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WASTE-TO-RESOURCE
SYSTEM DESIGN FOR
LOW-CARBON
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
This page intentionally left blank
WASTE-TO-RESOURCE
SYSTEM DESIGN FOR
LOW-CARBON
CIRCULAR ECONOMY

SIMING YOU
James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
Elsevier
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Contents

Chapter 1 The waste challenge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Chapter 2 Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Agricultural waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. Municipal solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Waste-to-resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6. Rural waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Chapter 3 Waste-to-energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3. Pyrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4. Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5. Anaerobic digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter 4 Waste-to-biohydrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2. Biohydrogen production technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3. Downstream processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
vi Contents

Chapter 5 Waste-to-biomethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2. Biogas production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3. Biogas cleanup and upgrading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Chapter 6 Waste-to-bioethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2. Saccharification and fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3. Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4. Yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5. Further development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Chapter 7 Waste-to-biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2. Biodiesel properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3. Biodiesel classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4. Biodiesel impacts on soil and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5. Biodiesel production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6. Whole process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 8 Waste-to-biochar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2. Waste-to-biochar technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3. Biochar system design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Chapter 9 System design: costebenefit analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2. Mathematical principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
 Contents vii

3. Economic feasibility of waste-to-resource

development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4. Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Chapter 10 System design: life cycle assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2. LCA procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3. LCA of waste-to-resource developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4. Uncertainty analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 11 System optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2. Multiobjective optimization methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Chapter 12 Perspectives of future development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
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The waste challenge
1
Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of the overall waste management
challenge and highlights the importance of sustainable waste manage-
ment. It explains the existing waste management hierarchy strategy and
the roles of waste-to-resource development in managing the waste that
cannot be handled by the “reduce, reuse, and recycle” (3R) methods. It
also introduces the potential factors that need to be considered upon the
design of waste-to-resource development with a special focus on public
engagement, economics, and environmental impacts. Finally, it presents
a summary of the scope and content arrangement of the book.

Keywords: Climate change; Sustainable development goals; Sustainable

waste management; Waste management hierarchy; Waste-to-resource
technologies; Whole system and supply chain design.

1. Introduction
Sustainable waste management (SWM) is a worldwide chal-
lenge and is calling for effective actions under the socioeconomic
and environmental pressures of enormous waste production. The
rates of municipal solid waste (MSW) generation in developed
and developing countries were reported to be 521.95e759.2 kg
per person per year (kpc) and 109.5e525.6 kpc, respectively
(Karak et al., 2012). About 2.01 billion tonnes of MSW are gener-
ated annually, and it is estimated that at least 33% of the genera-
tion are not managed in an environmentally safe manner (Kaza
et al., 2018). In view of the continuous economic growth and pop-
ulation expansion, the waste generation will keep increasing and
it is expected that 2.2 billion tonnes of MSW will be generated per
annum by 2025 worldwide (Hoornweg & Bhada-Tata, 2012). The
increasing pile-up of waste pose a realistic threat to the environ-
ment, ecosystems, and human welfare if proper waste manage-
ment practices and facilities are not in place.
The climate change crisis is closely associated with waste gen-
eration management in various aspects, i.e., methane emissions
of organic waste landfill, emission abatement via waste reuse,
recycling, and reduction, renewable and low carbon resource

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2 Chapter 1 The waste challenge

recovery from waste, emissions rated to the transportation of

waste, etc. (Ackerman, 2000). The carbon saving potential has
become one of the most significant factors that has been consid-
ered upon the design of SWM approaches. On the other hand,
climate change can also influence the practicing and conse-
quences of SWM with changes in global temperature, annual pre-
cipitation, and sea levels rendering conventional waste
management practices less effective. For example, the rise in tem-
perature may increase the fire risk from combustible waste (e.g.,
composting) at open sites, more frequent extreme weather condi-
tions may increase the health and safety risks of waste operators
who implement waste management, and the rise in the sea level
poses a risk of seawater intrusion to coastal landfills and washing
away floating waste, leading to marine waste (e.g., plastics) pollu-
tion (Bebb & Kersey, 2003).
SWM is essential to achieving the United Nations’ sustainable
development goals (SDGs) and is closely related to such SDGs as
Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG8), Sustainable Cities
and Communities (SDG11), and Sustainable Consumption and
Production (SDG12) (Robert et al., 2005). This is reflected by its
significant socioeconomic and environmental consequences.
Waste mismanagement can cause serious environmental issues
such as heavy metal pollution in ecosystems (e.g., water, plants,
and soil) and marine plastic pollution via field dumping, and
pollutant (e.g., CO, CO2, SO, NO, particulate matters, etc.) emis-
sions via open field burning (Ferronato & Torretta, 2019). As local
and global populations continue to expand, so as will the require-
ments and strain on waste infrastructure, meaning the costs of
waste mismanagement will increase. It was predicted that the
costs for SWM globally would increase from US$205.4 billion per
year to around US$375.5 billion in 2025 (Hoornweg & Bhada-
Tata, 2012).
A hierarchical strategy has been proposed and implemented
for promoting SWM (See Fig. 1.1). On the top of the hierarchy,
the “reduce, reuse, and recycle” (3R) methods are regarded as a
long-term strategy to reduce waste pollution toward the transition
from a traditional linear economy to a circular one (Geng et al.,
2019). Specifically, the 3R strategy serves to protect the environ-
ment, promote sustainable development, and improve resource
utilization efficiency, and aims to achieve a closed resource loop
within the circular economy model by lessening the pressure on
the stock of resources (Ioannidis et al., 2021). However, consid-
ering the varied composition and value of waste as well as the
 Chapter 1 The waste challenge 3

Figure 1.1 Illustration of the hierarchical strategy for SWM.

economic profitability requirement of waste management, the 3R

strategy alone is insufficient to curb the rapid waste accumulation
and its increasing threat to the environment, ecosystems, and so-
cieties, especially given limited waste management infrastructure
and lack of plans actually in place. Complementary measures are
necessary to handle the waste that is not covered by the 3R strat-
egy and achieve resource (energy and chemicals) recovery from
waste and end-of-life disposal. These measures are less favored
as compared to 3R in the waste management hierarchy but are
essential components of the whole SWM chain (Lombardi et al.,
2015).
Conventional practices for handling waste that is not reduce-
able, reusable, or recyclable rely on landfill and incineration
which are still playing a major role in some parts of the world.
Globally, around 66.6% of MSW was disposed of in open dump-
sites or landfills (Fischedick et al., 2014). According to the UK gov-
ernment statistics, landfills are the second most used waste
treatment in the United Kingdom, with 24.4% of waste being
disposed of by landfills in 2016 (DEFRA, 2021). Landfill is losing
its appeal due to adverse environmental impacts. For example,
in Europe and the United States, landfills account for 20% of
anthropogenic CH4 emissions, and are the second and third
largest CH4 emission sources, respectively (Mønster et al., 2019).
This number is 8%, also nonnegligible, from a global perspective
(Blanco et al., 2014). The landfill leachate containing pollutants
like heavy metals, organic, xenobiotics, and inorganic poses a
contamination risk to the soil and groundwater in nonsanitary
landfills and uncontrolled dumpsites (Negi et al., 2020). Air
4 Chapter 1 The waste challenge

surrounding landfill sites can affect local communities as the

smell is unpleasant and the soil in the area may be saturated
with chemicals or hazardous substances. The European Commis-
sion proposed to phase out landfilling by 2025 for recyclable waste
(e.g., plastics, paper, metals, glass, and biowaste) in nonhazardous
waste landfills and reduce the landfilled municipal waste to 10%
or less of the total amount of waste generated by 2035 (EC, 2018).
Waste-to-energy technologies play a critical role in diverting
waste from direct landfill. According to the International Energy
Agency, waste-to-energy systems are one of the promising solu-
tions toward a low carbon future via the decarbonization of en-
ergy production which is the dominant contributor to
greenhouse gas emissions (IEA, 2013). Waste incineration is being
widely employed in both developed and developing countries.
There are about 1179 MSW incineration plants around the world
with a total capacity over 700,000 tonnes per day and most of the
plants are in the European Union, the United States, and East Asia
(Lu et al., 2017). Incinerators using energy recovery techniques
have been used in SWM development to help recover electricity
and/or heat from waste while simultaneously reducing the mass
and volume of waste sent to landfills. Some typical advantages
of the incineration technologies include the effective reduction
of waste volume (by 90%) and mass (by 75%), elimination of path-
ogens, flexibility in feedstock selection, and energy production
(Lino & Ismail, 2018). Their disadvantages include high capital
and operational costs, significant pollutant emissions, and
requiring mandatory treatment of flue gas (Gabbar et al., 2018).
Additionally, there exists widespread negative public perception
about its emissions of pollutants such as dioxin carcinogen, which
needs to be abated to enhance the public acceptance of the tech-
nology (Makarichi et al., 2018).
Alternative waste-to-energy technologies have been devel-
oped to achieve lower pollutant emissions or to improve the en-
ergy recovery from some specific types of waste. For example,
gasification is a thermochemical process where carbonaceous
waste materials are converted into synthesis gas or syngas (a
mixture of H2, CO, and CH4 mainly) under an oxygen-deficient
condition. The syngas can be further combusted to generate
heat or electricity or upgraded to produce value-added chemicals
(e.g., pure hydrogen). Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical pro-
cess where organic waste is decomposed to produce CH4, CO2,
and digestate under the effect of anaerobic microorganisms. As
compared to gasification, anaerobic digestion is less energy inten-
sive but suffers from the weakness of low productivity.
 Chapter 1 The waste challenge 5

Recent development has been focused on converting waste into

value-added chemicals for applications in the industrial or trans-
portation sectors, such as biohydrogen, biomethane, bioethanol,
biodiesel, biochar, etc. (bio- is used to indicate the chemicals are
produced from waste biomass). A significant amount of these
chemicals have been produced out of conventional fossil fuele
based chemical processes. Displacing the chemicals with the
ones derived from waste biomass will lead to carbon abatement
and facilitate the development of the circular economy concept.
In general, the efficiencies of the waste-to-resource (resource
denotes energy and chemicals) technologies depend on the types
of waste feedstock, process conditions, and selection of technolog-
ical routes. The variety of technologies that recover valuable re-
sources from waste are expected to play an increasingly
important role in alleviating the challenges of SWM and climate
change.
The design of waste-to-resource systems needs to consider a
variety of factors beyond the technology, and also importantly
its relationship with the 3R strategy. Specifically, the waste-to-
resource approach needs to work in tandem with the 3R strategy,
which needs to be further supported by educational initiatives to
enhance public awareness for tackling the challenges. Mean-
while, reduced, reused, recycled, and recovered resources that
precisely match the socioeconomic, energy, and environmental
demands of end-users will accelerate the uptake of such initia-
tives and lead to higher public engagement. Successful addition
of the waste-to-resource technologies as a tier in the 3R hierarchy
is dependent on understanding of local context. This will under-
pin the development of a comprehensive and systematic hierar-
chical waste management roadmap that clearly defines the
relative roles and effects of the measures and includes the steps
or milestones needed to achieve waste pollution reduction.
The success of such a hierarchical strategy is contingent upon
the participation and cooperation of all the stakeholders (i.e., pol-
icymakers, investors, and consumers) along the SWM chain as well
as effective policy support. This means that the design of waste-to-
resource systems needs to be gauged in relation to socioeconomic
and environmental impacts that are some of the most significant
indices for evaluating the feasibility of the systems. The implemen-
tation of a waste-to-resource system is subject to its social accept-
ability and benefits, which is directly reflected by its ability to create
jobs and affect income, and indirectly by its effects on equality and
welfare development of local communities. The environmental
impacts are linked to the system’s ability to tackle the crises of
fossil fuel depletion and global climate change, as well as its
6 Chapter 1 The waste challenge

complication with the development of associated ecosystems. The

economic feasibility of waste-to-resource development critically
determines its sustainability and depends on (also affects) the
formulation of governmental subsidies. Although the different
stakeholders have different preferences on the impacts, it is im-
portant to consider all the three impacts during the decision-
making process for optimal planning.
The design of the supply chain and logistics of waste manage-
ment also critically determines the feasibility and impacts of
waste-to-resource systems due to the geographical distribution
of waste and consumer zones, weather variability, and the poten-
tial seasonality of waste feedstocks (Chaplin-Kramer et al., 2017;
Field et al., 2018). It has been shown that the waste collection
and transportation process accounts for the significant economic
factor for waste-to-energy development (Ascher et al., 2020).
Moreover, the varied compositions and physicochemical proper-
ties of waste imply the complexity of system design. On the one
hand, for the same type of waste, there are different technologies
available for processing and subsequent product upgrading,
depending on the types of targeted end-products (e.g., electricity,
heat, liquid transport fuel, biochar, etc.). On the other hand, for
the same type of end-product, multiple technologies and waste
feedstocks are available upon the design of the system. Hence,
there are vast possibilities of waste-to-resource system configura-
tions in terms of the choices of waste feedstock types, processing
technologies, and end-product types. This adds a complication of
spatial and temporal dimensions to the assessment of the poten-
tial of bioresources (defined as the resources recovered from
waste biomass in this book), and transportation network and
modes, distance, and intermodal-transportation becomes impor-
tant parameters upon the supply chain and logistics design.
To understand the potential contribution of waste-to-resource
to our environment, society, and ecosystems, it is essential to
develop a systematic database about the economic and environ-
mental impacts of waste-to-resource development under a feasible
range of waste-to-resource system and supply chain configura-
tions. Moreover, optimal configurations need to be identified
and combined with decision support tools, to allow the policy-
makers to make informed decisions about waste-to-resource ac-
tion plans. Considering the various possibilities of technology
and process alternatives, superstructure optimization based on,
e.g., mixed-integer programming techniques serves as an appro-
priate approach for optimal technology and process selection
by allowing systematic generation and automatic evaluation of
 Chapter 1 The waste challenge 7

design candidates based on process economics and environmental

sustainability (Gong & You, 2015). A multiobjective optimization
framework can be formed by integrating cost-benefit analysis
(CBA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) into the superstructure
optimization.
This book will introduce the fundamentals, development, and
applications of various types of waste-to-resource technologies
that are expected to play a major role in developing SWM prac-
tices in the future. This book will focus on two major analysis
and design methods of waste-to-resource development, i.e. CBA
and environmental LCA and assemble some basic data sets for
carrying out baseline analysis. Examples of LCA and CBA studies
and results will be summarized to illustrate the impacts of
different configurations of waste-to-resource developments. We
will also introduce the multiobjective optimization method in
terms of its application in the designing and planning of SWM
systems in the end. This book will serve as a starting point for
you to conduct waste-to-resource design with the availability of
theories and baseline data sets.

References
Ackerman, F. (2000). Waste management and climate change. Local
Environment, 5(2), 223e229.
Ascher, S., Li, W., & You, S. (2020). Life cycle assessment and net present worth
analysis of a community-based food waste treatment system. Bioresource
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Bebb, J., & Kersey, J. (2003). Potential impacts of climate change on waste
management. UK: Environment Agency Bristol.
Blanco, G., Gerlagh, R., Suh, S., Barrett, J., de Coninck, H. C., Morejon, C. F. D.,
Mathur, R., Nakicenovic, N., Ahenkorah, A. O., & Pan, J. (2014). Drivers,
trends and mitigation.
Chaplin-Kramer, R., Sim, S., Hamel, P., Bryant, B., Noe, R., Mueller, C.,
Rigarlsford, G., Kulak, M., Kowal, V., & Sharp, R. (2017). Life cycle assessment
needs predictive spatial modelling for biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Nature Communications, 8(1), 1e8.
DEFRA. (2021). UK statistics on waste. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/874265/UK_
Statistics_on_Waste_statistical_notice_March_2020_accessible_FINAL_rev_v0.
5.pdf.
EC. (2018). Circular Economy: New rules will make EU the global front-runner in
waste management and recycling. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/
presscorner/detail/en/IP_18_3846.
Ferronato, N., & Torretta, V. (2019). Waste mismanagement in developing
countries: A review of global issues. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 16(6), 1060.
Field, J. L., Evans, S. G., Marx, E., Easter, M., Adler, P. R., Dinh, T., Willson, B., &
Paustian, K. (2018). High-resolution technoeecological modelling of a
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bioenergy landscape to identify climate mitigation opportunities in cellulosic

ethanol production. Nature Energy, 3(3), 211e219.
Fischedick, M., Roy, J., Acquaye, A., Allwood, J., Ceron, J.-P., Geng, Y.,
Kheshgi, H., Lanza, A., Perczyk, D., & Price, L. (2014). Industry in: Climate
change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of working group III
to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate
change. Technical Report.
Gabbar, H. A., Aboughaly, M., & Ayoub, N. (2018). Comparative study of MSW
heat treatment processes and electricity generation. Journal of the Energy
Institute, 91(4), 481e488.
Geng, Y., Sarkis, J., & Bleischwitz, R. (2019). How to globalize the circular
economy. Nature Publishing Group.
Gong, J., & You, F. (2015). Sustainable design and synthesis of energy systems.
Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, 10, 77e86.
Hoornweg, D., & Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). What a waste: A global review of solid
waste management.
IEA. (2013). Waste to energy summary and conclusions from the IEA bioenergy
ExCo71 workshop. https://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/
2014/03/ExCo71-Waste-to-Energy-Summary-and-Conclusions-28.03.14.pdf.
Ioannidis, A., Chalvatzis, K. J., Leonidou, L. C., & Feng, Z. (2021). Applying the
reduce, reuse, and recycle principle in the hospitality sector: Its antecedents
and performance implications. Business Strategy and the Environment.
Karak, T., Bhagat, R. M., & Bhattacharyya, P. (2012). Municipal solid waste
generation, composition, and management: The world scenario. Critical
Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 42(15), 1509e1630.
Kaza, S., Yao, L., Bhada-Tata, P., & Van Woerden, F. (2018). What a waste 2.0: A
global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Publications.
Lino, F. A. M., & Ismail, K. A. R. (2018). Evaluation of the treatment of municipal
solid waste as renewable energy resource in Campinas, Brazil. Sustainable
Energy Technologies and Assessments, 29, 19e25.
Lombardi, L., Carnevale, E., & Corti, A. (2015). A review of technologies and
performances of thermal treatment systems for energy recovery from waste.
Waste Management, 37, 26e44.
Lu, J.-W., Zhang, S., Hai, J., & Lei, M. (2017). Status and perspectives of
municipal solid waste incineration in China: A comparison with developed
regions. Waste Management, 69, 170e186.
Makarichi, L., Jutidamrongphan, W., & Techato, K. (2018). The evolution of
waste-to-energy incineration: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 91, 812e821.
Mønster, J., Kjeldsen, P., & Scheutz, C. (2019). Methodologies for measuring
fugitive methane emissions from landfillseA review. Waste Management, 87,
835e859.
Negi, P., Mor, S., & Ravindra, K. (2020). Impact of landfill leachate on the
groundwater quality in three cities of North India and health risk
assessment. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(2), 1455e1474.
Robert, K. W., Parris, T. M., & Leiserowitz, A. A. (2005). What is sustainable
development? Goals, indicators, values, and practice. Environment: Science
and Policy for Sustainable Development, 47(3), 8e21.
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 Meteorology - Field Notes
Spring 2025 - Faculty

Prepared by: Teacher Smith

Date: August 12, 2025

Chapter 1: Practical applications and examples

Learning Objective 1: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 6: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 8: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 2: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 10: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 12: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 13: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 14: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 21: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 24: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 25: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 4: Experimental procedures and results
Practice Problem 30: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
Example 40: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 6: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 50: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 54: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 7: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 60: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Introduction 8: Fundamental concepts and principles
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 74: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 76: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 78: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 79: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Exercise 9: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 82: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 86: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 87: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 88: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 10: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 96: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 98: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 11: Key terms and definitions
Example 100: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 101: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 106: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 107: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 12: Practical applications and examples
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 114: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 115: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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