Religion, as defined by anthropologists, is a set of beliefs, practices, and attitudes

related to supernatural beings and forces. These beliefs can vary across cultures and
societies and may change over time.

Religious vs. Non-Religious Phenomena:

● In some cultures, vomiting is considered a religious practice (e.g., the Kikuyu of

Kenya), viewed as a way to eliminate evil. However, in most societies, vomiting is
seen as a natural biological event.

Spiritual vs. Natural Worlds:

● The Nyoro people of Uganda believe that the spiritual and natural worlds coexist
in one space. In contrast, Christians see the spiritual world (heaven/hell) as
separate from the natural world (earth).

Religion as a Cultural Universal:

● Religion exists in all human societies, making it a cultural universal, though

practices and perspectives differ.

Religion in Ancient Societies:

● In ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Sumerians, religion played
a central role in social development, with religious symbols and ritualistic
ceremonies being key components of their cultures.

Evidence of Early Religion:

● Evidence such as cave wall carvings, dating

back 60,000 years, shows the earliest records of
religious beliefs. Additionally, the mythology and
 religion of ancient Greece are examples of early religious practices.

● Religion During The Ancient Periods

-Religion and mythology of ancient greece

● Religion During The Ancient Periods

Religion affects us and our way of thinking in the existing world. It serves as a pattern for the
actions we take in day-to-day existence. Religion is seen not only as a social belief but also as a
social institution that continues to develop over time.
Sociologists study religion while considering diverse societal factors such as gender, age,
race, and education, that also tap other social institutions and the concept of social change.

FUNCTIONSOFRELIGION
MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND THEIR ASSUMPTIONS CONCERNING RELIGION

Emile Durkheim
● Religion serves several functions for society.
1. Giving meaning and purpose to life.
2. Reinforcing social unity and stability
3. Serving as an agent of social control of behavior.
4. Promoting physical and psychological well-being
5. Motivating people to work for positive social change

Karl Marx
● Religion reinforces and promotes social inequality and social conflict. It helps convince
the poor to accept their lot in life, and it leads to hostility and violence motivated by
religious differences.

Max Weber
● This perspective focuses on the ways in which individuals interpret their religious
experiences. It emphasizes that beliefs and practices are not sacred unless people
regard them as such. Once they are regarded as sacred, they take on special
significance and give meaning to people's lives

Religious Pattern

ANIMISM

- Belief that the natural world, as a whole or in

parts, has a soul or spirit.
As a whole = World Spirit, Mother Earth, Gaia In
parts = rocks, trees, springs, and animals.
- Natural phenomena and environmental
destruction are understood as repercussions of
the interaction between humans and spirits.
Native Americans try to gain favors through
festivals, ceremonies, and prayers.
Ex: Lakota Sioux War Dance
- performed by the Lakota Sioux.
POLYTHEISM
- Belief in multiple gods, each with distinct roles.

Example: Ganesh, the Hindu elephant-headed god of wisdom, learning, and remover of
obstacles. He is the son of Shiva and Parvati, depicted with a potbelly, one tusk, and holding a
shell, discus, club, and water lily.

MONOTHEISM
- Belief in one god responsible for creation and existence.
- Developed from exclusive worship within polytheistic systems, leading to a single deity's
supremacy.

Example: Christians and Muslims.

Hume (2015): Monotheism is linked to rationality, while polytheism promotes tolerance.

INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGION
- Organized religion with formal beliefs and rituals.

Characteristics:
Wide Influence: Large-scale following, crossing borders and social classes.
Hierarchy
- Leadership and membership ranks determine access to power and divine authority.
Decisions are made by leaders, and members follow.

Separation of Church and State

- The 1987 Philippine Constitution mandates separation of church and state, yet
religious influence on Philippine politics persists.

- The historical relationship between church and state. In ancient societies, it

explains, the church and state were synonymous, with religious leaders also holding
political power (theocracy). However, as states evolved into more complex political units,
the church became a separate entity from the state.Shaman

4 Main Types of Religious Practitioners

1. Shaman- also known as a community healer. Shamanism was observed in most parts of
Asia. In the Philippines, it has been practiced in the province of Siquijor.

2. Witch and Sorcerer- poorly regarded in their societies due to the perceived
malevolence that they inflict on individuals. They have very low social and economic
status and often ostracized by members of the society.
 3. Medium- well favoured by the members of his/her community as he\she is involved in
healing rituals while in a possessed trance.Also, they are capable of performing
divination to predict future courses of action.

4. Priest- tends to be a male whose sole preoccupation is to officiate religious

ceremonies and rituals.

Types of Religious Activities

1. Magic: Using rituals to control supernatural forces.

Example: A rain dance to summon rain.

2. Divination: Seeking knowledge of the future through supernatural means.

Example: Reading tarot cards.

3. Witchcraft and Sorcery: Using spells or charms to influence events, often for harm or
protection.

Example: Casting a hex or making protective charms.

4. Prayers, Feasts, and Sacrifices: Acts of worship to honor or communicate with

deities.

Example: Offering animals in ancient rituals.

CULT
- The complexity of a cult depends on the society’s level of labor specialization. It ranges
from individual access to the divine to highly organized religious systems with specific
roles and hierarchies.

Four Types of Cults

1. Individualistic Cults
- practiced in food-collecting societies where equality is central.
- Individuals connect with the divine independently, without restrictions
or intermediaries.
- No role specialization, emphasizing personal spiritual experience.
These cults can merge with other forms of cults.

Example: Crow Indian vision quests, where individuals undertake a solitary journey to seek a
divine understanding of their nature and identity.

2. Shamanistic Cults

- Similar to individualistic cults but centered around a shaman or

medicine man.
- Found in egalitarian societies with economies based on foraging,
horticulture, and pastoralism.
Functions of Shamans
- Healing, interceding with the divine, and enacting punishment.
- Authority is rooted in community belief in the shaman's religious experiences.

Shamans gain their skills through training with older shamans, but their
legitimacy is temporary and based on their perceived effectiveness.

3. Communal Cults

- Allows groups to access the divine directly, though shamans or witches

may assist in specific cases.
- Typically present in societies with some labor specialization,
where economic roles influence access to religious participation.
- Reflects how societal contributions, such as herding in pastoral societies,
often favor certain groups (e.g., men) in religious activities.

Example: Pastoral societies, where men dominate religious rituals due to their role in herding
livestock.

4. Ecclesiastical Cults
- Characterized by full-time religious practitioners, such as priests.
- Found in stratified societies where individuals have unequal access
to values and resources.
- Represents the highest degree of religious organization, reflecting
societal hierarchies and economic complexity.