Received: 28 May 2022 | Revised: 10 December 2022 | Accepted: 19 December 2022

DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3217

REVIEW

Natural antioxidants from some fruits, seeds, foods, natural

products, and associated health benefits: An update

Md. Mizanur Rahaman1 | Rajib Hossain1 | Jesús Herrera-­Bravo2,3 |

Mohammad Torequl Islam1 | Olubunmi Atolani4 | Oluyomi Stephen Adeyemi5 |
Olubukola Abibat Owolodun6 | Learnmore Kambizi7 | Sevgi Durna Daştan8,9 |
Daniela Calina10 | Javad Sharifi-­Rad11
1
Department of Pharmacy, Bangabandhu Sheikh MujiburRahman Science and Technology University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomas, Talca, Chile
3
Center of Molecular Biology and Pharmacogenetics, Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
4
Department of Chemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
5
Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Infectious Diseases, Nanomedicine& Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-­Aran, Nigeria
6
Cell Biology and Genetics Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
7
Department of Horticulture, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa
8
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
9
Beekeeping Development Application and Research Center, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey
10
Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova, Romania
11
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Azuay, Cuenca, Ecuador

Correspondence
Mohammad Torequl Islam, Department Abstract
of Pharmacy, Bangabandhu Sheikh
Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit the oxidation of other molecules and protect
MujiburRahman Science and Technology
University, Gopalgonj (Dhaka)-­8100, the body from the effects of free radicals, produced either by normal cell metabolism
Bangladesh.
or as an effect of pollution and exposure to other external factors and are responsible
Email: dmt.islam@bsmrstu.edu.bd
for premature aging and play a role in cardiovascular disease. degenerative diseases
Daniela Calina, Department of Clinical
Pharmacy, University of Medicine and such as cataracts, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer. While many antioxidants are found
Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova 200349, in nature, others are obtained in synthetic form and reduce oxidative stress in organ-
Romania.
Email: calinadaniela@gmail.com isms. This review highlights the pharmacological relevance of antioxidants in fruits,
plants, and other natural sources and their beneficial effect on human health through
Javad Sharifi-­Rad, Facultad de Medicina,
Universidad del Azuay, Cuenca, Ecuador. the analysis and in-­depth discussion of studies that included phytochemistry and
Email: javad.sharifirad@gmail.com
their pharmacological effects. The information obtained for this review was collected
from several scientific databases (ScienceDirect, TRIP database, PubMed/Medline,
Scopus, Web of Science), professional websites, and traditional medicine books.
Current pharmacological studies and evidence have shown that the various natural
antioxidants present in some fruits, seeds, foods, and natural products have different
health-­promoting effects. Adopting functional foods with high antioxidant potential

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2023 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Food Sci Nutr. 2023;11:1657–1670.  wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/fsn3 | 1657

1658 | RAHAMAN et al.

will improve the effective and affordable management of free radical diseases while
avoiding the toxicities and unwanted side effects caused by conventional medication.

KEYWORDS
antioxidants, chronic diseases, free radicals, health benefits, inflammation, oxidative stress

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N and Web of science using the following MeSH terms: Antioxidants/
isolation & purification, Antioxidants/analysis, Biological Products/
Antioxidants are the most important substances that help to pre- pharmacology, Antioxidants/pharmacology, Carotenoids/ isolation
vent the oxidation process. Oxidation is partly referred to as a & purification, Carotenoids/pharmacology, carotenoids/analysis,
chemical reaction capable of producing free radicles, as a result, food, Free Radical Scavengers/isolation & purification, Free Radical
chain reactions may occur, potentially causing serious damage to or- Scavengers/analysis, Oxidation–­Reduction/drug effects, Free
ganisms' cells (Mititelu et al., 2020; Sharifi-­Rad, Kumar, et al., 2020). Radical Scavengers/pharmacology, Medicinal/chemistry, Plants,
Antioxidants are compounds that scavenge free radicals in the Polyphenols /pharmacology, Polyphenols/analysis, Polyphenols/
human system. While the human body has a natural antioxidant de- isolation & purification. The names of the scientific species have
fense system that keeps free radicles in check. Natural antioxidants been validated using the PlantList and chemical structures using
found in food, particularly fruits, vegetables, and other plant-­based ChemSpider (Heinrich et al., 2020; The Plant Lists, n.d). The most
diets, plays important role in disease prevention (Popović-­Djordjević important antioxidant mechanisms have been summarized in Table 1
et al., 2022; Sharifi-­Rad, Dey, Koirala, et al., 2021). Antioxidants and Figure 1.
that are a word refer to two types of substances: industrial chem-
icals that are added to commodities to protect naturally occurring
substances from oxidation substances found in foods and tissues 3 | A NTI OX I DA NT AC TI V IT Y
(Quetglas-­Llabrés et al., 2022; Salehi et al., 2021). Industrial anti-
oxidants, on the other hand, have a lot of applications, including 3.1 | Apples
oxidation inhibitors in fuels and preservatives in food and cosmetic
products (Buga et al., 2019; Docea et al., 2020). Antioxidants are According to a study, the formation of colon and liver cancer cells in
capable to end-­up chain reactions by removing the intermediates vitro is inhibited by apple extracts in a dose-­dependent manner, and
of free radicals. They perform the antioxidant characteristics by 100 g of well-­cleaned apples exhibits antioxidant capacity equiva-
the way they are being oxidized, hence the antioxidants can be lence to 1500 mg of vitamin C (Eberhardt et al., 2000). The quantity
considered reducing agents. Some examples of this substance are of phenolics and flavonoids in Red Delicious apples extracted with
thiols, ascorbic acid, and polyphenols (Sharifi-­Rad, Quispe, Imran, 80% acetone was determined (Singleton & Rossi, 1965): the fresh
et al., 2021). Antioxidants are commonly used to be as supplements apple extracts contained 290.2 ± 4.2 mg and 219.8 ± 1.8 mg pheno-
in food and also have been examined for inhibition of various dis- lics compounds and also 142.7 ± 3.7 mg and 97.6 ± 3.9 mg flavonoids
eases such as heart disease and cancer. Exogenous types of antioxi- substance per 100 g of apples with and without peel (Eberhardt
dants such as vitamins, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and some mineral et al., 2000). Apple extracts with skin showed a significant reduction
compounds are derived from natural sources but also obtained in in tumor cell growth when compared with extracts without skin. The
synthetic forms, like butylhoxyanisole, butylhydroxytoluene, and apple extracts showed no cytotoxicity at all of the doses examined
gallates which are primarily synthetic. Antioxidants are getting (Eberhardt et al., 2000).
prominence, particularly those established to prevent the alleged
harmful impact of free radicals in the human body, and also the
degradation of lipids and other nutritional elements (Sharifi-­Rad, 3.2 | Grain
Rodrigues, et al., 2020). The antioxidant activities of some fruit and
vegetables are herein discussed. Grains include several phytochemicals that benefit humans health
through a variety of mechanisms, including antioxidants and hor-
mone mediation (Sharifi-­Rad, Quispe, Imran, et al., 2021; Tsoukalas
2 | M E TH O D O LO G Y et al., 2019a). Whole grains have been demonstrated to lower the risk
of developing colon cancer, breast cancer, diabetes, coronary heart
A detailed database search was conducted to identify recent arti- disease, and overall mortality in various studies (Quispe et al., 2022)
cles that illustrate the effectiveness of antioxidants in preventing According to Thompson (1994), lignans and phytoestrogens found
human disease. Data were searched in several online databases in grains may lower the incidence of different types of hormone-­
such as ScienceDirect, TRIP database, PubMed/Medline, Scopus, related disorders like prostate cancer and breast cancer. Andreasen
RAHAMAN et al. | 1659

TA B L E 1 Antioxidant potentials of fruits, plants, and natural compounds

Antioxidant
Sources compounds Dose/conc. (R/A) Potential mechanism of action References

Apple Phenolics, 290.2 ± 4.2 mg–­ ↓ Tumor cells growth( Eberhardt et al. (2000)
flavonoids 219.8 ± 1.8 mg
(phenolics)
142.7 ± 3.7–­
97.6 ± 3.9 mg
(flavonoids)
Pecan nuts Ellagic acid, –­ Pecan nut shell infusion has a high total do Prado et al. (2009)
galic acid, phenolic compound and condensed
protocatechuic, tannins ↑ antioxidant activity is
p-­ measured using various techniques
hydroxybenzoic
acids
Coffee brews Polyphenols, –­ ↑ Active oxygen-­scavenging activity Cammerer and Kroh (2006)
melanoidins
Grape juice Anthocyanins 25.56–­460 mg/L ↓ Oxidative damage of cells Burin et al. (2010), Munoz-­
Espada et al. (2004)
Walnut (Juglans Phenolics 32.61 mg/g of GAE Vital in obtaining a visible supply of Oliveira et al. (2008)
regia L.) (cv. Mellanaise) to chemicals having antibacterial activity
74.08 mg/g of GAE and health-­protective effects
t (cv. Franquette)
Berry Anthocyanins –­ Health maintenance chemopreventive Loliger (1991)
Nigella sativa Thymoquinone, 1.0 μg/ml Effective -­OH radical scavenging agents Burits and Bucar (2000)
carvacrol, were used in the non-­enzymatic lipid
t-­anethole, peroxidation in liposomes and the
4-­terpineol deoxyribose degradation assay.
Sesame coat Sesamin sesamolin –­ Termination of free radical reactions ↑metal-­ Changa et al. (2002)
(Sesamum binding capabilities ↓ROS
indicum L.)
Propolis sp. Kaemperol –­ Prevents inflammation, heart disease, Kumazawa et al. (2004)
phenethyl diabetes, and cancer
caffeate
Curcuma longa Curcumin I, 20 μg/ml, 14 μg/ml, ↓ Lipid peroxidation Ruby et al. (1995)
Curcumin II, 11 μg/ml
Curcumin III
Ginger (Zingiber Phenols 870.1 mg/g ↓ Lipid peroxidation Stoilova et al. (2007)
officinale)
Tomato Lycopene, –­ To get the most health advantages from Al-­Wandawi et al. (1985)
phenolics, tomatoes, eat them whole, including the
flavonoids skin and seeds
vitamins C, E
Coriander Monoterpenoid, –­ Inhibitory effect against radical-­scavenging Wangensteen et al. (2004)
(Coriandrum linalool characteristics that is the concentration-­
sativum L.) dependent manner
Grain Ferulic acid –­ Consumption of high-­fiber, whole-­grain diets Adom and Liu (2002)
diferulic acids has been linked to a lower risk of cancer
and coronary heart disease
Carotenoid-­rich β-­c arotene –­ Physical quenching appears to play a Krasnovakii and
plants substantial role in protecting biological Paramonava (1983)
systems from O2−mediated damage; the
rate of the chemical process accounts for
only 0.05% of the activity

et al. (2001) suggest that both human and rat gastrointestinal ester- compounds have a highly potent antioxidant ability, and also these
ase (that is usually found in intestinal mucosa and microbiota) may compounds' absorption level into the blood plasma has been estab-
liberate ferulic and diferulic acids from cereal bran (Figure 2). These lished (Andreasen et al., 2001).
1660 | RAHAMAN et al.

F I G U R E 1 Antioxidant mechanisms of bioactive compounds from natural sources. Abbreviations and symbols: ↑ increase, ↓decrease, ROS
reactive oxygen species, LDL low-­density lipoprotein, PGD2 prostaglandin D2, TxB2 thromboxane B2.

3.3 | Carotenoid-­rich plants and also a large amount of a total number of phenolic compounds,
such as gallic acid, ellagic acid, protocatechuic, p-­hydroxybenzoic
Carotenoids are powerful antioxidants that protect the body from acids, and catechin with potential natural antioxidant activity, were
oxidative damage. Carotenoids are used as the most common nat- present (de la Rosa et al., 2011; Kornsteiner et al., 2006). According
ural pigments, and β-­c arotene has been the most prominent com- to do Prado et al. (2009), pecan nuts contain a high fiber content
pound with over 600 compounds so far (Olson & Krinsky, 1995) (48% ± 0.06), with a total amount of phenolic content ranging from
(Figure 2). Carotenoids found in the plant such as carrots, spin- 116 to 167 mg GAE/g, and condensed tannin content ranging from
ach, and tomatoes serve as an antioxidant in animals, and also as 35 to 48 mg CE/g. In the ABTS system, antioxidant activity ranged
the provitamin. Carotenoids are a kind of vitamin A that can be from 1112 to 1763 mol TEAC/g. The antioxidant activity was re-
found in plants. Several epidemiological studies have revealed that ported to range from 305 to 488 mg TEAC/g (30 min reaction) and
increasing carotenoids in one's diet reduces the risk of acquiring from 482 to 683 mg TEAC/g (24 h reaction) by using the DPPH tech-
a range of degenerative diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular nique. In the β-­carotene/linoleic acid system, the range of oxidation
disease, and ophthalmological disease (Mayne, 1996). Carotenoids inhibition percentage is from 70% to 96%. Pecan nutshell infusion
affect cellular signaling and may activate redox-­s ensitive regula- had a significant phenolic content and high antioxidant activity, ac-
tory mechanisms (Stahl & Sies, 2003). It is possible to gain a better cording to the findings.
understanding of carotenoids' potential involvement as prooxi-
dants, as well as the significance of prooxidant activity in unde-
sired reactions. 3.5 | Coffee brews

Coffee beans and coffee beverages have long been recognized as

3.4 | Pecan nut effective antioxidants, and have been studied using various detec-
tion methods (Borelli et al., 2002; Daglia et al., 2000; Del-­Castillo
The pecan nut Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch is a member of et al., 2002; Steinhart et al., 2001). Recent research has proved that
the Juglandaceae family that grows in the place of southern United polyphenols in coffee play an important role in their potent antioxi-
States and also in northern Mexico (Hanock, 1997). High amounts dant properties (Tsoukalas et al., 2021). Some of the known chemical
of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids and also low compounds are present in coffee beans such as caffeoylquinic acids,
levels of saturated fatty acids are rich in pecan nuts. It was also re- feruloylquinic acids, dicaffeoylquinic acids, and p-­coumaroylquinic
vealed that bioactive substances including sterols and tocopherols, acids (Farah & Donangelo, 2006; Figure 2). Cammerer and Kroh (2006)
RAHAMAN et al. | 1661

(a)

(b)

(c)

F I G U R E 2 (a–­c) The chemical structures of the most representative bioactive compounds with antioxidant effects.
1662 | RAHAMAN et al.

show that stabilized radical EPR spectroscopy has used the determina- types of antioxidant properties and also the ability to protect cells
tion of the overall antioxidant effect of coffee beverages. Depending from oxidative damage (Cavallini et al., 1978). In multiple epidemiolog-
on whether stabilized radical is used, the readings of Fremy's salt (po- ical and clinical studies, eating fruits and fresh vegetables high in poly-
tassium nitrosodisulfonate) or 2,2,6,6-­tetramethyl-­1-­piperidin-­1-­oxyl phenols has been found to decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease
(TEMPO) may differ significantly. The radical marker TEMPO appears and cancer (Garcia-­Alonso, 2004). According to Burin et al. (2010),
to be the superior radical marker for determining the antioxidant activ- the antioxidant activity of all juices tested using the DPPH technique
ity of Maillard reaction products in coffee. As a result, both major an- ranged from 2.51 to 11.05 mM. In other research, the antioxidant
tioxidant active substances (polyphenols and melanoidins) particularly efficiency of red wine in 16 samples was evaluated using the DPPH
the ratio that vary depending on roasting conditions may play a signifi- technique, with results ranging from 6.10 to 17.41 mM (Li et al., 2006).
cant role. Particular changes in antioxidant activity in coffee brews are
shown to be time-­dependent during storage tests.
3.9 | Juglans regia L.

3.6 | Chocolate Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a valuable nut crop that is widely con-
sumed across the world. Several studies have proven the an-
Chocolate is very popular in many western countries including the tioxidant properties of walnut products, particularly fruits (Li
USA and Europe. It can only consume a small portion of total en- et al., 2007), leaves (Pereira et al., 2007), and liqueurs that are
ergy and fat. High sugar and caffeine content in chocolate provide produced from green fruits (Pereira et al., 2008). Green walnuts,
a fast-­absorbing stimulant energy source and a sustainable energy shells, bark, green walnut husks (epicarp), kernels, and leaves, in
source from high-­fat ingredients. Chocolate flavonoids and pheno- addition to dry fruit (nuts), have demonstrated positive benefits
lics protect fat against rancidification, and also reduce the need for in the cosmetic and medicinal industries (Stampar et al., 2006).
preservatives. The majority of flavonoids are strong antioxidants for Walnut husk extracts in their green form have significant reducing
LDL (low-­density lipoprotein) oxidation (Teissedre et al., 1996) and power. The capacity of a substance to reduce may be a good indi-
their administration is considered to be strongly related to coronary cation of its potent antioxidant effect (Meir et al., 1995). Oliveria
heart disease (Hertog et al., 1993). According to Waterhouse et al. et al. (2008) used three different types of assays to determine the
(1996), cocoa powder extract is a powerful antioxidant that prevents antioxidant ability of walnut green husk samples against ROS spe-
LDL oxidation. Cocoa phenols reduced oxidation by 75% at 5 μmol/L cies: scavenging activity on DPPH radicals, reducing power, and
GAE, whereas pure catechin (5 μmol/L) helps to inhibit oxidation by lipid peroxidation inhibition via the β-­c arotene-­linoleate system.
87%. The antioxidant capacity of aqueous extracts of green walnut was
investigated using a reducing power test, scavenging effects on
DPPH (2, 2-­diphenyl-­1-­picrylhydrazyl) radicals, and a β-­c arotene
3.7 | Strawberries linoleate model system. In reducing power and DPPH assays, all of
the examined extracts had EC50 values less than 1 mg/ml, indicat-
Recent epidemiological studies have associated a diet rich in fruits ing a concentration-­d ependent antioxidative capacity.
and vegetables with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease and can-
cer (Salehi et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2022). Strawberries (Fragaria
ananassa) are widely consumed, both fresh and processed, and so 3.10 | Aronia melanocarpa
provide a significant source of different compounds with signifi-
cant health benefits against different diseases. For example, phe- Berries are a type of plant material that is high in phenolics. Berries
nolic compounds with their antioxidative and antiproliferative and fruits are high in flavonoids and phenolic acids, which have anti-
properties (Meyers et al., 2003; Riboli & Norat, 2003). Because of oxidant properties. The antioxidant capacity of plasma was consid-
reduced oxidation of low-­density lipoprotein and platelet aggrega- erably improved by eating a controlled diet high in fruits and berries
tion, strawberry extracts and their components have been shown (Cao et al., 1998). According to several epidemiological research,
to have anti-­cancer, anti-­inflammatory, and heart disease prevention there is a strong negative relationship between fruit and vegeta-
characteristics (Hannum, 2004; Sharifi-­Rad, Rodrigues, et al., 2020). ble intake and mortality due to heart diseases (Hertog et al., 1993;
Knekt et al., 1996). As the future trend moves toward fruits with spe-
cific health effects, scientists, food manufacturers, and consumers
3.8 | Grape juice are becoming more interested in the antioxidant contents of berries,
which maintain health and protect us from coronary heart disease
Phenolic compounds are abundant in grapes, especially red grapes and cancer (Loliger, 1991). Aronia melanocarpa berries contain a lot
(Fuleki & Ricaardo-­da-­Silva, 2003). Phenolic compounds are studied of o-­phenolics such as caffeic acids, (−) epicatechin, cyanidin, and
for their health benefits as well as their involvement in the production quercetin derivatives. The presence of an o-­dihydroxy structure
of grape products (Bub, 2003; O'Byrne, 2002). They have different in the B ring confers increased radical stability and participates in
RAHAMAN et al. | 1663

electron delocalization, these compounds are the most active anti- the antioxidative and antiradical action of betalains (mostly betanin)
oxidants (Rice-­Evans et al., 1995). from beetroots (Beta Vulgaris) has recently been reported (Escribano
et al., 1998). Because of the health benefits of red beet goods, in-
cluding them in one's diet regularly may protect against some oxi-
3.11 | Phaseolus vulgaris L. dative stress-­related illnesses in humans (Kanner et al., 2001). Cai
et al.'s (2003) study provides evidence that betalains from of the
Dry beans, commonly known as Phaseolus vulgaris, can lower the Amaranthaceae family of plants, primarily red-­violet gomphrena
risk of diabetes and obesity (Geil & Anderson, 1994) due to their category betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins, have extremely high
significant different activity on the blood sugar and insulin re- antioxidant activity when compared with the traditional antioxidants
sponse, and therefore their potential utility for diabetes prevention (ascorbic acid, catechin, and rutin), indicating that betalains could be a
and control (Sandberg, 2000). Dry beans have also been found to good source including both antioxidants as well as natural colorants.
have significant activity against coronary heart disease (Anderson
et al., 1984; Bazzano et al., 2001). Hughes et al. (1997) provide evi-
dence that supports prior epidemiological research that has linked 3.14 | Sesamum indicum L.
high levels of dry bean consumption to reduce the risk of colon
cancer. Discovered that while having lower antioxidant capacity Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is a significant oilseed crop grown bor-
compared with other types of bean fractions obtained by the way der between India, Sudan, China, and Myanmar, accounting for 60%
of dry dehulling, bean hulls exhibited considerable antioxidant ca- of global sesame yield (Abou-­G harbia et al., 1997). Budowski (1964)
pacities, as determined by their ability to scavenge free radical or said that sesame oil is highly prone to degradation in comparison
inhibit the lipid peroxidation process. The antioxidant properties of with other types of vegetable oils. Sesame oil is stable due to the
manually separated hulls and their fractional methanolic extracts presence of important chemical constituents such as sesamin, sesa-
may account for some of the antimutagenic properties observed. minol, sesamolin, sesame, and g-­tocopherol (Shahidi et al., 1997).
Changa et al.'s (2002) study provides evidence that sesame coat
exhibits anti-­oxidant activity against a broad of lipid peroxidation
3.12 | Nigella sativa L. process in vitro. The numerous antioxidant processes of sesame
coats can be due to their strong hydrogen-­donating capacity, metal-­
Nigella sativa L. is an annual Ranunculaceae herbaceous plant whose chelating ability, and efficacy as hydroxyl radical scavengers.
seeds have been traditionally used for the treatment of asthma,
bronchitis, cough, rheumatism, headache, fever, eczema, influenza,
and as diuretic, lactagogue, and vermifuge in Middle East, Northern 3.15 | Piper betle L.
Africa, and India; we understood very little about the volatile oil ac-
tivity of N. sativa (Mahmoud & Shaheen, 1996). Preliminary investiga- Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) is a plant that is widely used as a mastica-
tions (Houghton et al., 1995) revealed that the essential oil's primary tory agent in Asia and its leaves have also a strong pungent aromatic
constituent, thymoquinone, inhibits the non-­enzymatic lipid peroxi- flavor. The leaves show some therapeutic properties such as diges-
dation activity in liposomes. Both non-­enzymatic lipid peroxidation tive and stimulants. Medicinally the leaves Piper betle L. is necessary
assays and the deoxyribose test demonstrated donor features in the for catarrhal and pulmonary affections (The Wealth of India, 1969).
DPPH assay and hydroxyl radical scavenging qualities (Aruoma & The phenolic component allylpyrocatechol found in the leaves has
Cuppett, 1997). In the experiments conducted on-­site, neither es- been showing significant activity against halitosis-­causing obligate
sential oil nor the substances carvacrol, thymoquinone, t-­anethole, oral anaerobic organisms (Ramji et al., 2002). The leaves of P. betle
or 4-­terpineol, which all are contributing to the volatile fraction's also had an efficient hepatoprotective effect and increased tissue
radical scavenging function in various ways, showed pro-­oxidant ac- antioxidant status by enhancing non-­enzymatic antioxidant activity
tivity (Aruoma, 1991; Gutteridge et al., 1981; Halliwell, 1993). Burits (reduced glutathione, vitamin E and vitamin C) and also free radical-­
and Bucars' (2000) study showed that N. sativa has radical scaveng- detoxifying enzyme activities in ethanol-­treated rats' liver and kid-
ing action, implying that using black cumin seeds to treat various ney (Saravanan et al., 2002). Platelet aggregation was decreased
inflammatory illnesses could be beneficial and reasonable. by P. betle leaf extract, which had antioxidative effects as well as
impacts on the formation of thromboxane B2 (TxB2) and prostaglan-
din-­D2 (PGD2) production (Jeng et al., 2002).
3.13 | Beta vulgaris

Red beet is one of the major sources of chemical constituent betalains, 3.16 | Caffeic acid-­rich plants
which are mostly used in the current food industry. The betalains are
essential natural colorants that were among the first to be discovered Caffeic acid (3, 4-­hydroxycinnamic acid) has been found to protect
to be used in food production (Francis et al., 1999). Much research on low-­density lipoprotein from α-­tocopherol damage (LDL) (Laranjinha
1664 | RAHAMAN et al.

et al., 1995). In a variety of systems, chlorogenic and caffeic acid con- that the antioxidant actions of Propolis sp. from different geographi-
jugates are very powerful antioxidants (Fukumoto & Mazza, 2000; cal sources, such as Argentina, Brazil, Australia, Bulgaria, China,
Meyer et al., 1998) (Figure 2). Caffeic acid and its many derivatives Hungary, New Zealand, South Africa, Ukraine, Thailand, Uruguay,
are known to be good polyphenol oxidase substrates, and they can Chile, the United States, and Uzbekistan, differ. The antioxidant prop-
oxidize plant tissues or plant-­derived products under certain condi- erties of ethanol extracts of propolis (EEP) were determined using the
tions (Bassil et al., 2005). Gulcin's (2006) study provides evidence β-­carotene bleaching and 1.1-­diphenyl-­2-­picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free
that in vitro studies such as total antioxidant activity by ferric thio- radicle scavenging tests. The majority of the antioxidant components
cyanate technique, reducing power, ABTS• + scavenging, DPPH• in EEP were discovered and quantified using the HPLC analysis with
scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, and metal chelat- the effective photo-­diode array (PDA) and mass spectrometric (MS)
ing activity give evidence that caffeic acid was the most potent anti- detection. Antioxidant substances like kaempferol and phenethyl
oxidant when compared with typical antioxidant chemicals like BHA, caffeate were found in Propolis sp. with high antioxidant activity.
BHT, a natural antioxidant, α-­tocopherol and trolox, a water-­soluble
homolog of tocopherol.
3.20 | Curcuma longa

3.17 | Ocimum sp. Curcumin which is isolated from the plant Curcuma longa and has
several pharmacological properties is mostly known to be a natural
Many Lamiaceae herb spices, including sage, oregano, and thyme, antioxidant (Quispe et al., 2022; Salehi et al., 2020). Curcumin has
have high antioxidant properties (Hirasa & Takemasa, 1998). It in- been found to have antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic proper-
cludes 50 to 150 species of plants and shrubs in the Ocimum genus ties due to its antioxidant potential. The National Cancer Institute
(Simon et al., 1999). Several phenolic compounds were found in the is testing it as a chemopreventive agent (Quispe et al., 2022; Salehi
plant extracts of Ocimum sp. with their strong antioxidant activity et al., 2019). Curcumin is mostly composed of curcumin I (diferuloyl-
(Nakatani, 1997). Javanmardi et al.'s (2003) study provided evidence methane), but it also contains curcumin II (6%) and curcumin III (3%)
that Iranian Ocimum, which is commonly found in Iranian foods, is (0.3%). Demethylated derivatives found from curcumin are one of
a potent radical scavenger and can be used as a source of naturally the most powerful regulators of lipid peroxidation, while total meth-
found antioxidants in side dishes, medicine, and commercial types. ylation of these compounds results in the loss of antioxidant activity
(Sharma, 1976). Curcumin I, curcumin II, and curcumin III can inhibit
lipid peroxidation by 50% at concentrations of 20 pg/ml, 14 pg/ml, and
3.18 | Ceratonia siliqua L. 11 pg/ml, respectively. The synthetic type of derivatives of curcumin I
(14 pg/ml) and curcumin III (13 pg/ml) was just as effective as the natu-
For many years, the plant namely a carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) ral compounds (Ruby et al., 1995). Ruby et al.'s (1995) study provides
has been planted widely in Mediterranean nations as the plant has evidence that the demethylation of curcumin, as seen in curcumin III,
high polyphenol content, particularly concentrated from tannins increases one's antioxidant activity, according to this study. Salicyl
(Avallone et al., 1997). Due to their low cost and lack of caffeine, curcuminoid, a curcumin III isomer, has also yielded consistent results.
carob pods have mostly been utilized as a replacement for cocoa in
few nations (Yousif & Alghzawi, 2000). At the same doses, the crude
polyphenol fraction (CPP) had lower antioxidant activity than real 3.21 | Zingiber officinale (L.) Rosc
polyphenol components in the DPPH free radical scavenging, eryth-
rocyte ghost, and microsomal systems (Kumazawa et al., 2002). Ginger (Zingiber officinale (L.) Rosc) is a flowering plant that has been
Kumazawa et al. (2002) provide evidence that the antioxidant ac- widely used as a spice for over 2000 years (Bartley & Jacobs, 2000).
tivity of a crude polyphenol produced from carob pods has been The roots contain polyphenols compounds (especially 6-­gingerol
demonstrated. CPP, in particular, appears to have a substantial anti-­ and its derivatives), which have a potent antioxidant activity (Chen
discoloration impact on β-­carotene. Given that most carob pods are et al., 1986). In vitro analysis showed that ginger extract could ame-
now discarded and ineffectively used, our findings imply that carob liorate the effects of free radicals as well as the peroxidation of li-
pods might be used as a functional food or food additive. pids. As a result, it may be able to prevent or reduce harm in a human
system by acting as a free radical scavenger (Aruoma et al., 1997;
Valko et al., 2004). Ginger extract consumption is expected to de-
3.19 | Propolis sp. crease the course of atherosclerosis because it is connected to
reducing the macrophage-­mediated oxidation of LDL, decreasing
In many places around the world, Propolis sp. has been utilized in absorption of oxidized LDL by macrophages, reducing the oxida-
traditional medicine (Ghisalberti, 1979). Propolis is commonly used tive status of LDL, and finally reducing LDL aggregation (Fuhrman
within food and beverage to promote good health and prevent dis- et al., 2000). Stoilova et al.'s (2007) study provided evidence that the
eases including inflammation, diabetes, heart disease, cancer etc. ginger carbon dioxide extract contains a lot of polyphenols. It had
(Banskota et al., 2001). The Kumazawa et al.'s (2004) study shows a high DPPH-­scavenging potential as well as a significant lowering
RAHAMAN et al. | 1665

capability. The extract is thought to be useful as an antioxidant dur- linalool is the most important component of the essential oil found
ing the early stages of fat oxidation. At both lower and high tempera- in the seeds (up to 1%) (Wichtl, 1994). The seeds are primarily re-
tures at 37 and 80°C, the antioxidant activity of the ginger extract sponsible for coriander's medical usage, and it has been used to treat
was equivalent to that of BHT in preventing lipid peroxidation. The stomach, worms, rheumatism, and joint discomfort (Wichtl, 1994).
stage of synthesis of secondary products of fat auto-­oxidation was Wangensteen et al.'s (2004) study provides evidence that Coriander
perhaps the most hindered. seeds and leaves exhibit an inhibitory effect against radical-­
scavenging characteristics in a concentration-­dependent manner.
However, the impacts were more pronounced in leaf extracts than
3.22 | Solanum lycopersicum those in seeds. Incorporating both the seeds and leaves of coriander
into the diet might boost antioxidant levels, preventing food from
Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), sometimes known as Tomatoes, oxidizing.
are versatile vegetables that can be eaten raw or cooked. Since vari-
ous epidemiological studies have shown that regular consumption of
fruits and vegetables, particularly tomatoes, may work to minimize 4 | TH E R A PEU TI C PE R S PEC TI V E S A N D
cancer and cardiovascular disease, there has been an intense empha- LI M ITATI O N S
sis on the antioxidant compounds of tomatoes (Giovannucci, 1999;
Heber, 2000; Rao & Agarwal, 2000). The antioxidant properties 4.1 | Health benefits of antioxidants
shown by raw tomatoes and processed tomato products are due to
the presence of different essential components such as phenolics, In the last decade, antioxidants have got a lot of hype for their role in
lycopene, flavonoids, and vitamins C and E (Stwart et al., 2000). Al-­ reducing free radicals and oxidative stress, as well as cancer preven-
Wandawi et al. (1985) reported that in comparison with the tomato tion and treatment (Sharifi-­Rad, Quispe, Durazzo, et al., 2022; Taheri
pulp and seeds, tomato peel has a high concentration of lycopene. et al., 2022; Tsoukalas et al., 2019b). In such circumstances, phenols
Tomato skin and seeds were also found to contain necessary amino and polyphenols are frequently of great interest; they can be de-
acids, with the tomato seeds containing particularly high levels of tected using enzymes including tyrosinase or any other phenol oxi-
minerals (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu), as well as monounsaturated fatty acids dases, or perhaps even plant tissue carrying such enzymes (Hossain
(especially, oleic acid). Toor and Savage (1992) study provide evi- et al., 2021; Sharifi-­Rad, Quispe, Herrera-­Bravo, et al., 2021). A few
dence that antioxidant substances are abundant in the skin and seed common types of disease such as cancer, obesity, coronary heart
extract. Incorporating skin and seed extracts into foods for home disease, type 2 diabetes, cataract, and hypertension are induced by
consumption or processed goods might result in an increase of 40%–­ oxidative stress, and fruits, vegetables and so much less processed
53% in the level of all main antioxidants in the finished products. staple foods provide the best protection against these diseases
(Konovalov et al., 2022; Painuli et al., 2022). The natural antioxi-
dants included in fruits and vegetables have a favorable health ef-
3.23 | Laminaria japonica fect, according to the explanation (Hossain et al., 2021; Painuli
et al., 2022). Only a few of the antioxidants found in dietary plants
A sulfated polysaccharide found in seaweed has a different type include carotenoids, coumarins, phenolic compounds, stilbenes,
of biological activities such as anticoagulant, anti-­inflammatory, benzoic acid derivatives, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, and lignans
antithrombotic, contraceptive, anticancer, antiviral, and antioxi- (Islam et al., 2021). Blackberries, strawberries, walnuts, cranber-
dant effects (Jhamandas et al., 2005; Patankar et al., 1993; Ponce ries, artichokes, raspberries, brewed coffee, blueberries, pecans,
et al., 2003; Tehila et al., 2005; Zhuang et al., 1995). Sulfated poly- ground cloves, grape juice, and unsweetened chocolate ranked at
saccharide fractions have been reported to exhibit good antioxidant the top of the classification due to normal serving quantities (Kim
activities (Wang et al., 2008). Wang et al. (2008) further corrobo- et al., 2002). Antioxidants such as polyphenols, vitamin C, vitamin E,
rated that the antioxidant properties were found in fucoidan and beta-­carotene, and lycopene are abundant in fruit juice and bever-
certain fractions isolated from L. japonica. The stated antioxidant ages (Islam et al., 2021; Varela et al., 2022). Fruit juice, beverages,
ability, on the other hand, varies. In vitro, the majority of the frac- and hot beverages have been shown to lower morbidity and mor-
tions were more powerful antioxidants than fucoidan. However, a tality associated with degenerative diseases (Calina et al., 2020;
link was found between sulfate content and the ability to scavenge Sharifi-­Rad, et al., 2022a).
superoxide radicals.

4.2 | Limitations
3.24 | Coriandrum sativum L.
The term antioxidant refers to a chemical property of an electron-­
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.; Umbelliferae) is a widely grown donating substance (Padureanu et al., 2019; Sharifi-­Rad et al.,
herb that is primarily grown for its seeds. The monoterpenoid 2022b). Antioxidants come in a variety of forms, each with a unique
1666 | RAHAMAN et al.

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