequate iodine or goitrogenic plants as Soybean, cabbage, kale
"wild cabbage" turnips, rape

Signs 1. Visible goiter, weakness, hypothermia, developmental abnormalities of musculoskeletal

system

Acer rubrum (red maple) toxicity

1. Horses are the most commonly affected

2. The bark and wilted or dry leaves contain oxidants (gallic acid) damage
RBCs membranes and RBCs exhibit Heinz body and eccentrocytosis
(Hemoglobin of cell is in other cell)
3. Acute intravascular hemolysis, methemoglobinemia/uria
4. Weakness, depression, panting, tachycardia, icterus, cyanosis, brown discoloration urine & blood
5. PM: Icterus, splenic hemosiderosis (iron deposits), swollen/dark red blue/black kidney with red-brown
tubular cast, and swollen, brown liver
6. Rx: Toxicity is often fatal; Supportive care (IV fluids, oxygen, blood transfusions)

Ionophore toxicity (Monensin & Lasalocid)

Overview 1. Horses are the most sensitive compared to other species (then pigs, cattle, sheep, goat,
chickens)
2. Cardiotoxic → Lead to abnormal transport of ions across cell membranes leading to
damage to myocardium & fibrosis
Effect 1. Anorexia, Colic, stiffness (Tying up), Tachycardia, posterior paresis, Myolobinureia &
High creatine kinase (Skeletal muscle necrosis)
2. MUSCLE DAMAGE (Rhabdomyolysis & Cardiomyopathies) → Pale myocardium &
hemopericardium & epicardial hemorrhage
Rx 1. NO ANTIDODE, but Activated charcoal or mineral oil slow absorption
 Cantharidin poisoning (Blister beetle "Epicauta Spp")
▪ Etiology
1. Cantharidin production by blister beetles "Epicauta spp"

Epicauta cinerea

Epicauta atrata Meloe proscarabaeus

▪ Classic case
1. History of eating alfalfa due to beetles contaminate it by cantharidin
2. Irritation and ulceration
- Hemorrhagic gastritis, Colic & diarrhea, Hemorrhagic cystitis, hematuria
3. Ventral & distal limb edema, and in severe cases circulatory collapse and death
2. Severe hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, hypoalbuinemia

Esophageal ulceration Hemorrhagic gastritis Cardiac hemorrhage Hemorrhagic cystitis

▪ Rx
1. Nasogastric activated charocoal, Analgesia, supportive care (Fluids & correction of electrolyte)
 Pig

Fumonisin (Fusarium spp) mycotoxins

Cause 1. F. Verticilloids or Proliferatum → Fumonisin in moldy corn
Effect 1. Hypertension, pulmonary edema and hydrothorax → Dyspnea, cyanosis and death of
50-100 % of herd

Zearalenone (estrogenism & Vulvo-vaginitis ) (Fusarium spp)

Cause 1. Fusarium graminearum → Zearalenone (estrogen)

1. Young gilts (Weaned & prepuberal)
- Vulvo-vaginitis, Swollen mammary gland, Abdominal
straining & prolapse of vulva, uterus and rectum
Effect 2. Young male
- Atrophy of testis (infertility)
3. Mature sows
- If at 12 – 14d of estrous cycle → Retain Corpus luteum
→ Pseudo-pregnancy (Prolonged anestrus)
- If at 7-10d after breeding → Prevent implantation &
cause early embryonic death

Trichothecene
Cause 1. Fusarium and many other fungi → Trichothecene toxins:
- Deoxynivalenol (DON) (Vomitoxin), T2 toxin, DAS
Spp 1. Swine & Poultry
Effect 1. Severe irritation → Stomatitis, oral hemorrhage, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, Vomiting
2. Immunosuppression (Bone marrow hypoplasia)
3. Typical sign of Refuse to eat of contaminated food d/t taste everson
Note 1. Has several specific names, including best known, Stachbotryotoxicosis

Gossypol toxicity in Cottonseed meals

Species 1. Pigs & Young ruminants
Signs ▪ Multisystemic toxicity by gossypol binding to all body Amino acids & deactivating them
affecting many enzymatic and biological processes
1. Cardiac & Respiratory: ↓ RBC & ↑ their fragility leading to anemia, cardiac failure,
Violent dyspnea (Thumbing)
2. Hepatic & Renal damage
4. Reproductive: decrease libido, sperm motility, spermatogenesis
Rx 1. Poor Px & No effective treatment d/t Long-term exposure & multi-organ damage
Prevention 1. Best way to avoid is to remove cottonseed meal from food
2. Addition of Iron to feed → Inactivate free gossypol pigment
- High protein, Ca hydroxide also protect
▪ Algae toxicosis and pyrrolizidine alkaloidosis (senecio, Crotalaria: Think of hepatic necrosis /
failure

Sex identification in snakes

1. Top: A blunt sexing probe is inserted caudally into either side of

the cloaca (arrow).
2. Middle: In males, the probe enters into one of the hemipenal sulci
to a depth of 6–14 subcaudal scales.
3. Bottom: In females, the probe enters one of the cloacal glands to
a depth of < 6 subcaudal scales.

Pit viper envenomation (Crotalid; e.g. rattlesnake, Coral snake (Micrurus spp.) envenomation
copperheads, cottonmouths)
1. Signs Develop rapidly (w/in 15 min) 1. Signs delayed up to 36 h & progress rapidly
w/in mins to the point of respiratory paralysis
2. associated with Coagulopathies, Rapid & severe 2. associated with hemolysis, LMN paralysis
swelling around the bite, thrombocytopenia, and mental depression
neurotoxicity and cardiovascular toxicity

Think Red-on-yellow, kill a fellow; Red-on-black,

friend of jack to remember which snake is poisonous

▪ Cyclop lamb Congenital defect

1. Ass'd with ingestion of veratrum spp (false hellebore skunk cabbage) by ewe on day 14d of
gestation producing lambs with one eye in middle of the head
- Ingestion on day 19-21 d results in embryonic death and day 28-31 result in limb defects
- these defects are most common in sheeps, but cattle, goat, llamas, horses are all susciptible
2. Vetatrum spp are steroidal alkaloids; Sheep & goat readily eat the plant while cattle only eat it when the
forage is very low
3. Typically, animals don't ingest enough veratrum to cause signs, but if they do → Cardiovascular &
neurological disorders
- Cardiac arrhythmias, Bradycardia, hypotension, Dyspnea, salivation, vomiting, and convulsion &
paralysis within 2-3 h of ingestion
 Small animal
toxicosis
Ethylene glycol Rasins & Grapes Vit D3
(cholicalceferol)
Ivermectin Acetominophine Onion & Garlic
(allium)
Pyretheroid Organophosphate & Marijuana
Carbamate
Rodenticides Rodenticide Strychnine
(warfarin) (Promethalin)
Arsenic Zinc Moth balls
Xylitol Chocholate Smoke inhalation
▪ LD50 (Lethal dose-50) → The dose that is lethal to 50% of test group
1. It's inversely proportional to toxicity → so, a lower LD50 is more toxic than Higher LD50
2. the most common way to define toxicity and estimate lethality of a substance
3. Changes w/ species, sex and age group

Poisoning therapy
▪ Prevent absorption
• Dermal decontamination: Bathing, For external toxicants
• Ocular decontamination
A. Irritants → Rinse eye(s) with eye wash or tap water for 10–15 minutes.
B. Corrosive → as irritants then fluorescein stain
• Respiratory decontamination: Removal from source + Oxygen therapy.

GIT decontamination
• Emetics
Instructions - Of little value beyond 1–2 hours after ingestion with Exceptions as large ingestions,
grapes/raisins, gum, chocolate, and plant material.
- Avoided with neurologic abnormalities including severe agitation or severe depression
/sedation.
- Avoided with strong acids, alkalis, petroleum distillates or substances that may result in
a rapid onset of neurologic abnormalities.
Dog drugs 1. Apomorphine (The most effective, within 10 min): 0.03 - 0.04 mg/kg IV or IM or
Crushed for conjunctival administration
2. 3% H2O2: 1 - 2 ml/kg PO (Not more than 45 ml in most dogs & 60 ml in large dogs)
- Not always effective in dogs.
Cat drugs 1. Dexmedetomidine (most effective within 20 min): 5–10 μg/ kg IM
2. Xylazine: 0.44–1 mg/kg IM or SQ.
3. Hydromorphone (within 15 min): 0.1 mg/kg SQ
• Activated charcoal (Adsorbent; Binds to drug/toxin in GIT to prevent absorption)
1. Highly adsorptive of rodenticides, insecticides, and most OTC and prescription medications.
2. Ineffective against xylitol, alcohols, chlorate, cyanide, heavy metals, corrosive and caustic chemicals,
and petroleum distillates.
3. Administered after emetic and may be before removing orogastric tube (gastric lavage) with a
cathartic as sorbitol “in the first dose”
- Sorbitol is cathartic; a highly fermentable sugar that pulls fluid into GIT causing diarrhea
4. Dose: 1 - 5 g / kg PO in the first dose and 1 g/kg q 6 hours for 24 hours.
5. Hypernatremia may occur especially in dehydrated animals with Cathartic: IV or SQ fluids
• Gastric lavage
1. Indicated when emesis is not suitable or unsuccessful, or ingested life threatening toxin.
2. Most effective in first 1 - 2 hours
3. Application
- Cuffed Endotracheal tube is applied first
- Orogastric (stomach) tube with the largest size possible “the same size as endotracheal tube” measured
to the last rib
- 5 - 10 ml/kg of warm water
- Agitate the stomach and either aspirate or allow gravity drainage of stomach contents.
▪ Enhance elimination
• Diuretics
1. Furosemide 2 mg/kg IV q6–8h, if no response increase dose to 4–6 mg/kg IV q6–8h.
2. Mannitol 1–2 g/kg IV slowly over 20–30 minutes q6h.
- Caution as electrolyte abnormalities may occur
• Fluid therapy • Peritoneal dialysis • Lipid emulsion therapy
 Ethylene glycol toxicity
• Classic case (Lethal dose is 1.5mg/kg)
1. Outdoor, History of Garage access & Engine leak
2. Northern colder climates; Owners of rustic camps their fill up their toilet bowls w/ antifreeze over the
cold winter to protect the lines from freezing and then the dog drink this sweet tasting antifreeze
3. Early (1-2 after ingestion) → Drunken, ataxic or stupor
4. Late (within 24-72 h of ingestion) → Acute Renal failure (Anorexia, depression, vomiting, PU/PD),
diarrhea, anuria, oral ulcers
• DDx
1. Other causes of Acute neurological depression & ataxia as Rabies (Vaccination history)
2. Other causes of ARF including: leptospirosis, grapes/rasins, Vitamin D3 toxicosis, NSAIDs.

Grapes & Rasins (Dog ˃ Cat)

1. Vomiting & Diarrhea then Oliguric / Anuric renal failure (PU/PD, Anorexia, depression, death)
2. Rx: Decontamination & elimination

VIT D3 Toxicosis (Cholicalciferol)

1. ↑ Ca & Ph leading to:
- ARF (PU/PD) - Cardiac (Tachycardia, arrhythmias) - CNS (Lethargy, ataxia, seziures)
- GIT (Vomiting, diarrhea) - Calcifecations of soft tissues
2. Rx
- Decontamination & Elimination
- Pamidronate → Inhibit osteoclastic bone resporption

• Dx
1. EG Screening test kit (at 30 min to 12h post ingestion)
- False +ve d/t propylene glycol or glycerol presence in activated
charcoal, some semi-moist dog foods, and injectable diazepam
- less accurate in cats, due to small amounts (couple of licks)
2. Crystalluria
- Calcium oxalate Crystals → Monohydrate (DUMBELL) &
Dehydrate (ENVELOPED)
- The Flattened hexagon shape (Picket fence) of Ca
Monohydrate is Most specific for EG (6h in dog & 3h in cats)
3. Other tests
- Blood gas analysis → High anion gap metabolic acidosis (Acidic metabolites of EG)
- Wood’s lamp examination (up to 6h post ingestion) → Vomitus, urine, muzzle, paws may fluorescence
- Osmole gap (Serum osmolality) → > 20 mOsm/kg strongly suggestive of EG
- Chemistry (after 24-27h of ingestion) → High BUN, Creatinine, Ph & low Ca (Chelation w/
metabolites) and Hyperglycemia (inhibition of glycolysis by metabolites)
- Ultrasound (within 4-6h of ingestion) → Increased renal cortical echogenicity or halo sign
▪ Rx (Best done before 6-12h of ingestion)
1. Decontamination → Emesis induction, Gastric lavage & Activated charcoal & sodium sulfate
- Limited if stupor patient and risk for aspiration pneumonia
2. Antidote → Ethanol, or fomepizole (4-MP;4-methylpyrazole) → Slow EG metabolism through
competitively inhibiting alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)
- Ethanol require a longer stay in intensive care than 4-MP & Pyrazole
3. Supportive care → Fluid therapy (+ NahCo3), Hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis if oliguria or anuria
• Prognosis
- Fair to good if aggressive intervention within 8-12 hours of ingestion.
- Poor to grave (without dialysis) once azotemia, oliguria, or anuria develop.
 Acetaminophen (Paracetamol)
▪ Overview (Cat ˃ Dog)
1. Cats are the most sensitive & w/ high half-life compared to dog d/t they lack Glucuronyl
transferase that metabolize acetaminophen and NSAIDS by conjugation w/ glucuronic acid
- Cats instead rely on sulfation pathway which is less efficient and slow while dog depend on both
glucuronidation and sulfation pathways
2. Little dose of 10 mg/kg (or more) is toxic to cats; so just half tablet (50-60mg) is toxic
3. Acetaminophen reach peak plasma levels of 10-30 minutes
• Classic case
1. Liver oxidative damage → Vomiting, lethargy, anorexia, abdominal pain
2. RBCs oxidative damage → Dyspnea, cyanosis, Brown muddy mucous membrane, Brown red urine
3. Renal → Lethargy, PU/PD
4. Systemic inflammatory response → Facial & Paw edema, facial pruritus
• DDx: Heinz body anemia (onions/garlic), Liver disease.

Allium spp (Garlic ˃ Onions) (Cats ˃ Dog)

1. Contain Sulfur oxidants → Hemolysis → Heinz body anemia
2. Icterus, HB uria, Tachycardia, death
3. garlic/onion powder common in baby food
• Dx
1. Methemoglobin (Chochlate-brown) in EDTA blood & Heinz body anemia
2. Monitor for Methmeglobinemia, ALT, ALP q12h
- ↑ Liver enzymes (ALP, ALT), or decrease liver function (BUN, cholesterol, albumin → Serious issue
- Signs persists 18-24h after ingestion and cat can dies at ANY TIME from mthomglobinemia
- MetHb % → Normal (˂1%), Blood drop on white filter paper & turned brown (˃15%), Dyspenic
Patient (20-40%), acute life-threatening (40-55%)
• Rx
1. Decontamination (with in 2h of ingestion) → Emesis induction (xylazine, dexmetomidine),
Charcoal, or Gastric lavage
2. N-acetylcysteine (NAC, Mucomyst) → Dilute to 5% solution & give an initial dose of 140 mg/kg IV,
PO followed by 70 mg/kg q 6hr for 7 treatments
- Provides a sulfhydryl source to hepatocyte and erythrocytes, thus decreasing oxidative damage from
acetaminophen
3. Hepatic antioxidants: S-adenosylmetyionine (SAM-E): 40 mg/kg PO daily & Ascorbic acid (VIT
C): 20-30 mg/kg PO q6 h for several days, post ingestion.
4. +/- Oxygen support
• Prognosis: Fair to good w/ early Decontamination before signs appears; Guarded once signs develops
 Pyrethrin / Pyrethroid (CAT)
▪ Classic case
1. Over the counter (OTC) “spot ons” for flea control
2. History of family dog recently treated with permethrin topical flea control product
3. Seizures, tremors, ataxia, hyperthermia, vomiting, diarrhea
• Dx
1. History is helpful; & Cats may have a greasy/oily spot on their haircoat, where the product was placed.
• Rx
1. Decontamination (Bathing) only w/ few or no signs
2. Methocarbamol (50-220 mg/kg IV) Rx of choice
- Give ½ dose at 2ml/min
- Wait the patient to relax then give the rest IV
- Follow with CRI of 8.8 - 12.2 mg/kg/hr.
3. +/- Midazolam or propofol can be used.
- Monitor respiration and body temperature if used.

Organophosphate (OPP) and carbamate toxicity)

▪ Overview
1. OPs and Carbamates inhibit AChE causing Ach to build up in the synapse → Excessive Muscaranic,
nicotinic, or CNS activity
2. Irreversible binding of OPs AChE and Reversibil binding of carbamates
3. Cats are particularly sensitive to OPP called Chlorpyifos
▪ Signs
1. SLUDDEM (Salivation, lacrimation, Urination, Defecation/diarrhea, Dyspnea, Emesis/vomiting,
MIOSIS)
2. Bradycardia, Seizures, Hyperthermia, ataxia, depression
3. NB) NO MIOSIS w/ Pyrethrin toxicity
4. Tachycardia & No MIOSIS & Secretions w/ metaldehyde
▪ Dx: Clinical suspicion and confirm w/ Blood AChE levels
▪ Rx
1. Atropine, Pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM), Diazepam/Phenobarbital "Seizure control"
- Atropine (w/ muscarinic signs), Pralidoxime (w/ Nicotonic; doen't help w/ carbamate)
2. Decontamination → Bathing for dermal exposure & gastric lavage / Activated charcoal w/ ingestion
3. Supportive care
▪ Px: Good unless significant respiratory distress or seizure

Molluscicides (Metaldehyde) (Snail bait)

▪ Signs
1. History of 1-3 hours of ingestion of snail/slug bait (metaldehyde)
2. Muscle tremors, tachycardia, mydriasis, ataxia, hyperesthesia, Hyperthermia , then depression &
hyperpnea
3. Other signs of Vomiting, diarrhea, opithotonos & seizures
4. Uncommon hepatic & renal failure
▪ Rx
1. Decontamination, Control Tremors/seziures and supportive care

Ivermectin and other macrocyclic lactones toxicity

▪ Ivermectin, Milbemycin, moxidectin, selamectin.
• Classic case (Mydriasis, bradycardia, nervous signs, Vomiting, drooling, coma & death)
1. Ass'd w/ MDR1 gene mutation in Collie, Australian shepherds, old English sheepdogs, longhaired
whippets, silken windhounds and variety of their mixed breeds.
2. Depression, Vomiting, Drooling, mydriasis
3. Nervous signs: Ataxia, tremors, Disorientation, Transient blindness
4. Weakness, recumbency, bradycardia, coma & death.
▪ Rx
1. Atropine for Bradycardia. 2. IV fluids and nutritional support.
3. Activated charcoal q6h if the animal is able to swallow and alert.
4. IV lipid emulsion: bolus dose 1.5 mL/kg over 2–3 min; CRI of 0.25 mL/ kg/min for 30–60 min.

Marijuana, Hashish
1. Cannabis sativa → Tetra hydro cannabinol (THC)
Cause - Marijuana in flowers & leaves
- Hashish in Resin on top
Effect 1. Prolonged Sedation, hypotension, ataxia, bradycardia, ‫هبوط‬
(Mostly hypothermia, mydriasis
Dog) 2. Vomiting, diarrhea, salivation, urinary incontinence ‫افرازات‬
3. Vocalization, seizures, coma ‫تشنجات‬
Rx 1. Early: Decontamination
2. Late: IV fluids, diazepam, treat hypothermia
 Strychnine
Overview 1. From Nux-vomica tree 2. Very lethal = LD50 = 1mg/kg
MOA 1. Inhibit the inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine
Effect 1. Continuous neurotransmission to striated muscles → Generalized rigidity, tonic clonic
convulsions, Saw horse stance
Rx 1. Decontamination of limited value to very rapid onset; as emesis induction
2. Muscle relaxants as methocarbamol

Arsenic (Ant baits, pesticides)

Overview 1. Cats are more sensitive
2. Arsenic found in
- Old pesticides & Antbaits, contaminated water near mines
- Organic arsenic in feed additives in chicken and pigs
- Wood preservatives (e.g. pressure treated wood as backyard decks)
- Thiacetaresmide (heartworm adulticide)
Effect 1. RBCs destruction
2. Vomiting, Hemorrhagic diarrhea & hematochezia, convulsion, weakness, prostration
Rx 1. Decontamination
2. Dimercarpol (BAL) IM or SUCCIMER (Dimercaptosuccinic acis DMSA) oral or per
rectum for 10d → Chelation w/ heavy metals as arsenic

Zinc
Overview 1. In Dogs; D/t their eating habits make them susceptible to eat Zinc containing stuff as U.S
Lincoln pennies, batteries, paints, zinc oxide sunscreen creams, zippers, game pieces,
galvanized metal like pipes, screw and nut on pet carrier), and excess zinc in diet
Effect 1. GI → Vomiting, diarrhea (bloody)
2. Hemolytic anemia → Hb-uria, Icterus, PU/PD, Seizures (hypoxia)
Dx & Rx 1. X-ray for FB → Surgical removal

Mothball toxicity
Overview 1. By Old-fashioned Naphthalene-containing mothball
- Single mothball toxic to 14kg dog
2. By Paradichlorobenzene containing cakes as deodorizer cakes in diaper buckets,
garbage cans, bathroms
3. Camphor can found also in moth ball
4.. Cats are more sensitive, Dog more likely to ingest
Effect 1. Mothball → GI (Vomiting, diarrhea) & Hemolytic anemia & heinze bodies (oxidation)
2. Deoderant cakes → Tremors, salivation, ataxia, seizures
3. Naphthalene odor breath, Difficult breathing
4. Liver and kidney failure

Rodenticides

Anticoagulants (e.g., Warfarin)

Class 1. Coumarin compounds → warfarin, coumafuryl, brodifacoum, bromadiolone
2. Inanedione compounds → Diphacinone, pindone, valone, and chlorophacinone
MOA 1. Inhibit VIT K reductase enzyme → Inhibit VIT K → Inhibit synthesis VIT K
dependent factors (F2, 7, 9 & 10) form liver → No conversion of prothrombin to
thrombin → Prolonged PT
Signs 1. Bleeding disorders: Hemorrhage, hematomas, epistaxis, anemia
Rx 1. VITK and monitor for PT time every 12h
2. +/- Fresh or frozen plasma, whole blood
 Neurotoxic (Bromethalin)
1. Produce desmobromethalin
Action 1. Intra-myelin fluid accumulation, Spinal & cerebral edema & ↑ CSF pressure
2. Loss of staining & ulceration of cerebrum white matter
3. Signs develop 4-86h post ingestion
Effect 1. High dose → Acute convulsant syndrome (tremors, hyperesthesia, hyperthermia, seizures)
2. Low dose → Paralytic syndrome (Ataxia, paresis, depression, decreased proprioception)
Rx 1. GIT Decontamination
2. Acute syndrome → Diazepam (seizures), Methocarbamol (tremors), mannitol / dexa for
cerebral edema
Zinc phosphide
- Cause GI upset and cardiovascular collapse

Chocolate (Cacao)
Overview 1. d/t Toxic methyxanthine alkaloids (Theobromine, theophylline, Caffeine)
2. Common around Halloween, christhmas, and valentine's day holidays
3. Dog LD50 = 100mg/kg
4. Cacao beans and baking chocolate are worse than semisweet chocolate that is worse than
milk chocolate
- 49 g of BAKING chocolate can kill 7kg dog and 420 milk chocolate bars can kill 7kg dog
MOA 1. ↑ Intracellular Ca → Contractility of skeletal and cardiac muscles
2. Inhibit cellular adenosine receptors → CNS Stimulation, diuresis, Tachycardia
3. Inhibit benzodiazepine receptors and inhibit phosphodiestrase → increase CAMP
4. increase epinephrine and nore-epinephrine
Signs 1. Most cases are mild → Hyperactivity, Vomiting, diarrhea, urination
(Dog) 2. Sever cases → Excitement, seizures, muscle rigidity, arrhythmias (V-tach) and
respiratory failure
Rx 1. Decontamination w/ emesis for asymptomatic dog within 8h of exposure
- Gastric lavage can be done if animal sedated
- Activated charcoal if LETHAL dose ingested (as it ↑ risk of hypernatremia "Tremors,
ataxia, seizures)
2. V-tach → Lidocaine drip
3. SVPCs → Beta blockers (Propranalol, atenolol)
3. Hyperactivity/seizures/muscle rigidity → Diazepam and methocarbamol
- Slow phenobarbital is response to diazepam is inadequate

Xylitol
Effect 1. In dogs
- Vomiting
- Stimulate insulin release → Sever rapid hypoglycemia, Lethargy, ataxia, collapse and
seziures
- Acute Hepatic injury → Icterus, hemorrhage
Rx 1. Decontamination 2. Dextrose IV 3. N-acetylcystine, SAM-e
▪ Other Contraindicated food for Pet animals
Avocado 1. Myocardial Necrosis to Birds, fish & some mammals; but Dogs are relatively
resistant however intestinal obstruction w/ avocado pit ingetion
2. Sterile mastitis in Lactating mammals
Raw bread 1. It made of yeast; can cause mechanical and biochemical hazards
dough 2. Dogs w/ gastric distention, metabolic acidosis, CNS depression
Macadamia 1. Dogs w/ non-fatal syndrome of vomiting, ataxia, weakness, hyperthermia,
nuts depression
Raisin/grapes 1. Acute renal failure w/ dogs; Some dogs eat raisins w/ no problem
Chocholate, Xylitol
Pumpkin can be eaten by pet animal
 Lily flower family (Easter/trumpet, Stargazer, and tiger lilies)
1. Cats → Vomiting, lethargy and acute renal failure (PU/PD)

2. Dx: Azotemia, Hyperphosphatemia, Hyperkalemia w/ oligouria or anuria

3. Rx
- Acute ingesion → Decontamination + IV fluids for 3 d even if signs are not presnt
4. Px
- Good if Rx within 18h of ingesion, before oliguria or signs of AKI
- Guarded to poor once oliguria and anuria or uremia

Cardiac glycosides toxic plants

Overview 1. Cats ˃ Dogs
Contain oleandrin Contain Digitoxin Graynotoxins as Contain Canvallarian,
1. Nerium oleander 2. Digitalis Andromedotoxin Canvallamarin,
(Laurel rosa, laurel purpurea ‫اندرو وميدو‬ Canvallatoxins
blanco) (Foxglove, 3. Azalea (Rosebay 4. Canvallaria majalis
Scorphularac) Rhododendron, Ericaceae) ‫فض مجالس‬

- Foxglove (Digitalis spp) Extracts → Used to make DIGOXIN, So serum digoxin level confirm Dx
Effect 1. Inhibit Na-K ATPase pumps in myocardial cells leading to
- ↓ Pacemaker activity & memberae potential → A-V bock, asystole, Cardiac
arrhystmias
- ↑ Vagal tone (Bradycardia, hypotenion & dyspnea)
- Hyperkalemia
2. GIT distress: Vomiting, diarrhea (bloody), salivation, lacrimation
3. Rare convulsions
Rx 1. Early decontamination
2. Atropine (For bradycrdia), anitarrhthmatic drugs as lidocaine / Propanalol
3. Symptomatic (for dehydration, electrolyte, GI upset)
Px 1. Good for GI upset signs and Guarded for Cardivascular signs
▪ Other plants
1. Calla lilies (They are not true lily) & Philodendrons → They contain Ca oxalate crystals that cause
oral irritation & sweling & inflammation when ingested

Sago palm
Effect 1. Acute hepatic failure & Hemorrhageic Gastroentritis
- Vomiting, diarrhea, Hemorrhage, Hepatic encephalopathy &
seizures
 Blue algae (Cyano bacterial bloom; Blue green bacteria)
Toxins 1. Ana-Sax-Mic-Cylindr
- Anatoxin → Neurotoxic alkaloids - Saxitoxin → Paralyic shellfish like-toxins
- Microcystins → Hepatotoxic peptides - Cylindrospermosisn → Hepatotoxic alkaloids
Signs 1. Greenish stain on mouth, nose, or leg
2. Tremors, abdominal breathing, cyanosis
3. Hepatomegaly
Rx 1. Decontamination, Atropin (antagonize anatoxin "anticholine estrase)
2. Supportive for liver (SAMe, NAC)
3. Supportive for nervous signs (Diazepam, methocarbamol)

Smoke inhalation

Species 1. Birds are most susceptible because their physiology & anatomy (large respiratory surface
area compared to their size & a greater respiratory minute volume per unit mass)
2. Dogs & Cats
Effect 1. Ass'd w/ Cyanide & monoxide poisoning
2. High risk of Cancer → esp. Nasal cavity of long nosed dogs, Malignant lymphoma in cats,
Pneumonia or lung cancer in birds
3. Inhalation of steam typically cause Severe injury of lower airways
Dx 1. Underestimation at first evaluation because airway damage peaks at 12-24 h
2. Pulse oximetry is INACCURATE d/t frequent presence of carboxyhemoglobin and/or
methemohlobin
3. Gold standard tests for assessing damage is Bronchoscopy and laryngoscopy
Note 1. Cyanide and CO2 cause tissue hypoxia but w/ different mechanisms
- Cyanide → Prevent release of O2 from hemoglobin due to inhibition of cellular respiration
by binding to iron in mitochondrial cytochrome chain
- CO → Bind to hemoglobin preventing it from binding to O2

Lead & Zinc toxicity in caged birds

▪ Classic case (The most common toxicities of caged birds)
Source of Zinc galvanized cage wire, or other metal coated with shiny metal to prevent rusting
Source of lead paint in old houses, lead curtain weights or in stained glass, lead solder
Effect Biliverdinuria (a sign of hepatic ds), lime-green to yellow urates (Normal urates are
white to off white, with clear urine