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B.A. (SEMESTER V), CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

CLASS : B.A. (SEM. V) SUBJECT : PSYCHOLOGY

E
PAPER : CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY (Theory)
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Chairperson : Prof. Neeru
Coordinator : Dr. Roshan Lal
Course Leader : Dr. Roshan Lal

B.A. SEMESTER – V, CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

 Introductory Letter (i)
 Syllabus (iii)
CONTENTS

L. No. Topics Author/Editor Page

1. Concept and View Points regarding Dr. Saran K. Sharma 1

Psychopathology - Psychodynamics,
Behavioural Cognitive Behavioural,
Humanistic and Interpersonal

2. Historical Viewpoint and Current -do- 30

Classification of Psychopathology

3. Biological Causes of Psychopathology -do- 45

4. Psychological & Sociocultural Causes of -do- 54

Psychopathology

5. Stress- Concept of Stress; Categories of -do- 67

stressors : Decompensation

6. Coping Strategies – Task oriented and -do- 85

defence oriented responses

7. Significance of Mean, Standard Deviation -do- 97

(S.D.) Co-efficient of Correlation

8. Significance of Difference between means -do- 114

(Correlated and Uncorrelated)

Edited & Vetted by: Prof. Roshan Lal

E-Mail of Department coordpsy@pu.ac.in

Contact No. of Department 0172-2534327
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(i)

INTRODUCTORY LETTER

Dear Student,
You are welcome to the B.A.III Psychology Course. The course of Psychology for
B.A.III is quite different from that of B.A.II. In B.A.II. In B.A.III, you understand as to how
modern psychology is applied in the understanding of human behaviour. Clinical
Psychology, as such, deals with persons who are faced with behaviour problems. It
deals with the classification of these psychological problems along with their
symptomatology.
You will be happy to note that we have our own Psychology Laboratory in our
department for the benefit of our students. During both the personal contact programmes
(P.C.Ps.), you can come to attend practical classes in the department (See
Datesheet/Schedule on Website).

Please feel free to make any queries.

With Best wishes.

Coordinator Psychology
Prof. Roshan Lal
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(ii)

PSYCHOLOGY SYLLABUS
SEMESTER - V
Objectives :

(I) The course will enable the students to get an introductory knowledge about
Clinical Psychology with emphasis on the dynamics of some of the behavioural disorders
and therapies. Students will also have some knowledge about stress and coping; and
will get acquainted with elementary inferential statistics.

(II) Pedagogy of the Course Work :

80 % Lectures (including expert lectures).
20% assignments, discussion and seminars and tests.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PAPER-SETTER AND THE CANDIDATES :

Theory : 70 marks
Internal Assessment : 10 marks
Time : 3 Hours
The syllabus has been divided into four units.

(a) There shall be 9 questions in all. The first question shall be short answer type
containing 12 short questions spread over the whole syllabus and each to be
answered in about 25 to 30 words. The candidate is required to attempt any 7
short answer type questions i.e. 2 marks of each. It shall carry 14 marks and
shall be Compulsory question. Rest of the paper shall contain 4 units. Each Unit
shall have two questions and the candidates shall be given internal choice i.e.
the candidates shall attempt one question from each Unit - 4 in all.Each question
will carry 14 marks.
(b) The practical will be of 20 marks.

PAPER: CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT-I

NatureandCriteriaofpsychopathology;ViewpointsRegardingpsychopathology:Historical,
Psychodynamic, Behavioural, Cognitive, Humanistic and Interpersonal; Natureand
scopeofClinical Psychology
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(iii)
UNIT-II

Causes of Psychopathology: Biological,PsychologicalandSocioculturalCauses.

UNIT-III

Stress:ConceptofStress;TypesofStressors;EtiologyofStress;CopingStrategies:ProblemFo
cussedandEmotionFocussed,EffectsofStress.

UNIT-IV

Significance of Statistics : Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation. Significance

ofDifferenceBetweenMeans(Correlatedand Uncorrelated).

Note : The use of non-programmable calculators and statistical tables is allowed in the examination.

Books recommended for these Chapters :

L.No Topics Author

1. Clinical Psychology By S.S. Mathur

2. Understanding behaviour By R.S. Feldman

3. Introduction to Statistics By Garrett

4. Fundamental of Statistics Guilfard & Fruchter

5. Abnormal Pscyhology Carson, R.C., Butcher, J.N., Mineka S.

of Modern Life (2003)
6. Abnormal Pschyology Davison, G.C. and Neale, J.M. (1998).
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(iv)

PSYCHOLOGY PRACTICALS Max. Marks : 20

Time : 3 Hours.

Four practicals have to be performed out of the following :

1. The use of Biofeedback.

2. Presumptive Stressful Life Event Scale.
3. Adjustment Inventory.
4. Mental Health Inventory.
5. Sentence Completion Test.
6. Word Association Test.

Suggested Readings :
1. Carson, R.C.; Butcher, J.N.; and Mineka, S. (2003).Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life,
New York : Pearson Education.
2. Davison, G.C. and Neale, J.M. (1998) . Abnormal Psychology, New York : John Wiley and
Sons.
3. Feldman, R.S. (2014).Understanding Psychology, New Delhi : Tata McGraw Hill.2.
4. Garrett, H. E. (1966) . Statistics in Psychology and Education, New Delhi : Vakils, Feffer,
and Simons.
5. Guilford, J.P., and Fruchter, B. (1981). Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and
Education. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
6. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of Maladaptive
Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India.
7. Singh, A.K.(1986).Tests, measurements and research methods in behavioural
sciences.Tata McGraw Hill.
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Lesson -1

VIEWPOINTS REGARDING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

PSYCHODYNAMIC, BEHAVIOURAL, COGNITIVE-
BEHAVIOURAL,HUMANISTIC, INTERPERSONAL
Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Defining Psychopathology
1.3 CurrentViewpoints regarding Psychopathology
1.3.1 The Psychodynamic Viewpoint
1.3.2 The Behavioral Viewpoint
1.3.3 The Cognitive Behavioural Viewpoint
1.3.4 The Humanistic Viewpoint
1.3.5 The Interpersonal Viewpoint
1.4 Summary
1.5 References
1.6 Further Readings
1.7 Model Questions

1.0 Objectives
The lesson aims at developing in the reader :
 an understanding of the concept of psychopathology.
 a knowledge of various factors/ approaches of Clinical Psychology.
 Comprehend the practical aspects of Clinical Psychology.
1.1 Introduction
Clinical Psychology is a specialized branch of Psychology which helps in
studyingthe behaviour of abnormal people in relation to their own environment for
helping them intheir adequate adjustment and better development. The subject matter of
Clinical Psychology includes the concepts of normality and psychopathology, causes of
psychopathology symptoms and syndromes of psychopathology and treatment of
psychopathology. There area variety of psychosocial interpretations of psychopathology.
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Six major perspectives on psychopathology predominate. The medical model, the
psycho-analytic model, the behavioural model, thecognitive model, the humanistic model
and the socio-cultural model. These models suggestnot only different causes of
psychopathology but different treatment approaches aswell.
1.2 DEFINING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
The word abnormal can be conceptualized to mean 'away from normal'. The
wordnormal is derived from the Latin word 'Norma' that means a carpenter’s rule. In
moderntimes the word Norma means a standard, which is especially an ideal one.
Thus,psychopathology implies behaviour that is nor regular or behaviour that deviates
from normalbehaviour. Not surprisingly, laypersons often feel that the adequate
definition of psychopathologydepends on the correct definition of normality. However,
experts agree that mere deviancefrom norms and standards, does not constitute
psychopathology. As Sarason and Sarason(1996) write, “All maladaptive behaviour is
deviant behavior. However deviant or unusualbehaviour is not necessarily maladaptive-..
Describing behaviour as maladaptive impliesthat a problem exists; it also suggests that
vulnerability in the individual, inability to copesor exceptional stress in the environment,
has led to problems in living.” Carson, Butcher,and Mineka (1998), hold that
“psychopathology is maladaptive behaviour....; behaviouris abnormal, a manifestation of
mental disorder, if it is both persistent and in serious degreecontrary to the continued
well-being of the individual and/or that of the human communityof which the individual is
a member.
Whatever its original cause, an illness it must currently be considereda
manifestation of a behavioural, psychological, or biological dysfunction in the
individual.Neither deviant behaviour (e.g., political, religious, or sexual) nor conflicts that
are primarilybetween the individual and society are mental disorders unless the deviance or
conflict isa symptom of a dysfunction in the individual (American PsychiatricAssociation,
1994).
1.3 CURRENT VIEWPOINTS REGARDING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
As scientific knowledge about psychopathology increased, different people
postulated different views regarding psychopathology. Broadly speaking, the
viewpointsmay be susbumed under two general categories- descriptive and explanatory.
Thedescriptive viewpoints seek to define psychopathology and to distinguish it from
normalbehaviour. The explanatory viewpoints search for the causes of psychopathology,
trying toexplain psychopathology with a view to predict and control it.
The Descriptive Viewpoints
Dichotomous viewpoint : Laymen generally divide people into two types -
normal andabnormal. These are two rigid categories with no overlap. It implies that an
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abnormal person cannever be normal and vice versa. Experts reject this viewpoint
because it is a qualitative viewpoint, dividing people into categories - difficult to measure
and deal with.
Statistical Viewpoint : An abnormal is a person who deviates from the normal;
and thenormal is defined as being average on any variable. According to this viewpoint,
both extremes onthe normal probability distribution may be classified as abnormal. A
genius and a mentallyretarded person, both are considered abnormal. Despite this
problem, the statistical viewpoint is important because it underscores the point that there
is no sharp line of demarcation between thenormal and subnormal, or between the
normal and the supernormal. Moreover the viewpoint maybe applied to any variable that
is being studied.
Adjustive Viewpoint : Only those people who can adjust to the norms of the
society arenormal and all others are abnormal. This is very similar to the statistical
viewpoint, except that thesole criterion of normality is the degree of adjustment whereas
the statistical approachincorporates many other traits as well. The view implies that an
individual who can balance hisdesires and social restrictions, who successfully faces his
problems and adapts easily to theenvironment is normal. The view lays stress on both
internal and external adjustment.
Legal viewpoint : Laws are nothing but social norms evolved by the society to
regulateits members. Breaking the law leads to the negative reinforcements
administered by the society.There is a separate set of laws, which focus on abnormal
behavior. In almost all societies, psychopathology consists of behavior that is against the
laws or established social practices and forwhich the individual is not responsible.
Cultural/Anthropologists' Viewpoint : It emphasizes the social nature of man
andsociocultural adjustments. Psychopathology is the inability to establish satisfying
relationships withothers in the society to conform to social norms. Psychopathology has
to be considered in the culturalcontext. Each culture is unique in the demands it places
on the individual. E.g., Margaret Mead(1935) found the people of Mundugumor behaved
in a manner that would be considered paranoidin the western modem world. According
to Ruth Benedict (1934) “Normality is to a large extentculturally defined. It is primarily a
term for the socially elaborated segments of human behaviour inany culture and
psychopathology is the term for the segment of behavior that is not used by a
particularcivilization”. Ullmann and Krasner (1975) also adhere to a similar view holding
that” no act byitself can be called abnormal, but rather the social context of the act and
actor must be taken intoaccount”. Concepts of normality and psychopathology vary from
one culture to another.
Multiple Criteria Viewpoint: The practitioners in the area of mental illness who
areeclectic in their views use this viewpoint that evaluates the individual on a variety of
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criteria. It isalso a prototypical viewpoint. If many of the criteria are not satisfied, the
individual is held to beabnormal. Following Maslow and Mittelman (1950) and on the
basis of clinical experiences andresearch studies a number of criteria ofnormality have
been fixed. We may enumerate the criteriaof psychopathology as follows :
1. Inadequate understanding of self :The patients have no insight regarding
his ownmotives, desires and weaknesses. His behavior is subjective.
2. Inadequate feelings of personal worth : The person feels unimportant
and worthless.Others dislike him and he feels that he is unattractive and his
future is bleak.
3. 'Feelings of insecurity : The patient feels unwanted and thus feels
uncomfortable andsafe. He does not have good interpersonal relations and
feels that people do not care forhim.
4. Lack of confidence : The person is not confident of his ability. He feels
that he will fail inwhatever he undertakes. He is dependent on others.
5. Inadequate integration of personality : The personality / structure
disintegrates.Emotions and thoughts processes are inharmonius. Severe
emotional tension causesstress which reduces his behavior to useless
activity.
6. Inadequate self-evaluation: This includes:
• Inadequate self-esteem: a feeling of values disproportionate to one's
individualityand achievements is developed
• Feelings of being immoral and the guilt associated with it develop.
7. Inadequate or excessive body drives and inability to satisfy them:
Preoccupationwith and an unhealthy attitude towards bodily desires,
sometimes to the point of their non-acceptance are shown. Inability to
derive pleasure from physical things in life such aseating, sleeping relaxing
etc. Inability to perform excretory functions without guiltand Inability to work.
On the contrary, excessive need to indulge in any ofthese activities and
Inability to tolerate even temporary deprivations regarding these
isabnormal.
8. Improper development of sex-instinct and sexual dissatisfaction :
Freud emphasizedthe role of sexual desires in the origin of various mental
diseases like hysteria obsessioncompulsion, paranoia etc. the problems
usually occur due to complexes of guilt or fearbeing attached to sex.
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9. Reality - evasion : The patient loses contact with reality and indulges in
excessivefantasizing. He has a narrow unrealistic outlook towards his
environment and is unable totolerate minor stresses like minor traumas,
illness or accidents.
10. Inadequate understanding of others : The person experiences difficulty
in interpersonalrelations cannot understand other people's motives or
problems.
11. Inadequate vocational relationships : The patient is unsuccessful at his
job isunrecognized and unsatisfied about it.
12. Indifference and lack of spontaneity andemotionality : Strong and
lasting emotionalties are not formed in friendship or love relations. He is
uncontrollable and unable to sharejoy or grief. He is indifferent or his
moods vary without rhyme or reason.
13. Inadequate emotional maturity : The person is immature and his
emotional behaviordoes not conform to his environment. Conflicts remain
unresolved due to his emotionalhandling of them and create stress.
14. Inadequate basic harmony with environment : His ambitions conflict with
his ability tosatisfy them with reference to his environment and thus he
does not achieve basicharmony with environment.
15. Unapproachable and non-achievable life goals: Unrealistic non-
achievable andincompatible goals with the competency level of the
individual are set. Either there is ahigh degree of persistence or a low
degree of persistence to achieve a certain goal on thepart of the patient
Sometimes the goal does not involve any good of the society in fact itmay
even be harmful.
16. Inability to learn fromexperience :The same mistakes are repeated by an
abnormal.
17. Inability to satisfy the requirements of the group : The individual is
different fromothers in the group in the way that the group considers
important. Patients are unwillingand incapable of inhibiting the desires
prohibited by the group. The patient is uninformedand does not accept the
folkways of the group. The patient is unable- to show thefundamental
strivings expected by the group. The patient is uninterested in
therecreational activities favored by the group.
18. Inadequate emancipation from the group (or culture) : No originality or
individuality oran excess of it shown by the patient, Too much or too little
independence from the group:Excessive need for flattery reassurance and
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group approval or an indifferent apatheticattitude towards them. The
individual shows no tolerance or appreciation of culturaldifferences
19. Inability to trust others : The abnormal person is unable to form
meaningful relationswith others because he does not trust them. He is
suspicious of their motives andbehaviour.
20. Inability to anticipate situations : An abnormal person lacks the
understanding toprepare himself to meet the demands of life because he
fails to anticipate situations.
21. Destruction of Central Nervous System : In some cases trauma or
disease which hasaffected the Central Nervous System of the person. can
lead to mental disorders. Theremay be actual damage to the brain tissue or
just an imbalance of neurohormones.
It must be remembered that the individual must be evaluated on many of these
criteriatogether before being classified as abnormal.
The Explantory Viewpoints
There are a variety of psychosocial interpretations of abnormal behavior. All of
them however, emphasize one or the other psychological process within the individual’s
experience inhis social environment. Five major approaches can be differentiated :
Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive-behavioral, Humanistic, and interpersonal.
1.3.1 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC VIEWPOINT
This viewpoint originated with Freud but several variants of psychoanalysis
evolved overthe years. Collectively all these are referred to as psychodynamic
approaches because all of themaccept the idea of dynamics (energy and movement) of
the inner unconscious motives.
BASIC POSTULATES : Psychoanalysis was born in the clinic in the sense that
Freudderived his theory and method of investigation in the process of treating mental
patients. Thebasic postulates of this approach are :
1. The structure of mind : The human mind is divided into the
unconscious, preconscious and conscious. The conscious aspect of mind consists of
perceptions and conditions of which theindividual is aware at any particular moment. The
preconscious mind consists of memories andideas associated with the conscious
material and which can be made conscious with an effort.The unconscious consists of
repressed motives, emotions, and thoughts, which the individual isusually not aware of.
2. The structure of personality : Personality has three aspects - Id.Ego,
and superego. Idis the original system of personality from which the Ego and superego
are differentiated. The childis all Id when it is born. Id is the reservoir of psychic energy
and furnishes all the power for theoperation of personality it is a cauldron of desires. It is
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completely out of touch from reality. Idoperates according to the pleasure principle i.e. it
seeks immediate, complete gratification ofdesires regardless of consequences. It
cannot delay gratification for realistic or moralconsiderations. Id lacks moral and ethical
judgement and has no sense of social values. Toaccomplish its aims of avoiding pain
and obtaining pleasure, id has two processes at itscommand: reflex actions and the
primary process. The ego comes into existence because ldalone cannot fulfill the desires
of the organism. The ego is logical and reasonable and can copewith the demands of
reality. The ego works according to the reality principle. Its aim is to preventthe
discharge of tension until an object that is appropriate for the satisfaction of the need
hasbeen discovered. The ego uses the secondary process, which implies realistic logical
thinking.The Ego is the executive of the personality. It integrates and mediates among
the conflicting demands of the super-ego, id, and the external world i.e. reality. Thus it
serves three harshmatters. The last system of personality to be developed is the Super-
ego. It is the moral aspect ofpersonality. It represents the ideal rather than the real and it
strives for perfection rather thanpleasure. The Super-ego develops in response to
rewards and punishments given by parents.Whatever they punish, gets converter don’ts
into which are incorporated into the conscience, whatever is making themfeel guilty. The
ego ideal rewards a person by making him feel proud. Thus, the child introjects themoral
standards of the parents. The superego functions are as under:
• To inhibit the impulses of the Id, particularly sexual and aggressive impulses
becausethese are the ones whose expression is highly condemned by the society.
• To persuade the Ego to substitute moral goals for realistic ones.
• To strive for perfection.
Under ordinary circumstances, the id, ego, and superego work as a team under
theadministrative leadership of the ego. The personality normally functions as a whole.
3. The Dynamics of personality : The human organism is a complex
energy system. Sincehuman beings are psychological beings, their energy is known as
Psychic Energy. According tothe Principle of conservation of energy, it may be
transformed or redistributed but it can neither beincreased nor decreased. An instinct is
a quantum of Psychic energy. All the instincts takentogether constitute the sum total of
psychic energy available to the personality. An instinct relatedto the body is defined as
an inborn psychological representation of an inner somatic source ofexcitation. The
psychological representation is called a wish and the bodily excitation from which itstems
is called a need. An instinct has four aspects :
• Source : The source is the bodily process that produces excitation.
• Aim : The aim of the instinct is satisfaction in some form or in some degree.
• Object : The object is that entity towards which the instinct is directed and
which satisfiesit in some measure.
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• Impetus : It is the force behind the instinct determined by the intensity of the
underlyingneed.
E.g. Hunger is an instinct whose source is the physiological need of food; aim is
to eat:object is food and impetus is shown when the individual seeks food. The source,
aim, andimpetus, of an instinct remain constant. However, the object of an instinct can
and does varyconsiderably during the lifetime of a person. This variation is possible
because psychic energy isdisplaceable.
Freud classified all instincts under two fundamental categories - eros and
thanatos or the life and death instinct. The life instincts serve the purpose of the
individual or species survival. Hunger, thirst, sex etc. fall in this category. Freud divides
eros into the ego drives and sex drives.However he doesn’t give importance to the ego
drives and lays special emphasis on the sex drive. The death instinct is the other
fundamental unconscious drive present in all individuals from birthto death. Thus eros is
the principle of life and growth. Thanatos is the principle of decay anddeath. Eros is
pleasurable and constructive. Thanatos is hateful and destructive. Eros isassociated
with the anabolic processes and thanatos is associated with the catabolic processes
ofthe body. A person is ambivalent in that he shows both these instincts at the same
time. Theseinstincts may fuse together neutralize each other, or replace one another.
4. Psychosexual stages of development : Freud held that the first few
years are decisivefor the formation of personality. Each individual passes through the
following stages ofdevelopment:
A. Infantile Sexuality : This period from birth to 6 years is further divided into Oral.
Analand Phallic Stages.
a. Oral stage : At birth, libido is diffused over the entire area of the skin and
stroking the body is highly pleasurable to the infant. However, very soon,
the libido is localized in the mouthbecause it is the principle source of
pleasure. The oral stage extends from birth to 2 years ofage. In the early
oral stage, pleasure is derived from sucking, mouthing, and swallowing,
butwhen the teeth erupt and the infant enters the late oral stage, pleasure is
derived from biting.
b. Anal stage : this extends from the age of 2 to 4 years. The child is chiefly
concerned with the satisfactionderived from his toilet habits. Toilet training,
which generally begins in the second year of life,is the child’s first
experience of external regulation of an instinctual reflex. During this stage
achild also becomes conscious of himself as an independent individual and
thus the egodevelops. A portion of libido is directed upon himself. This self-
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love is termed narcissism.Individuals whose professions put them in the
spotlight such a singers, actors etc. are greateron narcissistic tendencies.
c. The phallic stage : Also called the early genital period. It extends from 4 to
6 years of age.The libido is localized in the genital organs, as the child
becomes increasingly conscious ofthem. Oedipus complex characterizes
this stage among the boys and the electra complexamong the girls. The
oedipus complex in boys is that the boy wants to possess his motherand
hates his father. He fears that the father may punish him by removing his
genital organs, which are the dominant source of pleasure during this
stage. This castration anxiety leads tothe repression of his sexual desire for
his mother and aggression towards the father. The boy starts identifying
with the father in the process gaining vicarious satisfaction for his
sexualimpulses towards the mother. Eventually, his dangerous sexual
feelings for the mother areconverted into harmless tender affection. The
female counterpart of the oedipus complex isthe electra complex due to
which the girl want to possess her father and displace the mother.To begin
with the girl also resents the father and loves the mother because she
satisfies herneeds. But during the phallic stage she discovers that boys
have a protruding sex organwhereas she does not possess one. This
traumatic discovery weakens her love for the motherbecause she holds her
mother responsible for her castrated condition. She transfers her loveto the
father because the father has the valued organ that she aspires to share.
This love is,however mixed with feeling of envy, because the father (in fact
all men) possessessomething she lacks. Penis envy is the female
counterpart of castration anxiety in boys andcollectively they are called the
castration complex. In boys, the castration anxiety helps toresolve the
oedipal complex, in girls penis envy initiates the electra complex. Electra
complexis never resolved though it weakens due to realistic taboos.
d. Latent Stage : This stage extends from 6 years of age to the beginning of
adolescence.During this period the libido is relatively suppressed. There is
a greater emphasis onintellectual and social development of the child. This
stage is governed by the reality principle.
e. Genital stage :It extends from the onset of puberty through adolescence to
maturity. It begins with a revival of infantile sexuality. The pleasure principle
is dominant again. In theearly genital stage, between 12-15 years,
homoeroticism is shown. It is an attachmenttowards members of the same
sex. Girls develop crushes on each other and then teachers.Boys or gangs
and indulge in hero worship. Heterosexuality marks the late genital or the
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finalstage of psychosexual development. Gradually, individuals gain and
demonstrate confidencein their sexual attraction andmaturity. In the early
stage there is a revival of pleasure principlebut eventually it yields to the
reality principle. Thus the individual is able to maintain a
normalheterosexual life.
In this way the person is transformed from a pleasure- seeking narcissistic infant
into areality-oriented socialized adult. The final organization of personality represents
contributions fromall the stages
CAUSES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY :There are many causes of
psychopathology that can beinferred from the psychodynamic viewpoint. Indeed, so
pessimistic is the psychodynamic view ofman, that it is a wonder how the majority of
people remain normal, and only a few are clinicallycharacterized as abnormal.
Abnormal, negative, destructive impulses are innate to human behavior in the
form ofthanatos --the death instinct. It manifests itself mostly in a desire for suicide.
Turned outwards it isan urge to destroy, injure, or kill also covers milder forms of
aggression such a self-punishment, self-condemnation, jealousy among rivals, and
rebellion against authority. The thwarting of eros -the life instinct, particularly the
repression of the sex instinct, is responsible for many symptoms ofpsychopathology
Psychopathology occurs largely due to intrapsychic conflicts. The ego has three
harshmasters- Id. superego, and reality. For an adequate functioning of personality it
must maintain abalance between these three. Overwhelmed by excessive stimulation
from any of these threesources, the ego becomes flooded with- anxiety. Anxiety is a
state of tension. which also hasmotivating properties, Due to the id, the ego faces
neurotic anxiety, due to the reality it facesreality anxiety due to the superego, it faces
moral anxiety. The neo-psychoanalysts such asHorney and Sullivan have emphasized
that every individual, being insecure and helpless as aninfant, experiences basic anxiety.
The ego acts at all times to reduce anxiety.
Psychopathology may also occur because the developmental conflicts have not
been resolved.Since the electra complex is never resolved, Frued held that women have
a weaker super-egothan men and are thus more prone toneurosis. It is important that
the child resolves complexes during the phallic stage or he may grow up lacking an
adequate superego a proper sex identity and may even be homosexually inclined.
The individual may also fail to progress beyond a stage of development i.e. he
may be fixated at a particular stage of development because he forms a cathexis for the
instinctual object of that stage due to excessive satisfaction, or its reverse lack of
satisfaction.
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When the ego cannot cope with anxiety with rational methods it uses unrealistic
unconscious methods known as defense mechanisms.It is interesting to note that all
mentalsymptoms of psychopathology can be conceptualized as exaggerated defense
mechanisms.Nevertheless, this is quite understandable if we remember that essentially
abnormal symptomsare attempts by the patient to cope with the anxiety whichthey face
in life. All defense mechanismshave two characteristics in common :
• They deny, falsify, or distort reality.
• They operate unconsciously.
The basic defense mechanism used by the ego is repression. Repression implies
pushingunwanted desires, negative memories, disliked principles, etc. into the
unconscious. It is anunconscious process of ignoring the memory of painful experiences
in order to avoid the stressinvolved in a direct solution of the problem. The painful
experiences then become a part of theunconscious. It is also called selective forgetting.
Negative experiences are repressed by the ego.However, this repressed material is
always trying to gain an entry back into consciousness.Repression is never complete
and the repressed material shows up in slips of tongue, slips of penetc in a normal
individual; and as phobias and obsessions in an abnormal individual Moreover, the
negative event itself may be repressed, but its effects linger on and appear in various
forms.The price paid for repression is that it does not give a chance for realistically
appraising thesituation and working for a solution.
Freud concentrated on repression as the basic defense mechanism, though he
frequentlymentions additional defense mechanisms. It was Anna Freud (1895 - 1982)
and other neo-psychoanalysts who identified many other defense mechanisms. The ego
uses additional defense mechanisms to keep the repressed material in the unconscious
and to counter the anxietygenerated by it. It must be understood that it is only the task-
oriented approaches that deal withstress permanently. Thus all defense mechanisms are
actually maladaptive ways of responding tointrapsychic conflicts.
To summarize, according to the psychodynamic viewpoint, the causes of
psychopathology are
1. Suppression of eros and expression of thanatos
2. Intra psychic conflicts.
3. Anxiety
4. Repression into the unconscious and the constant striving of repressed
material tobecome conscious.
5. Fixations
6. Unresolved developmental conflicts
 18
7. The excessive use of defense mechanisms by the ego is because of all the
abovementioned factors.
The aim of psychoanalytical treatment is to resolve conflicts and make the un
consciousmaterial conscious, helping the individual to understand adapt and integrate it
into his personality.
CRITICISM OF PSYCHOANALYSIS :In his own time, Freud was almost
universallycriticized. Now the outraged emotions have subsided but the criticism
continues due to the following :
1. The lay public is vindictive towards psychoanaysis due to its overemphasis
on sex andattempts to explain the conscience soul and religion in terms of
basic biological drivers. His own students, Jung and Adler, parted with him
on this account.
2. Humanistic philosophers criticized psychoanalytical theorists for painting a
bleak pessimistic picture of man. Critics have charged that Freud has
emphasized the darkside of the psyche.
3. Feminists attacked his concept of Penis envy and the idea that women had
weakersuperegos. Horney led the attack in this respect. Most modern
researchers agree thatwomen are the stronger sex with greater
understanding of interpersonal relationships.
4. Cultural anthropologists allege that psychoanalysis ignore the socio-cultural
factors inbehaviour. It is only with the later psychoanalysts that society
becomes important, eventhen, there is total neglect of cultural differences in
shaping behavior.
5. Scientifically speaking, psychoanalytical concepts are not testable. The
ideas of Id, Ego.Supper-ego. Oedipus and Electra complex are difficult, if
not impossible, to test inexperiments.
6. Quantitative measurement is impossible. Psycnoanalytic concepts and
ideas cannot besubjected to measurement. The nature and amount of
tensions, conflicts, etc. cannoteven be measured. There are no answers to
questions such as how intense must anexperience be before it can be
called a trauma or how weak must the ego be to beoverridden by an id
impulse. Then how can they be studied scientifically ? How cancausal
relationships be established ? How can predictions be made ?
7. Psychoanalytical theory also fails to make adequate predictions. It is an
after the factexplanation of phenomena. It cannot predict or control future
 19
events e.g. the death wishis an idea, which doesn’t help to predict or control
events such as suicide or murder.
8. Psychoanalytical therapy which is a direct application of the theory, is most
commonlyused with patients having neurosis, psycho-physiological
disorders, sexual complaintsand deviations and personality disorders.
When it does work, no one seems to knowway it works The outcome of
psychoanalysis is favorable for
• All kinds of psychoses.
• Drug addicts.
• Adults over 40 years.
• Mild neurotics.
• Patients who require quick treatment.
• Patients lacking basic intelligence to understand the process of
psychoanalysis.
9. Freud’s techniques of arriving at the theory are also criticized.
Psychoanalytical theory isbased on a handful of clinical patients.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS : Psychoanalytical therapy helped to
dispel theidea that mental illness was due to demons or divine interference. Freud
showed that seeds atpsychopathology exist in all of us and mentalillness can be
conquered by rational self-understanding.By emphasizing that mental symptomsare
exaggerated defense mechanisms and thuseradicating the distinction between abnormal
and normal. Freud helped in the application ofpsychology for the benefit of mankind. He
devised the psychoanalytical method of treatment toreplace the inhumane techniques
used earlier. Also, Freud developed Free-association and Dreamanalysis for the study of
the unconscious-something that has been compared to the developmentof the
microscope to study cellular processes. Psychoanalysis has contributed intensive
studies ofindividual cases unlike those available anywhere else. Thus psychoanalysis
made importantcontributions to the techniques and methods of psychology. To conclude,
the psychodynamicviewpoint is important because :
1. When it was given, it stressed psychological causation over the biological
and thesupernatural causes.
2. He gave a method of psychotherapy.
3. Freud gave the concept of the unconscious which is almost universally
accepted. Healso developed the techniques of free association and dream
analysis to study theunconscious.
4. He emphasized the role of childhood experiences in later personality
development.
 20
5. He emphasized sexual factors in behavior.
6. He emphasized that mental symptoms of psychopathology are simply an
exaggeration ofnormal ego defense mechanism. This erased the distinction
between normals andabnormals and thus ensured the dignity of the
abnormal individuals.

Self Assessment Questions

1. ___________________ is the origin of a Defence mechanism.

2. Repression pushes unwanted desires into_________________

Answers
1. Denial 2. Unconscious
1.3.2 THE BEHAVIORAL VIEWPOINT
The behavioral viewpoint elaborates one basic theme - the role of learning
and/orexperience in behavior. It has only one major assumption - that all behaviors are
learnt through interaction with the environment. Though it developed from the laboratory
rather than the clinic, itsimplications for explaining and treating abnormal behavior soon
became evident.
BASIC POSTULATES : Within behaviorism, two distinct explanations of human
behaviormay be distinguished :Classical conditioning and Instrumental/Operant
conditioning. The basicprocedures of both are detailed below :
Classical-conditioning : Classical conditioning was studied extensively by
Pavlov andpopularized by Watson. Repeated pairing of neutral stimulus (CS) with a
natural stimulus (US) leads to the natural response being evoked by the neutral
stimulus. The basic plan or paradigm ofthe experiment is as follows : .
Initial Phase US UR
(Food) (Saliva)
Training Phase CS + US UR
(Bell) (Food) (Saliva)
Test Phase CS CR
(Bell) (Saliva)
US―Unconditioned Stimulus UR ― Unconditioned Response
CS―Conditioned Stimulus CR ― Conditioned Response
One famous experiment in conditioning is by Watson (1925) is his conditioning of
Little Albert. Albert was a small child who was conditioned to fear rabbits because he
was again andagain presented a rabbit with a loud bang. Eventually, the fear reaction
 21
naturally given to the loudbang was also given to the rabbit. Albert also generalized this
reaction to all white furry objects, somuch so that he also started fearing his mother’s
white fur coat even when his mother waswearing it. It is reported that Weston never
deconditioned the child because his mother took himaway. However, he did decondition
another child's similar fear of white furry objects. The child,little Peter lost his fear of
white furry objects because he was conditioned to be relaxed and to play with the rabbit
which was presented to him whenever he was in a secure environment. The experiment
of Little Albert was carried out with the assistance of Rosalie Raynor whereas
theexperiment on Little Peter was done with Mary Cover Jones. Regarding the latter
experiment. Mary Cover Jones (1974) remarked. “we now use the term behavior
modification therapy todescribe the practical approach of John Waston and his
followers”.
Many physiological and emotional responses are acquired through classical
conditioning, including those related to fear anxiety, sexual arousal ; and those
stimulated by drugs or abuse.These responses may be generalized to other similar
stimuli. A person afraid of bees maybecome afraid of all flying insects. Complex
processes such as perceiving, forming concepts andsolving problems are all based on
the process of discrimination. Prejudices are often the result ofundue discrimination
Wolpe (1958) uses counter conditioning in his therapy 'SystematicDesensitization'. But
the extinction of these responses that takes place in the therapists' office may not
generalize to other contexts, and the patient’s responses may show spontaneous
recoveryexternal inhibition, and disinhibition. Thus these basic phenomena have
implications forbehavioral treatment as well.
Operant conditioning : Whereas classical conditioning pairs a stimulus with
anotherstimulus, operant conditioning establishes a link between the response and
reinforcement.Áccording to Skinner, reinforcement leads to the recurrence of response.
Operant conditioning iscontingent not on two but three components - the stimule that
precede the response the responseitself, and the stimuli that follow the response (the
reinforcer).
1. The stimulus situation : Unlike classical conditioning, there is no
specific stimulus that elicits the response in operant conditioning. Rather the whole
situation acts as the stimulus. All thestimuli that precede the response can be associated
with the response. Nevertheless it is thediscriminative stimulus that is the important
factor in many kinds of operant behaviors. It is only inthe presence of a specific stimulus,
called the discriminative stimulus, that the reinforcement willoccur if the response is
given. For example, a rat may get a pellet of food to press a lever onlywhen a light is
glowing otherwise not. In such a case, he will learn to press the lever only when the light
is present. otherwise not. Discriminative stimuli are extremely important in real
 22
lifesituations because behaviors reinforced in one situation/context are often not
reinforced in othersituations, Discriminative stimuli tell us the appropriate times/situations
to perform the response.Many abnormal behaviors may occur because the clientdoes
not learn the value of discriminativestimuli.
2. The operant response : Skinner explicitly distinguished between
respondent behaviorand operant behavior. Respondent behavior, studied by Pavlov is
initially elicited by a particularstimulus - the US. Operant behavior studied by Thomdike
and Skinner is simply emitted. Anoperant operates on the environment, and the result of
the operation – reinforcement, punishment, or nothing- determines whether the response
will become more or less likely to occur in the usual Skinner box.The rat could press the
lever in many ways of with the right pawwith the left paw, both paws, with the nose by
biting and pushing it down, by hanging on it withthe front paws etc.but all such
movements achieve the same end. i.e. pressing the lever to get apellet of food.
Therefore we identify only oneoperant - lever pressing. People are frequently notaware
of the behaviors that secure the reinforcement for them, and thus may show
inappropriate,maladaptive behaviours.
3. The reinforcement: Reinforcement is the most important component of
operantconditioning. A reinforcer is anything that leads to an increase in the probability of
occurrence ofthe response. On the basis of their origin, reinforcers may be divided into :
• Primary reinforcer : A primary reinforcer is naturally reinforcing to the
organism and isrelated to survival e.g. Food or water.
• Secondary reinforcer : A secondary reinforcer is any natural stimulus, which
isassociated with the primary reinforcer and thus acquires reinforcing
characteristics.Examples are light, sound etc,
• Generalized reinforcer : A generalized reinforcer is a secondary reinforcer,
which hasbeen paired with more than one primary reinforcer. Its greatest
advantage is that it doesnot depend upon deprivation to be effective e.g.
money, awards, praise etc.
On the basis of their effects. reinforcers can also be divided as :
• Positive reinforcers : A positive reinforcer increases the probability ofthe
occurrence of the response when it is added to a situation by a response.
• Negative reinforcers : A negative reinforcer is the one which when removed
from asituation by a certain response increases the probability of occurrence of
that responsee.g. if a shock is discontinued when the rat jumps over to another
box, the response of jumping to the other box increases.
 23
Thus reinforcement occurs when the response either adds something to the
situation(positive reinforcer) or removes something (negative reinforcer). In both cases,
the probability ofoccurrence of the response is increased.
Punishment is a situation when the probability of occurrence of a response is
decreased.Skinner holds that punishment suppresses the response as long as it is
applied. However, it doesnot weaken the habit and when there is no punishment, the
response will occur again.Punishment implies presenting a negative reinforcer or
removing a positive reinforcer. He heldthat punishment is wrong and unfortunate
because :
1. It causes unfortunate emotional by-products.
2. It indicates what the organism should not do and not what it should do.
3. It justifies inflicting pains on other.
4. It elicits aggression towards the punishing agents and others.
5. It often replaces one undesirable response with another undesirable
response.
Skinner’s main argument against the use of punishment is that it is ineffective in
the longrun. It has only a temporary effect and when the threat is removed, the behavior
returns to itsoriginal level.
Initially a high rate of reinforcement may be necessary to establish an operant
response.but pesser rates are usually sufficient to maintain it. In fact an operant
response is especially persistent when reinforcement is intermittent or partial The
contingencies that can be designed tocouple behavior and re-enforcement are
collectively known as “schedules of reinforcement. Abasic distinction is madebetween
continuous reinforcement schedules and partial reinforcementscheduler. In partial
reinforcement schedule, the response is not reinforced every time itoccurs The
reinforcement is given only in some of the responses, not always. If not onlyleads to a
slower acquisition of response but it also leads to slower extinction, the fact thatpartial
reinforcement leads to slower extinction is known as the partial reinforcement effector
Humphrey’s rule after the researcher Humphreys (1939), who first demonstrated
it.Nevertheless, if the reinforcement is consistently withheld over time, the subject
eventuallystopsmaking the response. Skinner holds omitting the reinforcement as
necessary andsufficient for extinction.
A special problem exists in the extinction of conditioned avoidance
responses,which play a role in many patterns of abnormal behavior. A boy, who has
developeda fearof wide open spaces, avoids going out to the countryside, does not want
to play in a largeplayground and eventually does not go out of his house at all, has
developed a conditionedavoidance responses. lf he is asked to go out, he feels anxious;
 24
not going out lessens hisanxiety and is thus reinforcing. As a result his avoidance
response is strengthened. It alsoprevents him from having positive experiences in open
wide spaces, which could havereduced his fear. Thus, his avoidance response is highly
resistant to extinction.
As we grow up operart conditioning enables us to acquire behaviors essential for
coping with the world and securing reinforcements. Unfortunately, because our world
isconstantly changing there is no guarantee that whatwe learn will always be useful.
Wemay learn to value things that seem attractive in the short run, such as cigarettes
oralcohol, but that can actually hurt us in the long run: or we may learn coping patterns
suchas helplessness, bullying, or other irresponsible behaviors that are eventually
maladaptive.
The principles of conditioning were extensively worked out in Dollard andMiller's
work Personality andPsychotherapy in 1950. This book reinterpreted psychoanalytic
theory in the terminology of learning principles, and thusenabled a behavioral attack on
the prevailing psychoanalytic ideas in the interpretation andtreatment of abnormal
behavior. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s however, that behavioral therapy became
established as a powerful way of viewing and treating psychopathology.
Dollard and Miller equated the etiology and content of mental illness with that
ofsimple behavior which can be observed in the laboratory. Miller is famous for his
analysis of the conflictsituation. He held that the approach - avoidance conflict could not
be easily resolvedbecause the approach gradient is steeper than the avoidance
gradient. With his colleagues,Miller also gave the frustration - aggression hypothesis
according to which aggressionalways results from frustration and that frustration always
leads to aggression. The Yalegroup soon modified the second half of this hypothesis
(Miller. 1941) to acknowledge that anumber of other reactions to frustration were
possible in addition to aggression.
Any behavior that reduces conflicts is reinforced and neurotic and
psychoticsymptoms are among such types of behavior. Dollard and Miller specifically
studied howneurotic and psychotic disorders came about. They presumed phobias to be
conditionedfears and compulsions to the either learned tension -reducing habits or a
means of distractor from a painful experience. Hysterical conversions originated in
organiccomplaints, but weregradually conditioned so that they remained even after the
physicalcause disappeared. Displacement is the result of generalizing a response from
the originalstimulus to another.In hallucinations, cue-producing responses were carried
overto inappropriate stimuli. Alcoholism was a means of reducing fear.
With the assumption that illness was learned treatment was also reduced to
theprinciples of Hull. The therapist simply created a permissive milieu conducive to
theacquisition of new behavior patterns and the extinction of other negative emotional
 25
reactions.The therapist had literally to teach the patient the symbols he required so that
he couldconceptualize his threatening experiences and deal with them. The symbols
helped thepatient further to discriminate what was dangerous from what was safe and to
classify andunderstand what was going on inside himself and between himself and
others. Therapy also helps to cure symptoms by eliciting responses incompatible with
them. For instance, howcould a person continue to feel frightened about his aggression
when his therapist accepted itas natural ?
The focus of behavioral therapy is on changing specific behaviors and
emotionalresponses - eliminating undesirable reactions and learning desirable ones.
Differentpsychologists developed a number of behavioral techniques of therapy, based
on thesystematic application of learning principles.
Gradually, the voice of behaviorists grew stronger than psychoanalysts. By
means of relatively few basic concepts, behaviorism attempts to explain the acquisition,
modification,and extinction of nearly all types of behaviors. Maladaptive behaviour is the
result of learningthat has gone awry and is defined in terms of specific observable
undesirable responses. If may also be a failure to learn necessary adaptive behaviors or
competencies such as how toestablish satisfying personal relationships.
To summarize, behaviorists believe that maladaptive behavior is due to :
1. Ineffictive and faulty learning
2. No learning –i.e. lack in basic behavioral repertoire.
CRITICISM OF BEHAVIORISM : Behaviorism has been criticized because it is
concernedonly with overt symptoms and not the whole person. It oversimplifies human
behavior and cannotexplain all its complexities. Particularly, behaviorism is not
concerned with the mind and itsprocesses. However this criticism is no longer valid.
Recent behaviorists such as Miller, Dollard, Bandura Kelly etc. have emphasized the
role of the higher mental processes inabnormal behavior. A more serious criticism is that
behaviorism is unconcerned with theissues of value. meaning and self – direction.
Behaviorists counter this allegation by the assertion that these issues are meremyths. As
Skinner (1971) says in 'Beyond freedom and Dignity', all human behaviour isdatermined
by its consequences if we want to promote human happiness. it can be done onlyby
teaching and learning behaviors that result in positive reinforcements.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM : Today behaviorism is the most
advanced viewpoint in terms of success in theory and practice.Its contributions may be
enlisted as follows.
 26
1. It is philosophically optimistic - in fact it is the most optimistic viewpoint
regardingpsychopathology believing it to be caused by changeable
environmental factors alone.
2. Behaviorism is extremely simple in its assumptions. Maladaptive behaviors
viewed as the result of faulty learning or no learning.
3. It is more scientific because it is based on research.
4. It is precise and objective as it clearly specifies the variables initiating and
maintaining maladaptive behaviour.
5. Unlike psychoanalysis, it is easier to evaluate the effectiveness of behaviorism.
Abehavior therapist specifies what behavior is to be changed and how it is to
be changed.Later, the effectiveness of the therapy can be evaluated
objectively by the degree towhich, the stated goals have been achieved.
6. Behavioral therapy is very effective. It is easy, quick and less expensive
than any otherkind of therapy
Thus, despite being a rather simplistic view, the behavioral perspective has had
andcontinues to have a tremendous impact on contemporary views of human nature
behavior andpsychopathology.
1.3.3 THE COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL VIEWPOINT
Behaviorism banished mentalistic concepts from Psychology because they could
not be observed and hence were considered unsuitable for scientific study. However, by
1960s.cognitive processes were brought back into focus. Indeed, at its peak ofinfluence,
behaviorismwas challenged by members of its own ranks, as well as by psychologists
and psychiatriststrained in other traditions. In response to these challenges the changes
that occurred inbehaviorism were so radical that it would not be an exaggeration to say
that a new perspective was born - Cognitive Behaviorism. This new perspective
emphasized mental processes - in theirown right and because of their influence on
emotions and behavior.
BASIC POSTULATES AND CAUSES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY : Both
classical and operantconditioning were explained using mentalistic terms by the
cognitive behaviorists. We nowacknowledge that the process of classical conditioning is
not as blind or automatic as was oncethought. Rather, organisms actively acquire
information about the CSs that allow them to predict,expect or prepare for a biologically
significant event (the US). Indeed only CSs that providereliable and non - redundant
information about the occurrence of a US will acquire the capacity toelicit CRs (Rescoria.
1988). Similarly, in Operant Conditioning, it is now believed that a person learns a
response - outcome expectancy and if he is sufficiently motivated for the outcome, he
 27
will makethe response (Mackintosh. 1983). However, cognitive behaviorism did not limit
itself to areinterpretation of old data.. New ideas and theoretical formulations emerged
from cognitivebehaviorists.
When behaviorism was at its zenith, it was Tolman who insisted that behaviour
ispurposive and is organized according to the cognitive maps made up of expectancies
Hebehaved that overt reinforcement was not important for learning. Miller and Dollard
insisted thathuman learning can occur due to various Internal reinforcement as well.
However, it was Bandura (b.1925) who fully developed the cognitive - behavioral
perspective. Bandura stressed that a humanlearning is almost always observational and
cognitive. Human beings regulate their behaviour by theirinternal symbolic processes -
thoughts. They learn by internal reinforcements and do not requireexternal
reinforcements to alter their behavior patterns. With cognitive abilities, they can solve
many problems internally. Indeed, Bandura (1974) went so far as to say that human
beings have acapacity for self - direction in recent decades he has developed the theory
of self efficay - thebelief that you can achieve a desired goal. He believes that cognitive
behavioral treatments workin a large part by improving self efficacy.
Another pioneering cognitive theorist Beck (b. 1921) adapted the concept of
schemasfrom cognitive psychology. A schema is an underlying representation of
knowledge that guidesthe current processing of information and often leads to distortions
in attention, memory andcomprehension. Beck (1967-1976) believes that different
maladaptive schemas which developdue to adverse learning experiences, characterize
different form of psychopathology. The basicassumption is that our cognitions determine
our emotional reactions. His work hashad thegreatest impact on cognitive - behavioral
treatment approaches to various forms ofpsychopathology and he is generally
considered the founding father of cognitive therapy. Allcognitive therapies focus on the
underlying cognitions that produce overt behavior. They use avariety of techniques to
after whatever negative cognitive bias the client harbors. Among these,rational emotive
therapy by Ellis and cognitive behavioral therapy by Beck is the most popular.
Attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974) has also made a significant
contribution to the cognitive behavioral viewpoint. Attribution is process of assigning
causes to things thathappen. Causal attributions help us to make explain are own or
other’s behavior and make itpossible to predict future behavior. Causal attributions vary
along various dimensions theimportant ones being: internal - external, stable - unstable,
and global - specific. Attribution styleis the characteristic way that an individual tends to
make attributions for bad events or for goodevents. Attribution theorists believe that
different forms of psychopathology are associated withcharacteristic attribution styles.
For example, depressed people tend to attribute bad events tointernal stable, global
 28
causes. Inaccurate, extreme, and rigid attributions have significant effectson our
emotional well-being and relationships with others.
Thus, the cognitive behavioral perspective focuses on how thoughts and
information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and
benavior. It conceptualizes thoughts as behaviors that can be studied empirically and
become the focus oftherapy. By studying the patterns of distorted information processing
exhibited by people withvarious forms of psychopathology, the mechanisms involved in
the maintenance of variousdisorders have been brought to light. Today the cognitive
behavioral viewpoint is highly influentialboth because of the successes it has had in
developing effective treatments for many disordersand because of its insight into the
importance of distorted cognitions in understanding abnormalbehavior.
CRITlCISM OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIORISM : Many traditional behaviorists such
asSkinner (1990) and Wolpe (1988-1993) remained skeptical about the cognitive –
behavioralviewpoint. They insisted that cognitionsare not observable phenomena and as
such cannot berelied on to provide solid empirical data. In the absence of such data it is
difficult if not impossibleto evaluate the effectiveness of therapy and the validity of the
theory. Another source of criticism are the holistic therapists such asthe gestalt,
humanistic, and existential therapists, who insist that cognitive behavioral therapy
islimited to the underlying cognitions of overt symptoms and is not concerned about the
totalpersonality and self development of the, client. Consequently, it is limited in its
scope, application durability, and thus effectiveness.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIORISM : Cognitive behaviorism has
made apowerful impact on contemporary clinical psychology. Its contributions may be
enlisted as follows :-
1. It combines the philosophical optimism of behaviorism with pragmatism
Maladaptivebehavior is viewed as the result of faulty cogaitive set, which
can be changed by the individual himself.
2. It is more scientific because it is based on research.
3. It is precise and objective it clearly specifies the variables initiating and
maintaining maladaptive behaviour. It also specifies the goals of treatment
and evaluation criteria. Thus it is easy to evaluate the effectiveness of
cognitive - behavtorism.
Currently, cognitive behavioral therapy is justifiably the most effective and
populartechnique of treatment. Therefore perhaps many researchers and clinicians have
found supportfor the principle of altering human behavior through changing the way
people think aboutthemselves and others.
 29
1.3.4 THE HUMANISTIC VIEWPOINT
The humanistic psychologists are generally known as the third force in
psychologybecause they oppose both psychoanalysis for its pessimistic philosophy and
behaviorism for itsmolecular approach. They recognize the importance of psychoanalytic
and behaviorist perspectives but emphasize that psychologists have not focussed on
significant problems of ourlives and their solutions.
BASIC POSTULATES : Rogers recognized in his clinical practice how much his
clientswere concerned with their “self” He thus made the “self” the core of his personality
theory : aself gradually differentiated from the environment as the organism interacts
directly with theenvironment. The self is the frame of reference for alI behaviors shown
by the organism. Tounderstand a person and his behavior, we must have an empathic
understanding of his self. The client - centered approach to counseling and therapy
uses empathy and unconditionalpositive regard so that the client can understand and
realize his self. The basic striving of aperson is to maintain, enhance and actualize his
self. A person who manages to realize his selfeventually becomes a “fully functioning
personality” with the following three characteristics
a) Openness to experience.
b) Congruence: existential way of living.
c) Internal locus of evaluation.
Maslow’s views are similar to Rogers and were espoused roughly at the same
time :therefore critics and reviewers almost always club them together. Maslow upbraids
psychology for its “pessimistic, negative and limited conception of humans". He feels
psychology “hasvoluntarily restricted itself to only half of its rightful of jurisdiction: and the
darker meaner half”. Maslow decided to supply the other half of the picture. !t was
Maslow who coined the term “Humanistic psychology’ which he characterized as a 'third
force” in American psychology, theother two being behaviorism and psychoanalysis. He
made an intensive. far-reaching investigation of a group of self-actualizing peopleand
delineated 15 to 17 characteristics ofsuch people. He extensively studied “peak
experiences” which are mystical experiences ofoptimism and unity found to a greater
extent among self-actualized individuals. Maslow alsogave a hierarchy of motives with
self-actualization at the top and self-esteem, love andbelongingness, safety end
physiological needs in the lower levels of the hierarchy. He felt thatthe higher need
operates only when the lower ones are satisfied. Most people in societyfunction at the
level of safety needs. Maslow’s unique contribution to the organismic viewpoint lies in his
preoccupation with healthy people rather than sick ones. He has chosen a
directmethodology to formulate his theory of a normal, healthy, humane person.
 30
Unlike the founders, both of whom are ambivalent and equivocal regarding the
basicnature of man, Rogers and Maslow firmly believe that man is essentially good and
healthy.Thus, it is with Maslow and Rogers that the humanistic school comes to full
bloom. Though the theorists of this school differ a lot from each other, certain common
assumptions and trends canbe delineated in all the theories. These are :
a) The normal personality is unified, integrated, consistent, and coherent.
Organization isthe natural state of the person, disorganization is pathological
: and is usually broughtabout due to oppressive social conditions.
b) The individual is motivated by one sovereign drive rather than a plurality of
drives. Thisdrive is self-realization or self-actualization.
c) The individual has an active and not a passive nature. He selects the
features of theenvironment to which it will react and except in rare abnormal
circumstances theenvironment cannot force the individual to behave in a
manner foreign to his or hernature. He has the freedom of will.
d) Man is inherently good. If he is allowed to unfoldhis potential in an orderly
way, ahealthy, value-based integrated personality results. There is nothing
inherently ‘bad’ inthe organism ; it is made ‘bad’ by an inadequate
environment. On this point, humanisticpsychologists adhere to Rousseau’s
view who believed that a human being is a “noblesavage” who is perverted
only by the environment.
Existential philosophy is quite close to the humanistic view of man Both believe
that manis inherently good and is born free. However existential philosophy emphasized
that the societyimposes restrictions on man such that he cannot fulfill his potential. For
existentialists the theme isalways man vs society. In contrast humanistic psychologists
believe that society is the naturalresult of the growth of human beings to their fullest
potential. Rogers feels that openness to experience and self-realization inevitably leads
to doing good for others i.e. a socialized self evolves out of self-realization. For
humanistic psychologists, society is but the result of self-actualization of humanbeings.
Humanistic therapy is a process of fostering personal growth toward a
sociallyconstructive and personally fulfilling way of life. Humanistic psychologists focus
on essentiallyhuman concerns such as self development, creativity, hope, values
personal growth, selffulfillment etc.
CAUSES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY :Psychopathology occurs due to :
1. Blocked personal growth : All humanistic psychologists believe that man
is inherentlygood, it is the society that hinders his growth and fulfillment.
Science and technology havenot helped man to solve his problems. Infact,
 31
they only lead to an ordered existence, it) which the individual can be
manipulated. The individual is lost in the current world
2. Incongruence :A gap between real and phenomenal self Phenomenal self
is the self asperceived by the individual himself and other around him. Each
one of us dons a mask toconform to social expectations. It is this mask that
is perceived. To the extent that there isa gap between the perceived self
and the real self of the person, psychopathology exists.
3. Negative experiences : Negative experiences are usually distorted or
denied by the person. Since they are not symbolized properly, they are not
integrated into ourpersonality. Instead they become the core of complexes
and problems.
4. Profound dislike of self : Even if the person understands and knows
himself, he mayexhibit a profound dislike of self due to problems complexes
and guilt feelings. In suchcases no self actualization is possible. Often this
is due to a lack of insight into the self.
CRITICISM OF HUMANISTIC VIEWPOINT
The humanistic psychologists have been criticized for painting a picture of too
good a man. Inthe present state of the world torn apart by wars, battles, violence, and
aggressiveness, thepicture of a rational self actualized human being seems to be just
too good to be true. Anothercriticism comes from hardcore experimentalists who criticize
the methodology of the humanisticpsychologists as lacking control. They also theorize
much beyond the data. Thus humanisticpsychologists are accused of “accepting as true.
that which is still hypothetical, or confusingtheory with ideology, and of substituting
rhetoric for research” (Hall and Lindzey, 1957). Thus thehumanistic-existential viewpoint
has been criticized for evaluative constructs and for lack of hardscientific evidence.
1. The theory is vague.
2. The ideas are much too idealistic and contrary to the spirit of science.
3. It is not based on ngorous experiments like behaviorism.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF HUMANISTIC VIEWPOINT
For all its weaknesses, humanistic psychology has tried to right many wrongs it has :
a) insisted that psychology has too often focused on the darker side of man:
and it hasstudied healthy personality.
b) Insisted that the unified integrated personality should be studied and not bits
and piecesof behavior. It emphasizes the importance of the self.
c) Insisted that there is no difference between mind and body.
 32
d) Studied psychology as conceptualized by the layman - the psychology of the
mystique ofhuman behavior-rather than mundane phenomena.
Humanistic psychologists have helped to restore our view of man as a normal
mature adulthuman. We no longer think of human beings in psychoanalytical terms
alone as constantly besetby difficulties. The force of this third force of psychology has
made psychology more interesting tothe layman and appealing to the philosopher. The
approach just needs a rigorous methodology sothat it establishes itself on a scientific basis.
1.3.5 THE INTERPERSONAL VIEWPOINT
We are social beings, and much of what we are is a product of our relationships
withothers. The interpersonal viewpoint holds that psychopathology is rooted in the
unfortunatetendencies we have developed while dealing with our interpersonal
environments. Thus abnormalbehavior is rooted in unsatisfactory relationships and is to
be understood only by analyzing ourrelationships, past and present, with other people.
BASIC POSTULATES AND CAUSES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: The roots of
this perspectivelie in the insistence on social interaction as a factor in personality
development by neopsychoanalysts. The interpersonal theorist Sullivan (1892-1949)
believes that personality is apattern of behavior used in relating to other people.The
elementary energizers ofpersonality are called dynamisms. A dynamism is any recurring
habitual action. attitude or feeling that one person has about one or more other persons.
Dynamisms accumulate throughout thelife of the human being. The wider experience he
has, the greater the number of dynamismshe possesses. The self-system is a complex
dynamism built around the potent energizing emotionof anxiety.
Anxiety is the prime mover, the builder of self-system, and the great educator in
life.Anxiety is not present from birth but emerges at about the time the infant begins to
discover thathis body is somewhat different from others i.e. the concept of self starts
developing. The source ofanxiety is the interpersonal cultural sphere. Individuality is
manifested in the way man meets thestress of society. The child's first educative
experience comes from the feelings of anxietytransmitted by his mother. Her behavior,
looks, and general demeanor reveal anxious moments inhis care/welfare The realization
grows that he is surrounded by a world which could harm him.Out of early life
experiences the personality constructs the self-system, creates personificationsand
maintains a tension system. Sullivan proposed that personality is developed out of
interactionwith significant others He placed emphasis on the society as the creator of
man’s personality. He emphasizes that man can change, he does change and in fact, he
has to change his basicpersonality pattern as he grows to maturity. More unstable the
environment in which he lives,more unstable is his personality. However all contacts
need not be between living beings.Interactions may also take place between a living
person and a fictional character.
 33
From the mother-fed feelings of anxiety and later from attempts to construct a
secure self-system the human personality gradually builds up a self-system to protect
itself. It is the functionof the self-dynamism to obtain maximum satisfaction and at the
same time avoid anxiety-producing situations. The self-dynamism censors incoming
perceptions allowing immediateawareness of only those perceptions that are consistent
with its own structure. The otherperceptions are ignored. Of all the perceptions, the most
important are those of people as theyrelate in inter-personal situations. Sullivan called
them personifications. A personification is anidea set of expectation or an image of a
person: possibly but not necessarily a real person.Often it is an inaccurate description.
Like all other perceptions. it is also influenced by thecharacteristics of self-dynamism.
Not surprisingly, personality is extremely resistant to change. Having once been
instituted,a self-system tends to persist and be reinforced as life progresses, even
though, conformity not intune with the real self is demanded. The self-dynamism is real
self. Once it proves its worth inavoiding anxiety it is likely to become isolated from the
real self primarily because the latter oftenfeels contrary to what the self-system is doing
to conform to society.
The personality considers theself-system highly valuable to reduce anxiety,
especially to protect itself from criticism by the realself. The wider the gulf and greater
the use of the self-system the more complex and independentit becomes. A schizoid
situation develops if the distance between the selfsystem and the real selfcontinues of
widen. It is possible, therefore, for the true self to be ultimately unable to control theself-
system.
The interpersonal viewpoint has also gained from research in interpersonal
accommodation communication, and Bowlby’s attachment theory, all of which suggest
that good interpersonal relations are crucial to maintenance and enhancement of mental
health. In general, interpersonal theorists such-as Sullivan. Thibaut, and Kelley hold that
psychopathology comes from :
1. Failure to progress satisfactorily through the various stages of development.
2. ‘Developing personifications -- mental prototypes that are used to perceive
current relationships.
3. Being fixed and rigid in our social roles.
4. Role conflicts
5. Hurtful social exchange and bargains in social interactions.
6. Failure of communication and interpersonal accommodation.
CRITICISM OF INTERPERSONAL VIEWPOINT : The interpersonal view is
criticizedbecause :
1. It is vague.
 34
2. It is not scientific, research in this area being difficult to conduct.
3. it focuses only on the external causes, and not the internal reasons for
psychopathology.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF INTERPERSONAL VIEWPOINT : This view has had an impact
onall areas of Clinical Psychology, because :
1. The reliability and validity of psychological diagnoses is improved if
interpersonalfunctioning is also considered.
2. Interpersonal therapy has helped to alleviate the problems of many
neurotics.
3. Training in interpersonal skills has improved the mental health of many
high-riskgroups.
The basic ideas of the interpersonal approach have found empirical support in
the clinic aswell as the laboratory.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. ___________________ Cognitions are the cause of psychopathology, According
to Cognitive Approach.
2. Behavioural approach does not believe in any___________symptom of a
behavioural problem.
3. _____________ is the cause of behavior problems as bee the Interpersonal
Approach.
Answers :
1. Faulty 2. Underlying 3. Family
1.4 Summary
On the basis of the discussions given in the chapter, itcan be concluded
thatpsychopathology/psychopathology is a symptom of an underlying disease that
requires acure. Psychoanalytic models suggest that psychopathology is caused by
conflicts inthe unconscious, stemming from past experience. In order to resolve
psychologicalproblems, people need to resolve the unconscious conflicts While the
Behavioural approaches view psychopathology not as a symptom of some underlying
problem,but as the problem itself to resolve the problem, one must change the
behaviour. TheCognitive approach suggests that psychopathology is the result of
faultycognitions. Humanistic approaches view people as rational and motivated to get
alongwith others andpsychopathology is seen as a difficulty in fulfilling one’s needs.
People are considered to be in control of their lives and be able to resolve their own
 35
problems. Finally, the Interpersonal Approaches viewpsychopathology in terms of
difficultiesarising from family and other socialrelationships.
1.5 References :
1. Carson, R.C., Butcher, J. N., and Mineka, S. (2003). Abnormal Psychology and
Modern Life, New York : Pearson Education
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The problem of
Maladaptice Behavior (11/e) Prentice Hall of India.
1.6 Further Readings :
1. Darison, G.C. and Neale, J.M. (1998). Abnormal Psychology, New York : John
Wiley and Sons
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarson, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The problem of Maladaptive
Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India
1.7 Model Questions
1. Discuss the Contribution of Psychoanalysis in the psychopathology.
2. Discuss the causes of psychopathologywith examples.

--s--
 36
Lesson-2

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CLINICAL

PSYCHOLOGY : IT'S RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER
SCIENCES & CURRENTCLASSIFICATION OF
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Clinical Psychology : Its relationship with other sciences
2.3 Current classifications of Psychopathology
2.3.1 The ICD-10 Classification System
2.3.2 The DSM-IV Classification System
2.3.3 Axis I Disorder
2.3.4 Axis II Disorder
2.3.5 Problems of Classification
2.4 Summary
2.5 References
2.6 Further Readings
2.7 Model Questions

2.0 Objectives
This chapter intends to enable the reader to :
 understand the historical concept of Psychopathology.
 know the importance of classifications of Psychological disorders.
 have an idea about the ICD classification.
 understand the importance of multiaxial system of DSM- IV
2.1 Introduction
Mental illness or psychiatirc illness has been existing since the very
beginning.Understanding of the causes and treatment of such illness, however, has
 37
been varyingfrom time to time. During ancient period, Witchcraft and Demonological
views werepresent and they were so deeply rooted that it was almost difficult to root
them out. Efforts of some of the dedicated persons like Hippocrates, Galen, Plato. Pinel,
Beajamin, Rush, Dorothea Dix etc. gave modernshape to the understanding and
treatment of mental illnesses. The field of Clinical Psychology is very wide. It has close
link with other sciences like Sociology, Anthropology, Medicine etc. Knowledge of the
basic fundamentals of these sciences is essential in the understanding and treatment of
individual.
Existence of mental illness or psychopathology conditions have been recognised
since time immemorial. The views about the causes and treatment, however, have been
varying. During the ancient period such psychopathology, were thought to becaused by
evil spirits and the sufferer was supposed to be possesed by it. Except forthe sufferers,
no one else could see, touch or experience the spirit. The decision as to whetherthe
possession involved good spirit or bad spirit usually depended upon the
patient’ssymptoms. If the possessed person’s speech or behaviour appeared to have a
religious ormystical significance, it was usually thought that the person was possessed
by a goodspirits. Most of the possessions, however, were considered to be the work of
bad/evilspirits. The behaviour of such a person became excited and overactive and
engaged inbehaviour contrary to the teaching of the priests and temple worshippers. The
treatment ofdemonical possessions was exorcism, which included various techniques
that weredeveloped for casting the evil spirit out of the body of the afflicted one. These
techniques included prayer, incarnation, noise making and the use of various-horrible
tastingconcoctions such as purgatives. In extreme case, flogging, starving and other
more severemeasures were often used in an attempt to make the body ofthe afflicted
person such anunpleasant place that the spirit would be driven out,
In the middle age, demonological point of view was rather restregthened and
mentalillnesses were attributed to supernature powers. Its treatment became more
barbarousand brute. All kinds of known methods of inflicting pains were used. This
involved callingthe devil and to strike a fatal blow at the devil’s spride to insult him.
Flogging, starvingchains, immersion in hot water and other tortuous methods were
devised in order to makethe body such an unpleasant place of residence that no self
respecting devil would remainin it.
Beginning of Understanding of Mental illness
As in other sciences also, the Greek took the lead in the understanding
andtreatment of mental illness. The great physician Hippocrates (463-357 B C.) hasbeen
called the father of modern medicine. He denied the intervention of deitiesand demons in
the development of disease and insisted that mental disorders hadnatural causes and
required treatment like other diseases. To provide explanation, he stressed the organic
 38
viewpoint.For him the brain was the central organ ofintellectual activity and that mental
illness was due to brain pathology. SinceGreek physicians had been poor anatomists
(because they dared not dissect it). Hippocratesbelieved that balance of physiological
process was essential to normal brain functioning andmental health. For him as also
described in ancient Ayurvedic literature, humors were adverselymixed or disturbed in
the subjects suffering from mental illness, development of the brain arisesfrom phlegm
and bile ; those mad from phlegm are quite, depressed and obligious, those from
bileexcited, noisy and mischievous.
Plato (429-347 B C.), the great philosopher advocated humanitarian treatment
withmentally ill. He was the first, who voiced against inflicting punishment to the mentally
ill for theircriminal acts. He made it clear that such persons were obviously not
responsible for their acts andshould not receive punishment in the same way as normal
persons. As opposed to theirsegregation as practised in the ancient period he proposed
that they should be cared properlyand should stay in the community : ‘If anyone is
insane, let him not be seen openly in the streets, but let the relatives of such a person
watch over him in the best possible manner they know of andif they are negligent, let
them pay a fine be recommended”. He also talked about thepsychological causes in the
genesis of psychopathology, more or less in the similar manner asthat of Freud (Father
of abnormal of psychology). Later on Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), a pupil butnot a follower
of Plato, rejected this psychological view point.
With the result of these humanitarian approaches, some of the later Greek and
Romanphysicians become involved in the treatment of mentally ill persons along with the
scientific lines,pleasant surroundings were considered of great therapeutic value for the
mentally ill, and thepatients were provided with constant occupation, entertainment and
exercise. These activitiesincluded parties, dances, walks in the temple and musical
concerts. The later Greek and Romanphysicians also utilized a wide range of other kinds
of theropeutic measures dietíng, massagehydrotherapy; gymnastics hypnotism, and
education and also certain less desirable measuressuch as bleeding, purging and
mechanical strains.
Galen (132-200 A.D.) was another important scientist who contributed to
theunderstanding of mental illness His work and philosophy was similar to the modern
thoughts. He divided the causes of mental illness into physical and mental. Among the
causes he named wereinjuries to the head, alcoholic excess, shock, fear, adolescence,
menstrual changes, economicreverses and disappointment in love. Soon after the death
of Galen in 200 A.D. people againstarted believing in demonology.
Any criticism or questioning of the theological doctrine of demonology during the
middleages was made at the risk of life itself. Inspite of this prevailing blind faith during
the early part ofthe sixteenth century there was some beginning again towards scientific
 39
intellectual activity. Theconcepts of witchcraft and demonology, which had acted for
centuries as a drag uponmedicalscience and especially psychiatry began to be
challenged and attacked by the collective forcegreater than their time men from the
fields or religion, physics, medicine and philosophy. In theearly part of the 16thcentury
Paracelsus (1490-1541) formulated the idea of psychic causes formental illness and
advocated bodily magnetism which later became hypnosis in treatment. JohnWayer
(1515-1588) wrote a book on the study of the torture and burning of persons accused of
Witchcraft in 1563. He pointed out in this book that a considerable number of those who
imprisoned, tortured and buried for Witchcraft were really sick mentally or bodily and
consequently that great wrongs were being committed against innocent people. His work
wide experiences and progressive views on mental illness justify his being regarded as
the true founder of modernpsychiatry. Unfortunately, however, he was too far ahead of
his time. His works will banned by thechurch and remained so until the 20th century.
Beginning of Mental Hospital
From the 16th century, onwards, once more the demonological view point started
beingchallenged with the view point that the mentally ill were sick people. The
monasteries graduallystarted relinquishing the care of mental patients to asylums which
were being established in increasing numbers the care of patient in these asylums,
however, left much to be desired.
Humanitarian Reforms
The humanitarian reform received its impetus from the work of Phillipe Pinel
(1745 1826) in France and William Tuke in England. After the French revolution Pinel
was placed as inchargeof a hospital in Paris. In this hospital, he started testing some of
the views that the mentally ill should be treated with kindness and consideration and not
as vicious beasts or criminals. Heremoved the chains of some of the patients, sunny
rooms were provided. The effect of this change was miraculous. The previous noise, fifth
and abuse were replaced by order and peace.He mentioned that “the whole discipline
was marked with regularity and kindness which had the most favourable effect on the
insane themselves, rendering even the most furious more tractable., Hiswork got
recognition. Pinel’s work was continued and helped in the establishment of a new mental
hospital which helped to put France in the forefront of modern psychiatry. Almost at the
same time, William Tuke, in England established a pleasant country house where mental
patients lived, worked, and rested, in a kindly religious atmosphere. Tuke’s small force of
quakers gradually gained support from Connoly, Hitch andgreat English medical
psychologists. In 1341, Hitch introduced trained women nurses into theward and trained
supervisor in the asylum. In America Benjamín Rush (1745-1813) started the similar
work as being done in France and England. Because of his contribution and human
 40
treatment he is known as the Father of American Psychiatry. His early work was
followed throughby an energetic school teacher, Dorothea Dix (1802-1887). In a
memorial submitted to theCongress of the United States in 1848, stated that she had
seen “more than 9000 idiots, epileptics and insane in the United States, destitute of
appropriate care and protection bound withgalling chains, bowed beneath fetters and
heavy iron balls attached to drag chain, lacerated withropes, and terrified stroms of
execration and cruel blows, now subject to jibesand Scorn and torturing tricks ; now
abandoned to the most outrageous vibrations.Through her efforts finances were collected
to build suitable hospitals.
Jean Charcot’s (1825-1923) contribution in the filed of Clinical Psychology was
that he focussed the interests of physicians on the treatment of Hysteria. He held that
heredity was theoriginating cause of hysteria. Therefore, it was a form of degeneration
and all other causes were only precipitating. He successfully produced hystencal
paralysis during the hypnotic state. Mesmer and Freud also contributed towards the
treatment of Hysteria. Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) separated psychiatry from
philosophical discipline. His institute was the first in psychiatry and included laboratories
of chemistry, pathology, serology and psychology. Hismain contribution has been the
understanding and classification of the disease known asschizophrenia. Currently,
mental disorders are conceptualized according to the biological, psychological as well as
sociocultural perspectives, Carson, Butcher, and Mineka(1996) hold that Clinical
Psychology is “that part of the field of psychology concerned with the understanding,
treatment and prevention of psychopathology.” Sarason and Sarason (1996) also give a
similar definition, saying, “Clinical Psychology is that area within psychology that
isfocused on maladaptive behaviour - its causes, consequences and treatment”. Freud
(1998) holds that “Clinical Psychology shadows psychiatry : the characteristic which
decides whether acondition is included within Clinical Psychology is simply whether it is
recognized as a diagnosticcategory within orthodox psychiatry. Thus in effect Clinical
Psychology can be defined as thepsychological study of psychiatric disorders.”
2.2 Clinical Psychology : Its Relationship with other Sciences
As we know, psychology is the science of human behaviour. Its importance is felt
in everyfield, it can be applied for understanding of human behaviour and this
understanding can be used for the betterment of the human beings. In the recent years,
Clinical Psychology has developed into a major branch of psychology. Even since Freud,
Jung and Adler founded their schools the working of the unconscious mind has attracted
the attention of many psychologists. Thus, a vast discipline dealing with the nature of the
unconscious mind, concept of psychopathology, types of psychopathology, theories of
psychopathology etc., has been developed. Though the psychoanalytic school of Freud
 41
has largely formed the basis, for the super structure of this branch, many other
disciplines such as psychiatry, anthropology, sociology, etc. have contributed their
share. Clinical Psychology deals more with the theoretical aspects trying to understand
the nature of psychopathology of the human beings.
1. Relationship with Sociology
Psychology is closely related to the science of sociology which deals with social
institutions, traditions culture, civilization. etc. In all those things the nature of the working
of the human mind as anindividual and in a group is important. The cultural factors,
included family constellation are important. To understand the psychopathology and its
causes and dynamics, it is ofutmost importance to understand the person in his
surroundings. A practitioner who does not know the social systems of various groups
and family cannot be a successful clinician. Aparticular behaviour which is abnormal in a
particular society may not be so in another society. Therefore, the social laws, customs
and traditions, prevailing taboos and beliefs etc. need to be thoroughly mastered before
trying to understand the reported psychopathology.
2. Relationship with Anthropology
Anthropology literally means the science of man. It studies mostly primitive men,
their customs, their traditions, their institutions, etc.. Anthropology has two main
branches of its own onedealing with formation and development of the anatomical
structure and the other dealing with the social problems in the primitive forms of life.
3. Relationship with medicine
The new concept of medicine aims at not only to cure the illness of a person but
to help the individual in distress. This statement itself speaks of close relationship
between psychology and medicine. The use of psychology in medicine is more prevalent
in psychiatry, neurology, paediatrics, community medicine etc. In many of the diseases,
the symptoms present in the client are similar to psychological symptoms. The
knowledge of catching/diagnosingsuch psychological natured illness can save the
sufferer from agony. If he is not diagnosed correctly and treated sympathetically the
chances of his being free from illness are minimised. The importance of psychological
principles in the medicine is recognised by the Indian Council of Medical Association and
minimum teaching of Clinical Psychology has been incorporated in the syllabus of
medical graduates.
4. Relationship with Psychiatry
Clinical Psychology studies the causes, symptoms and cures of
psychopathology. So infact it is a branch of Pathology which is concerned with the
 42
causes and cures of mental diseases. Obviously, both those sciences are closely related
but there is a remarkable distinction between the two.
The chief difference lies in the fact that unlike the approach of a psychiatrist
which is practical, the approach of abnormal psychologist is more theoretical. While cure
or treatment of amental disease is not a concern of Clinical Psychology, Psychiatry
provides treatment for mental illness and a psychiatrists’ main function is curative. There
can be no denying the fact that thereis always an intimate relation and connection
between theory and practice and one cannot independently without other.
It is therefore, a must for the psychiatrist to have thorough knowledge of Clinical
Psychology. Clinical Psychology has been enriched by the contributions of psychiatrists
like, Freud, Alder and jung in the shape of huge literature and original ideasproduced
and introduced by them.
The relation between Clinical Psychology and psychiatry is evident from the fact
that although Psychoanalysis is an important technique made use of by the psychiatrist, it
is also intimately related to Clinical Psychology. Another point which marks the relation
and difference between Clinical Psychology and psychiatry is that the former goes to the
extent of studying only the psychological aspects of any mental diseases or the behaviour
of abnormal persons but the latter studies the psychological symptoms as also natural and
physical basis and complications of a disease.
It is Clinical Psychology that is capable of distinguishing the normal and the
abnormal and mentally sound and diseased individuals. Undoubtedly therefore, a sound
knowledge of Clinical Psychology is needed for a better understanding of the patient and
his illness.
5. Relationship with Education
An individual develops into a complete person by virtue of education. The
meaning ofeducation consists in the natural. progressive organised and balanced
development of all faculties present in man. This natural process must find its
culmination in the object before it, and the function of a teacher was in helping it to be so
in this context development means the gradual and continual maturity of the mind as
well as the body.
Simultaneously with one set of maturity, the child develops his faculties, acquires
knowledge of his surroundings and learns all that is necessary to meet his personal and
communal relationship. Education comprises of all the activities that help the individual
to leada social life.
It is not necessary that the development of all children is natural and normal. In
some cases, development may not be natural and normal and in that event some of the
 43
children may become abnormal. The teacher has to deal with normal children as also with
juvenile delinquents, the weak-minded, backward, anti-social and problem children.
It is the honest duty of the teacher to provide for best possible development and
progressof the latter class of children despite their psychopathology. It is therefore the
responsibility of theteacher to eradicate the defects found in the personality and
character of such children and to enable them attain normalcy.
Undoubtedly, the teacher is bound to come across the problems of progress of
the backward child, improvement of ill-adjusted child, education of the problem child,
prevention of sexual perversions and luvenile delinquency in children.
The knowledge of Clinical Psychology can help in understanding the
psychological aspects of these problems and therefore, the teacher should possess this
knowledge. Hypersexuality, superiority and inferiority complexes and mental ailments of
the children are the common problems for teachers.
Sometimes mentally diseased children behave in an objectionable manner
because of their illness but they are mistaken for naughtiness and aggressiveness and
are punished. This causes further deterioration in such children. Situation like this should
be avoided by the teacher.
In order to succeed in the discharge of his responsibilities and solving various
problems with which he is confronted, teacher should also possess a knowledge of
Clinical Psychology. In particular, psychological study of mentally diseased and deficient
abnormal and backward children as also superior children can prove very useful to the
teacher.
Backward and superior children should be provided with special amenities and
extra curricular activities which may accelerate superiority and eradicate the inferiority.
Thus, there is a close relationship between Clinical Psychology and education
and this is quite evident from the description given above.
6. Relationship with Law
Among practically all the countries having civilized societies, the mentally
diseased andabnormal persons are afforded protection from legal liabilities for
committing crime and are exemptedfrom judicial responsibility. The welfare state of the
modern times is concerned with the welfare of both-normal and abnormal persons.
Provision is therefore, made for the treatment and care of insane, abnormal,
feeble-minded and mentally diseased persons. Some of the criminals adopt the life of
crime due to some mental deficiency rather than social disability. Corporal punishment to
these individuals cannot do justice to their perverted mind.
While dealing with a person accused of crime the court has to determine whether
the accused is normal or abnormal because it is required to understand the motivating
 44
causes behind a crime. If it is found that the accused did not know the nature of his
behaviour, because of his psychopathology and insanity, the judge will order him to be
sent to the hospital orlunatic asylum instead of sending him to jail.
The knowledge of Clinical Psychology helps the law in distinguishing between
the normal and the abnormal individual. This establishes a relation between Clinical
Psychology and law. Therefore judge, jury and lawyers should have sufficient
knowledge of Clinical Psychology.
7. Relationship with Religion
Before the modern science of Clinical Psychology developed, religious priests
used toprovide treatment to mentally ill individuals. Mentally ill people came to grief at
the hands ofreligious quacks who under the garb of treatment, exercised most
unwarranted crusety on thementally diseased persons and applied most crude methods
of handling.
Patients were made to undergo various physical distortions and punishments etc.
underthe belief that the imagined ghost sheltering within them will disappear thereby. It
was a painful and also shameful affair that diseased persons were subjected to fantastic
methods of treatment. With the development of Clinical Psychology, the dogmatic beliefs
and superstitions concerning the causes of these mental defects gradually disappeared
thus opening scientific method of finding outthe real causes of mental diseases.
It was realised that the absence of some physical or mental element in normal
individual turned him into abnormal and his psychopathology could not be attributed to
divine wrath or anger of any ghost. Clinical Psychology discovered and proved that
abnormal persons can be cured and made to attain normalcy. Consequently, in the matter of
treatment and cure of mentally illindividuals, the priest gave way to the psychiatrists and
doctors.
All that cruelty ceased in this way. But this should not mean that Clinical
Psychologyhas completely severed the relationship between religion and mental
diseases. Sometimes religious faith plays an important role in curing mental diseases.
Jung believed that creating religious faith in the patient is an important step in the
curative process.
Infact knowledge of Clinical Psychology may help the religious mystic in
distinguishing elements of mental disease from divinity by a profound analysis of his
experience Lacking just this analysis many people attribute the experiences that
originate in mental disease to divine sources.
2.3 CURRENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
 45
A classification system placesa disorder within a system of conventional
groupings based on important similarities in symptoms. Classification is a way of trying
to understand and to learnfrom experience Classification systems are valuable because
they represent attempts to organizewhat many clinical workers know about the various
types of problems they deal with.
The major system of classification currently in wide use is the International
Classificationof Disease (ICD) produced by the World Health Organization. The latest
version of this is ICD-10published in 1992. The American Psychiatric Association’s
Diagnostic andStatistical Manual ofMentalDisorders (DSM) was first published in 1952.
The current version (DSM-IV) was publishedin 1994. The earliest versions were
influenced to a significant degree by psychoanalytic thinking.For example, reflecting the
psychodynamic concept of a neurotic disorder, they included ‘Neuroses” as a major
category. The early versions also defined many diagnostic categories notjust in terms of
descriptive features but also in terms of the supposed causes of the conditions. Inlate
versions this causal (or ‘etiological’) focus has been abandoned, and each condition is
nowdefined in terms of observable signs and symptoms.
2.3.1 The ICD - 10 classification system
Mental and Behavioral Disorders, of ICD-10 lists the various mental disordersin
to major blocks, each disorder identified by a code F00 to F99. A proportion of these
categorieshave been left unused for the time being, to allow the introduction of changes
without redesigningthe entire system. It is recommended that clinicians should record as
many diagnoses as arenecessary to cover the clinical picture, specifying one as the
main diagnosis and labeling othersas the subsidiary or additional diagnoses. The use of
other chapters of ICD 10 is also stronglyrecommended. The blocks are :
F00 – 409 : Organic. including symptomatic, mental disorders
F10 - F09 : Mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use
F20 - F29 : Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders
F30 - F39 Mood(affective) disorders
F40 - F48 : Neurotic. Stress-related and somatoform disorders
F50 - F59 : Behavioral syndromes associated with physiological disturbances
and physical factors
F60 - F69 : Disorders of Adult personality and behaviour
F70 - F79 : Mental retardation
F80 - F89 : Disorders of Psychological Development
F90 - F98 : Behavioral and-emotional disorders with onset usually occuring in
childhood andadolescence
 46
F99: Unspecitied mental disorder
2.3.2 The DSM - IV classification system
The DSM system is ‘multi-axial’ and allows the person’s current psychological
condition tobe evaluated on five separate axes. Most clinical syndromes are classified
on Axis I, and thepersonality disorders and mental retardation, which are stable long-
term conditions arediagnosed an Axis ll. These first two axes allow the clinician to make
a diagnosis on the basis ofspecific clinical information. The other three axes allow
additional information to be coded. Axis Illconcerns relevant aspects of the person’s
physical- health (for example, the clients’ history of heartattacks) Axis IV focuses on
psychosocial and environmental problems (for example, housingproblems, a negative
life event, or family stress). Axis V is used to provide rating of the individualsglobal level
of functioning on a 100-point scale. This extends from 1 (persistent violence,
suicidalbehaviour or inability to maintain minimal personal hygiene) to 100 (symptom-
free. with superiorfunctioning across a wide range of activities). e.g. a person may be
diagnosed as suffering from adepressive disorder (Axis l). While having an antisocial
personality disorder (Axisll),a person may also be assessed as having no related
physical disorder (Axis lil).
DSM-IV includes specific criteria for the diagnosis of nearly 300 separate
disorders, eachbeing precisely defined in terms of a number of specific clinical features.
The system providesexplicit criteria (often specifying, for example, how long a feature
must have been present before itcounts as a relevant symptom). Such information is
more detailed and more precise than thatincluded in previous versions of the manual.
Unlike some earlier versions, conditions are definedwithout any reference lo variables
that are assumed to have played a causal role in thedevelopment of the disorder.
Exceptions to this general rule include the ‘adjustment disorders’ andpost-traumatic stress
disorder; where reference is made to stressful events preceding the onsetof the disorder.
The major categories (Axis I and Axis ll) of DSM IV are :
2.3.3 Axis I Disorders
1. Disorders usually first diagnosed during infancy, childhood or adolescence :
Theseinclude emotional. intellectual, and behavioral disorders. Although
they have an onsetbefore adulthood, some are lifelong conditions. Mental
retardation is coded on Axis ll,although it falls within this category.
2. Disorders of cognitive impairment : These are caused by brain damage
or detenorationand include acute conditions (such as delirium) and chronic
disorders (such as dementia- widespread impairment of memory, learning
and judgement).
 47
3. Substance-related disorder : These are conditions in which the use of
alcohol or otherdrugs has led to substantial physical change or
psychological distress. These disordersare identified in terms of the
substance involved.
4. Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders :These involve a loss of
contactwith reality. There is usually a marked impairment of emotional and
social functioning,and the person may experience hallucinations and
delusions.
5. Mood-disorders : These are divided into depressive disorders marked by
profoundsadness,low self-esteem and various behavioural changes and bipolar
disorders, inwhich periods of depression alternate with periods of mania.
6. Anxiety disorders : These include the phobias (persistent and irrational
fears of specificobjects or situations) panic disorder (marked by frequently
recurring attacks of panic) generalized anxiety disorder (characterized by
persistent excessive worrying about awide range of issues), post-traumatic
stress disorder (a condition in which fear and othersymptoms relate to a
particular traumatic event) and obsessive - compulsive disorder (acondition
marked by persistent obsessional thoughts and /or compulsive behaviours).
7. Somatoform disorder : These are conditions in which physical symptoms
or bodilypreoccupations result from psychological distress. In the
conversion disorders a physicalcomplaint such as the paralysis of a limb
has no medical basis. In case of is somatizationdisorder, the client
constantly seeks treatment for imagined physical complaints.
8. Dissociative disorders : These conditions involve disturbances of
consciousness,memory (dissociative emnesia) or identity. |n dissociative
identity disorder (formerlyknown as multiple personality disorder) the
person s usual identity is replaced by one ormore different identities.
9. Sexual and gender identity disorders : These include disorders of sexual
functioning(disorders of sexual arousal. for example, or of orgasm) and the
paraphilias. Theparaphilias (which include pedophilia, voyeurism and other
forms of sexual deviations)are conditions in which sexual gratification is
gained primarily through engagement inbizarre or illicit sexual activities.
Gender identity disorder is more commonly calledtranssexualism.
10. Eating disorders : These include anorexia nervosa, which involves a
preoccupation withthinness and excessive weight loss, and bulimia
nervosa, which is characterized byepisodes of binge-eating followed by
 48
self-induced vomiting and other methods ofattempting to offset potential
weight gain.
11. Sleep disorders : These include chronic disturbances in the amount or
quality of sleepand various types of behavioral disturbances that occur
during sleep (including persistent sleepwalking and sleep terrors - waking
suddenly in a state of confusion and panic).
12. Impulse control disorders: These include pathological gambling fire-
setting (pyromania)and a number of other conditions. The common feature
is a recurrent and irresistibleurge to engage in activities which may be
pleasurable but are in some way harmful.
13. Adjustment disorders : These are excessive emotional reactions following
stressfulevents.
2.3.4 Axis II Disorders
1. Personality disorders : These are stable personality traits that are
maladaptive and createdifficulties in the persons life. Each of the ten major disorders may be
diagnosed as the clientsmain psychological problem or it may be diagnosed as a chronic
disorder underlying a moreacute disorder. The personality disorders are as followse.g.
Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder
Schizotypal personality disorder
Antisocial personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder
Avoidant personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder
Obsessive compulsive personality disorder.
Personality disorder not otherwise specified
2. Mental retardation : This is a general intellectual deficit that is present
during infancy andcan be ‘assumed to be a lifelong condition. The sub-classification is in
terms of severity andcriteria are provided for the diagnosis of mild, moderate severe and
profound retardation.
2.3.5 Problems of classification
A classification system can be no better than available knowledge and attitudes
aboutwhat is being classified.
 49
Despite all such criticism, it cannot be denied that classification is an
essentialbasic step towards the explanation, prediction, and control of phenomena in
any science.Criticism of classification should lead to refinement of categories or the
system/process ofclassification. Continuous attempts towards this end must be made
keeping in mind theuniqueness and flexibility of psychopathology.
Self Assessment Questions
1. Who was the first person to be put as incharge of a hospital in Paris?
__________________________________________________________
2. Approximately______________ disorders have been classified in DSM IV.

Answers :
1. Pinel 2. 300

Characteristics of Clinical Psychology:

- Emphasis on science :
- Emphasis on maladjustment
- Emphasis on the individual
- Emphasis on helping

Scope of Clinical Psychology

- Psychotherapy
- Diagnosis and treatment
- Teaching
- Research
- Assessments
2.4 Summary
It can be conclude Diagnostic and statisticalManual of Mental Disorders is the
official classification system of the American PsychiatricAssociation. The first
classification was one-item classification but today, the practitionersmake use of a
Multiaxial classification. Clinicians using a multiaxial system can describean individual in
terms of a set of clinically important factors or axes.
2.5 References
 50
1. Carson, R.C. Butcher, J. N., and Mineka, S. (2003). Abnormal Psychology and
Modern Life, New York : Pearson Education.
2. Feldman, R.S. (2014), Understanding Pscychology, New Delhi : Tata McGraw
Hill. 2.
2.6 Further Readings
1. Davison, G.C. and Neale, J.M. (1998). Abnormal Psychology, New York : John
Wiley and Sons.
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarson, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The problem of Malad
aptive Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India.
2.7 Model Questions
1. Discuss the Contribution of Hippocrates in the treatment of Psychopathology.
2. Enumerate the Personality disorders in Axis-II.
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 51
Lesson -3

BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concepts
3.3 Summary
3.4 References
3.5 Further Readings
3.6 Model Questions

3.0 Objectives
Following aims/objectives are necessary to study the biological cause of
psychopathology:
 To study the link of psychopathology to medicine.
 To study various models of physical illness.
 To study different diagnosing techniques and remedies.
 To study the genetic contribution of biological causes.
In the behavioural sciences and particularly in Clinical Psychology, simple cause-effect
sequences are very rare. Where more than one causal factor is involved the term causal
pattern is used. The etiology of psychopathology may be classified in various ways.
3.1 Introduction
The biological paradigm of psychopathology is a continuation of the sematogenic
hypothesis. This broad, theoretical point of view holds that mental disorders are caused
by aberrant somatic biological, or bodily processes. There is a considerable literature,
both research and theory based, dealing with biological factors relevant to
psychopathology. Heredity probably predisposes a person, through physiological
malfunction, to develop schizophrenia, depression may result from chemical imbalances
within the brain; anxiety disorder may stem from a defect within the ANS that causes a
person to be too easily aroused etc. In each case a type of psychopathology is viewed
as caused by the disturbance of some biological process. Those working with the
 52
biological paradigm assume that answers to puzzles of psychopathology will be found
within the body .
3.2 Concepts
According to the nature of the stressor, the causes may be divided into :
 Primary cause : It is the condition that must exist for the disorder to occur. It is
necessary, but not always sufficient factor in psychopathology. Many disorders
have no recognizable primary causes.
 Predisposing cause : It is a condition that comes before and paves the way for
later psychopathology by lowering the individual’s ability to adjust. This include
all past experiences as well as inherited conditions that make the individual
more vulnerable to stress e.g. parental rejection or genetic inheritance.
 Precipitating cause : It represents those particular conditions that prove too
much for the individual and trigger the disorder. They are the immediate causes
of psychopathology. Often the precipitating cause may seem insignificant that
unrelated to the primary or the predisposing cause e.g. in a family if the
husband and wife do not share a good relationship, even an insignificant event
such as the wife burning the dinner can be the cause for the final breakup of the
relationship.
 Reinforcing cause : It is a condition that tends to maintain the maladaptive
behaviour that is already occurring e.g. – a person’s illness may be reinforced
and continued due to the extra attention, sympathy and removal from unwanted
responsibility, that often comes when one is ill.
In any give disorder, the exact pattern of primary, predisposing, precipitating, and
reinforcing factors may not be clear. Any given factor may contribute to a disorder in
more than one way, e.g. the death of a parent may be both a primary and precipitating
factor. It also predisposes the child in adulthood to depression.
Carson, Butcher, and Mineka (1998) use a different terminology to divide the
causal factors. A necessary cause is a condition that must exist for a disorder to occur.
For example general paresis cannot develop unless a person has previously contracted
syphilis. A necessary cause, however, is not always sufficient by itself to cause a
disorder- other factors may also be required. Many mental disorders do not seem to
have necessary causes, although there continues to be a search for such causes. A
sufficient cause of a disorder is a condition that guarantees that occurrence of the
disorder. For Example, one current theory hypothesizes that hopelessness is a sufficient
cause of depression. Hopelessness is not a necessary cause of depression- there are
other causes of depression as well. What we study most often in psychopathology
research are contributory causes. A contributory cause is one that increases the
probability of developing a disorder but in neither necessary nor sufficient for the
 53
disorder to occur. A contributory cause may be a condition that comes before and pays
the way for a later occurrence of the disorder under certain conditions. For example,
parental rejection could increase the probability that a child may have difficulty in
handling close personal relationships later.
Biological factors appears as predisposing factors in many mental disorders.
Nevertheless they may precipitate a disorder if the central nervous system is affected. In
the recent years the following biological factors have been discovered to have a
significant effect on mental disorders.
1. Neurotransmitters : Neurotransmittersare the chemical agents found in the gap
between two neurons ( the gap is called a synapse) . They carry the message from one
neuron to another. Thus interneuronal (or trans- synaptic) transmission are
accomplished by chemicals called neurotransmitters that are released into the synaptic
gap by the pre-synaptic neuron. There are many different kinds of neurotransmitters;
Some increase the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will ‘’fire”( produce an
impulse), while other inhibit the impulse. The belief that biochemical imbalances in the
brain can result in psychopathology is one of the basic tenets of the biological
perspective today. Some adherents of this view even suggest that psychological stress
can bring on biochemical imbalances. Neurohormones may dysfunctional due to many
causes. There may be an excessive production and release of the neurotransmitter
substance into the synapses, causing excess in levels of that neurotransmitter.
Alternatively, there may be dysfunction in the normal processes by which
neurotransmitters, one release into the synapses, are deactivated. Ordinarily this occurs
in one of two ways. After being released into the synaptic cleft the neurotransmitter is
either deactivated by enzymes present in the synapse or the reabsorbed into the
presynaptic axon button, a process called reuptake. Dysfunctions can create
biochemical imbalances either when the deactivation enzymes present in the synapse
are deficient, or when there is a slowing of the ordinary process of reuptake. Finally,
there may also be problems with the receptors in the post-synaptic neuron, which may
be either abnormally sensitive or abnormally insensitive.
2. Hormonal Imbalances : Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by a set
of endocrine glands in our bodies. They travel through our blood stream and affect
various parts of our brain and body. Our central nervous system is linked to the
endocrine system by the effect of the hypothalamas on the pituitary gland, which in turn
control the other endocrine glands. Malfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-
cortical axis has been implicated in various forms of psychopathology. Imbalances in sex
hormones such as the male hormones – the androgens- can also contribute to
maladaptive behaviour. Hormonal influences on the developing nervous system also
 54
seem to contribute to some of the differences in behaviour between men and women.
The dysfunctioning of specific glands has the following effects :
(a) Thyroid gland : It secretes the thyroxin, Hyposecretion can lead to mental
deficiency. Hyper-secretion can lead to transformation of the normal person to a very
tense and unstable person. The principal ingredient of thyroxine is iodine. Goitre
develops due to iodine deficiency. Myxedema or cretinism can also develop. Cretinism
results in puffed features, short-stature, and a stupid expression. People with myxedema
live to a longer age since their mortality rate is lower other wise the symptoms of the two
are same.
Adrenal glands : It has two parts –cortex ad medulla. The cortex secretes cortin which
regulates the sodium and water-content in the body. Medulla secretes adrenalin in
detectable quantities during emergencies. Some diseases associated which these are :
Feminism : Excess secretion of adrenalin leads to feminism in males. They start
developing body curves, soft voices etc.
 Virilism : Excess secretion of adrenalin in females leads to virilism. They grow
beards and experience hoarse voice and loss of softness etc.
 Cushing syndrome : Resulting from excess of Cortin, its symptoms a muscular
weakness, reduced sex drive, tiredness ad disfiguring body change.
 Puberty Praecox : This is when child develops adult status due to excessive cortin.
 Addison’s disease : Deficiency of cortin results in increased tiredness, loss of
appetite, anemia, listlessness, irritability and darkening of the skin.
b. Pituitary gland: It secretes ACTH (Adreno-cortico- tropin- hormone). Oversecretion
results in giantism and undersecretion results in dwarfism.
c. Gonad glands : The male glands, testes secrete androgens and the female gonads,
the ovaries secrete estrogens, The associated syndromes are :
 Menopause or climatic changes : The female loses the power of reproduction,
because their menstrual cycle progressively stops. Females show mental
depression, insomnia, irritability and restlessness in this period. They also show
heightened sex drives.
 Pre-Menstrual syndrome (PMS): During ovulation, females show restlessness
irritability etc. It is a cause of anxiety states in some women who then show a severe
stress reaction.
 Eunuchism : These people have both male and female sexual drives with the
presence of the male organ before puberty and development of secondary sexual
characteristics of a female. Varying degrees of deficiency of sex hormone during
childhood result in failure of develop secondary sex characteristics and lack of sexual
interest and drive.
 55
3. Genetic Influence : Genes are the long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) that are present at various locations of a chromosome. Gene “expression” in
normally not a simple outcome of the information encoded in DNA, but is rather the end
product of an intricate process that may be influenced by the internal and external
environment. A person’s total genetic endowment in referred to as his or her genotype.
The observed structural and functional characteristics that result from an interaction of
the genotype and the environment are referred to as a person’s phenotype. In some
cases the genotypic vulnerability present at birth will not manifest its effect on the
phenotype until much later in life. In many other cases. The genotype may shape the
environmental experiences a child has, thus affecting the phenotype in yet another way.
Researcher have found three ways in which an individual’s genotype may shape his or
her environment (Hetherington and Parke, 1993). The person may be may be passive,
evocative, or active regarding his environment. The few instances in which relatively
straightforward predictions of mental disorder can me made on the basis of known laws
of inheritance invariably involve gross neurological impairment. In such cases,
psychopathology arises in part as a consequence of a central nervous system
malfunction, such as occurs in Huntington’s disease. Genetic influences in normal and
psychopathology typically operate polygenically, that is, through the action of may genes
together in some sort of additive or interactive fashion ( Plomin, 1990; Torgersen, 1993).
A genetically vulnerable person has inherited a large number of genes that collectively
represent faulty heredity. Genetic factors may affect the following way:
 Hereditary predisposition : Substantial evidence shows that most mental disorders
have a hereditary component. They may recent studies suggesting that heredity is
an important predisposing causal factor in several disorders- particularly depression,
schizophrenia, and alcoholism- support the biological viewpoint (Gottesman, 1991;
Plomin, 1991; Torgersen, 1993). It is important to note that the genetic source of
vulnerability does not manifest itself until adolescence or adulthood. It also seems
possible that many broad temperamental features of newborns and children are
genetically influenced – for example, behavioural inhibition and social introversion
(Matheny, 1989), neuroticism and extraversion (Plomin, 1991). Heredity determines
not the specifics of human behaviour but rather the ranges within which
characteristic behaviour can be modified by environmental or experiential influence.
 Genetic defects : Some inherited defects interfere directly with the normal
development of the brain. Other more subtle defects can leave a person susceptible
to severe mental disorders. The subtle influences are usually transmitted in the
genetic code itself, forms of psycho-pathology, including schizophrenia, depression,
anti-social personality disorder, and alcoholism, tend to have children who are at
heightened risk for a wide range of development difficulties. The children of seriously
depressed parents are at enhanced risk for the disorder themselves (Gotlib and
Avison, 1993). Disordered fathers also make significant contributions to child and
adolescent psychopathogy, especially to problems such as conduct disorder,
 56
delinquency and attention deficit disorder (Phares and Compas, 1992), Important
protective factors that promote resilience include having good intellectual skills and
being appealing to adults (Masten et al 1990).
 Parental style : warmth and control : In the past, discipline was conceived of as a
method for both punishing undesirable behaviour and preventing or deterring such
behaviour in the future, Discipline in now thought of more positively as providing
needed structure and guidance for promotion a child’s healthy growth. Thus both
warmth and control are needed for the development of the child. Four different types
of parenting styles have been identified that seem to be related to different
developmental outcomes for the children: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and
neglecting. These styles vary in the degree of parental warmth (amount of support,
encouragement and affection versus shame, rejection and hostility) and in the
degree of parental control. (extent of discipline and monitoring versus bring largely
unsupervised) (Maccoby and Martin, 1983). The authoritative style is associated
with the most positive early social development with the children tending to the
energetic and friendly and showing development of general competencies for dealing
with other and with their environments (Baumrind, 1967). When followed into
adolescence in the longitudinal study, children of authoritative parents continued to
show positive outcomes. This parenting style was authoritarian parents tend to be
conflicted, Irritable and moody (Baumrind 1967). Authoritarian parents also use
overly severe discipline in the form of physical punishment- as opposed to the
withdrawal of approval and privileges – the result tends to be increased aggressive
behaviour on the part of a child. (Patterson, 1979). The permissive-indulgent style
is associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour in children (Baumrind, 1967).
Overly indulged children are characteristically spoiled, selfish, inconsiderate, and
demanding. In a classic study sears (1961) found that much permissiveness and little
discipline in a home and correlated positively with anti-social aggressive behaviour,
particularly during middle and later childhood. Unlike rejected and emotionally
deprived children, indulged children enter readily into interpersonal relationships, but
they exploit people for their own purposes in the same way that they have learned to
exploit their parents. Overly indulged children also tend to be impatient, and to
approach problems in an aggressive and demanding manner (Baumrind,1975). The
neglecting-uninvolved style is associated with disruptions in attachment during
childhood. (Egeland and Sroufe,1981) and with moodiness, low self-esteem, and
conduct problems later in childhood (Baumrind, 1991). These children of un-involved
parents also have problems with peer relations and with academic performance
(Hetherington and Parke, 1993). However, restrictiveness can serve as a protective
factor for children growing up in high-risk environments.
(a) Pathogenic family structures Pathogenic family structure in an overarching risk
factor that increase an individual’s vulnerability to particular stressors. Some factors
are :
 Marital discord : It is common to find (a) parents who are fighting to maintain their
own equilibrium and are unable to give children the love and guidance they need. (b)
 57
grossly irrational communication patterns, and (c) entanglement of children in the
parent’s emotional conflicts. In all these cases, the children are caught up in an up-
wholesome and irrational psychological environment and as they grow up they may
find it difficult to establish and maintain marital and other intimate relationships.
 Incomplete families : In many cases a family is incomplete as a result of death,
divorce separation, or some other circumstances. Divorce can have traumatic effects
on children too. Feeling of insecurity and rejection may be aggravated by conflicting
loyalties and, sometimes, excessive love the children receive while staying with one
of the parents. Delinquency and other psychopathologys are such more frequent
among children and adolescents from divorced families than among those from intact
families, although it is likely that contributing factor here is prior or continuing
parental strife (Rutter, 1971, 1979). Amato and Keith (1991) also note that there may
be long-term effects of divorce on adaptive functioning in early adulthood as some
studies have found lower educational attainment, lower income, increased probability
of being on welfare and having children out of wedlock in young adults from divorced
families. However, they also found that the effects seem to be decreasing over the
past four decades The effects of divorce on children have been compared with the
effects of remaining in a home torn by marital conflict and dissension, and the effects
of divorce and often more favourable (Hetheringtron et al, 1989). At one time it was
thought that detrimental effect of divorce might be minimized if a successful
remarriage provided an adequate environment for child rearing. Unfortunately
however, the Amato and Keith review revealed that such children were more likely to
be abused than those living with a single parent, although this was more true for girls
than for boys. Studies have also shown that children living with a step-parent are at
increased risk for physical abuse and even death by at the hands of the step-parent,
relative to children living with two biological parents (Daly and Martin, 1998). Indeed,
some studies have found that the period of adjustment to re-marriage may be longer
than that for adjustment to divorce (Hetherington et al., 1989).
b. Mal-adaptive peer relationships : Another important set of relationship outside
the ensuring normal blood chemistry, for maintaining constant body temperature, and for
combating invading microorganisms strive to preserve steady states- to maintain
physiological activity within a range essential to efficient functioning and survival. This
process is referred to as homeostasis. For example, if we are cold, we shiver; if we are
too hot, we sweat. The most basic human requirements are those for food, oxygen,
water sleep and the elimination of wastes. In order to survive, people must constantly
renew themselves through rest and take in food and water. Insufficient rest, inadequate
diet, or attempts to carry a full work load under the handicap of a severe cold, fatigue, or
emotional strain may interfere with a person’s ability to cope and predispose him or her
to a variety of problems. Prisoners have sometimes been “broken” by nothing more
serious than the systematic prevention of sleep or deprivation of food over a period of
several days. Experimental studies of volunteers who have gone without sleep for
periods of 72 to 98 hours show increasing psychological problems as the sleep loss
processes- including disorientation for time and place and feelings of depersonalization.
Studies of dietary deficiencies have also found effects on psychological functioning, the
 58
exact changes depending largely on the type and extent of the deficiencies. Some of
these effects were demonstrated in a pioneering study of semi-starvation carried out by
keys and his associates (1950) During world War II. Thirty-two conscientious people
served as volunteer subjects and were put on low calorie diets characteristic of
European famine areas. The men had an average weight loss of 24 percent and showed
dramatic personality and behavioural changes. They became irritable, unsociable, and
increasingly unable to concentrate on anything but food, sometimes lying and stealing
food to obtain additional food. By the close of the experiment, the men’s predominant
mood was one of gloom and depression, accompanied by apathy, feelings of
inadequacy, and loss of interest in sex. Hunger and food dominated the men’s thoughts,
conversations, and even daydreams. There may also be some very long-term
consequences of such severe weight loss. When a group of former World war II and
Korean War POWs who had lost 35 percent or more of their original body weight while in
captivity, were tested more than 30 years later, they performed more poorly on a variety
of tests of cognitive functioning than did other former POW’s who had not lost this much
weight (Sutker, Galina, and West, 1990). Severe malnutrition, which is associated with a
host of other potentially damaging variables such as parental neglect and limited access
to health care (Lozoff, 1989), not only impairs physical development and lowers-
resistance to disease, but also stunts brain growth and results in markedly lowered
intelligence (Amcof, 1980). In a postmortem study of infants who had died of malnutrition
during their first year of life, Winick (1976) found the total brain cell content to be 60
percent below that of normal Infants. However, not all of the effects are necessarily due
to the early malnutrition per se become in many cases the families are impoverished in
terms of social stimulation as well, sometimes simply because the mother is depressed
(Lozoff, 1989).
8. Stimulation and Activity : Healthy mental development depends on a child’s
receiving adequate amount of stimulation from the environment. Many animal studies
demonstrate enhanced biological development produced by condition of special
stimulation, including positive changes in brain chemistry, and anatomy (Diamond,
1988). On the other hand, there are limits to how much stimulation is beneficial to a
developing organism. Sensory overload can impair adult functioning (Gottschalk et al
1972), and although we do not have evidence on this one might assume that infants and
children are similarly affected. In general, each person seems to have an optimal level
of stimulation and activity that may very over time, but that must be maintained for
normal psychological functioning.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Neurotransmitters are _______________ found in the gap between two neurons.
2. Hormones are Secreted by_____________ glands.
3. Thyroid gland secretes _________________
 59
Answers :
1. Chemicals 2. Endocrine 3. Thyroxine
3.3 Summary
The biological paradigm assumes that psychopathology is caused by an organic
defect. Because the medical model has one central implication that psychopathology
may be attributed to biological malfunctions and defects we prefer the term biological
paradigm to medical model, we described two biological factors relevant to
psychopathology- genetics and neurochemistry. Biological therapies attempt to rectify
the specific organic defects underlying disorders or to alleviate symptoms of disorders
that have not been traced to such defects.
3.4 References
1. Carson, R.C. Butcher, J. N., and Mineka, S. (2003). Abnormal Psychology and
Modern Life, New York : Pearson Eduction
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior (11/e)_prentice Hall of India.
3.5 Further Readings :
1. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India.
2. Goldenberg. H. (1983) Contemporary Clinical Psychology Monterey, C.A. :
Brooks/Cole.
3. Darison : G.C. and Neale, J. M. (1996). Abnormal Psychology : The Experimental
Clinical Approach, New York : John Wiley.
3.6 Model Questions
1. Imbalances in Hormones & NT.
2. Brain Dysfunctions.
3. Neural Plasticity.
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 60
Lesson -4

PSYCHO-SOCIAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL CAUSES OF

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
STRUCTURE

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Psychosocial causes
4.3 Socio cultural causes
4.4 Summary
4.5 References
4.6 Further Readings
4.7 Model Questions

4.0 Objectives
Following objectives have been framed to study :-
 the different stages of development.
 The influence of different environment.
 The one-to-one relationships in the family.
 The socio-cultural environments.
 The remedies of psychopathology.
4.1 Introduction
21stcentury has started and the modern people are running for materialistic
goods for their comforts and peace of mind. But this running is not giving the essential
rewards and the people are suffering with mental illness. In 20th century Indian people
were not aware of many mental problems but 21st century and last two decades of the
20th century has given many mental diseases due to fast development of scientific
equipments, materialistic approach of life, nuclear families and less communication with
people. In this lesson psycho-social and socio-cultural causes of psychopathology are
dealt in detail. In psycho social causes mainly prenatal period, causes of
psychopathology are dealt in detail. In psycho social causes mainly prenatal period,
 61
childhood, adulthood and oldage period are taken and many important point are
discussed in every life stage. In socio-cultural causes, socio-cultural environment, socio-
economic status (Financial), Prejudice-discrimination, economic and employment
problems and social change and uncertainty are discussed in detail.
4.2 Psycho-social causes
Psycho-social factors are those developmental influences that may handicap a
person psychologically, ,aking him or her less resourceful in coping with events. Such
factors typically do not operate alone. They Interact with each other and with other
psycho-social factors, with particular genetic and constitutional factors, and with
particular settings or environments. The psycho-social factors may be considered in
different periods of life as follows :
1. Pre-natal period : Contrary to popular opinion that an unborn child is a passive
mindless creature, recent studies show that the child is a sensitive creature even as a
fetus and requires care and good sense. The fetus for example, hears clearly from the
sixth month in the uterus and responds to the mother’s speech. It is capable of reacting
to music too-even in rather discriminatory ways. Put on the Vivaldi record and even the
most agitated fetus relaxes. Put on rock music and most unborn babies start kicking
violently. Studies have shown the profound effects of maternal cigarette-smoking on the
fetus a sharp increase in heart-rate, a decrease in oxygen supply and reduced birth
weight. Naturally, the fetus has no way of knowing that his mother is smoking, but he is
developed enough to react to the unpleasant sensation it produces, caused by the drop
in the oxygen supply. He never knows when the unpleasant physical sensation may
recur or how painful it will be when it does, but he knows that it will recur. This thrusts
him into a chronic state of fear and uncertainty. Rottmann (1984) followed 141 women
through pregnancy and birth. Ideal mothers (who wanted pregnancy unconsciously as
well as consciously) had the easiest pregnancy and delivery and the healthiest offspring-
physically and emotionally. Women with negative attitudes had the most devastating
medical problems during pregnancy and bore the highest rate of premature, low-weight,
and emotionally disturbed infants. Ambivalent mothers delivered children among whom
an unusually large number had behavioural and gastrointestinal problems at birth. Cool
mothers, who however had an unconscious desire for children, gave birth to apathetic
and lethargic children who evidently had picked up both messages. Few things effect the
mother as deeply as worries about her husband and his support is important to her and
her child’s well being. A study in early 1970s found that a woman locked in a stormy
marriage runs a 100% greater risk of bearing a psychologically damaged child than a
woman in a secure nurturing relationship. A child can even identify the father’s voice
after birth if he has experienced it as a fetus and may respond to it, at least physically. It
 62
may stop crying for instance; that familiar soothing sound seems to tell him that he is
safe.
2. Childhood : The importance of early years for later personality development has
been recognized since the time of Freud. During the period, the foundation of the adult
personality is laid. Nevertheless, the psycho-social factors mentioned below are not
limited to childhood, but they are most important in this stage.
a. Lack of bonding : Bonding discovered in the 1960s is an important factor in
adjustment Good relations with both parents are essential for an individual’s adjustment
and bonding is the first step towards this. Bonding is actually a post birth system of
mother-child communication. Recent studies show that bonding happens with the father
too. To enhance the sense of security in the child, the novel trend is to leave a healthy
newborn baby with the mother and father immediately after birth as against the old trend
of keeping mothers and babies separate.
b. Parental deprivation : Parental deprivation refers to an absence of adequate
care from and interaction with parents or their substitutes during the formative years. It
can occur even infact families where, for one reason or another, parents are unable (for
instance, because of mental disorder) or unwilling to provide for a child’s needs for close
and frequent human contact. The most severe manifestations of deprivation are usually
seen among abandoned or orphaned children who may either be institutionalized or
placed in a succession of unwholesome foster homes.
 Institutionalization : In an institution, compared with an ordinary home, there is
likely to be less warmth and physical contact; less intellectual, emotional, and social
stimulation; and a lack of encouragement and help in positive learning. A much-
referenced study by Province and Upton (1962) compared the behaviour of infants
living in institutions with that of infants living with families. At one-year of age, the
institutionalized infants showed general impairments in their relationships of people,
rarely turning to adults for help, comfort, or pleasure and showing no sign of strong
attachments to any person. These investigators also noted a marked retardation of
speech and language development, emotional apathy, and impoverished and
repetitive play activities. With more severe and pervasive deprivation, development
may be even more retarded. However, even among those institutionalized at an early
age, some show resilience and to well in adulthood. One important protective factor
found to influence this was whether the child went from the institution into a
harmonious homes (Rutter, 1990). Another influential protective factor was having
good experiences at school, whether in the form of social relationship, or athletic or
academic success; these successes contributed to a better sense of self-esteem or
self efficacy (Rutter, 1990).
 Deprivation of the home : Most infants subjected to parental deprivation are not the
one actually separated from their parents, but rather suffer from inadequate care at
home. In these situations parents are often rejecting towards their children.
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 Parental rejection : Parental rejection of a child is closely related to deprivation and
may be demonstrated in various ways-by physical neglect, denial of love and
affection, lack of interest in the child’s activities and achievements, harsh or
inconsistent punishment, failure to spend time with the child, and lack of respect for
the child’s rights and feelings. In a minority of cases, it also involves cruel and
abusive treatment. Parental rejection may be partial or complete passive or active, or
subtly or overtly cruel. Bullard and his colleagues (1967) delineated a failure to thrive
syndrome that is a serious disorder of growth and development frequently requiring
admission to the hospital, and which occurs due to parental neglect, in its acute
phase it significantly compromises the health and sometimes endangers the life of
the child.
 Parental abuse : Outright parental abuse of children has also been associated with
many other negative effects on the development of its victims, although some studies
have suggested that, at least among infant, gross neglect may be worse than having
an abusive relationship. Abuse children are at heightened risk for later aggressive
behaviour (Dodge, Bates, and Pettit, 1990). A recent review of the long-term
consequences of physical abuse (into adolescence and adulthood) which concluded
that childhood physical abuse predict both familial and non-familial violence in
adolescence and adulthood , especially in abused men (Malinosky- Rummell and
Hansen, 1993, Physical abuse was also found depression, and psychosis, especially
in women. A significant proportion of parents who reject or abuse their children have
themselves been the victims of parental rejection. Kaufman and Zigler (1989)
estimated that there is about a 30 percent chance of this pattern of intergenerational
transmission of abuse. Those who were least. likely to show this pattern tend to have
one or more protective factors, such as a good relationship with some adult during
childhood, higher IQ, positive school experiences, or physical attractiveness.
 Inadequate parenting : Deviations in parenting can have profound effects on a
child’s subsequent ability to cope with life’s challenges. A parent-child relationship is
always bi-directional. Some children are easier to love than other; some parents are
more sensitive than others to an infant’s needs. Rutter and Quinton (1984) found that
parents tendto react with irritability, hostility and criticism to children who were high in
negative mood and low on adaptability. This inturn may set such children at risk for
psycho-pathology because they become “a focus for discord” in the family (Rutter,
1990)
 Parental psycho-pathology : In general, it has been found that parents who have
various forms of psycho-pathology, including schizophrenia, depression, anti-social
personality disorder, and alcoholism, tend to have children who are at heightened
risk for a wide range of development difficulties. The children of seriously depressed
parents are at enhanced risk for the disorder themselves (Gotlib and Avison, 1993).
Disordered fathers also make significant contribution to child and adolescent
psychopathology, especially to problems such as conduct disorder, delinquency, and
attention deficit disorder (Phares and Compas, 1992), important protective factors
 64
that promote resilience include having good intellectual skills and being appealing to
adults (Masten et al 1990).
 Parental style :Warmth and Control: In the past, discipline was conceived of as a
method for both punishment undesirable behaviour and preventing or deterring such
behaviour in the future. Discipline is now thought of more positively as providing
needs structure and guidance for promoting a child’s healthy growth. Thus both
warmth and control are needed for the development of the child. Four different types
of parenting styles have been identified that seem to be related to different
developmental outcomes for the children : authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and
neglecting. These style vary in the degree of parental warmth (amount of support,
encouragement and affection versus shame, rejection and hostility) and in the
degree of parental control (extent of discipline and monitoring versus being largely
unsupervised) Maccoby and Martin, 1983). The authoritative style is associated with
the most positive early social development with the children tend to be energetic and
friendly and showing development of general competencies for dealing with others
and with their environment ( Baumrind, 1967). When followed into adolescence in a
longitudinal study, children of authoritative parents continued to show positive
outcomes. This parenting style was particularly predictive of competence in sons
(Baumrind, 1991). The children of authoritarian parents tend to be conflicted, irritable
and moody (Baumrind 1967). Authoritarian parents also use overly severe discipline
in the form of physical punishment- as opposed to the withdrawal of approval and
privileges – the result tends to be increased aggressive behaviour on the part of a
child. (Patterson, 1979). The permissive – indulgent style is associated with
impulsive and aggressive behaviour in children (Baumrind, 1967). Overly indulged
children are characteristically spoiled, selfish, inconsiderate, and demanding. In a
classic study Sears (1961) found that much permissiveness and little discipline in a
home were correlated positively with anti-social aggressive behaviour, particularly
during middle and alter childhood. Unlike rejected and emotionally deprived children,
indulged children enter readily into interpersonal relationships, but they exploit
people for their own purpose in the same way that they have learned to exploit their
parent. Overly indulged children also tend to be impatient, and to approach problems
in an aggressive and demanding manner (Baumrind, 1975) The neglecting-
uninvolved style is associated with disruptions in attachment during childhood
(Egeland and Sroufe, 1981), and with moodiness, low self-esteem, and conduct
problems later in childhood (Baumrind, 1991). These children of un-involved parents
also have problems with peer relations and with academic performance
(Hetherington and Parke, 1993). However, restrictiveness can serve as a protective
facto for children growing up in high-risk environment.
a. Pathogenic family structures : Pathogenic family structure is an overarching
risk factor that increases an individual’s vulnerability to particular stressors. Some factors
are :
 Marital discord : It is common to find (a) parents who are fighting to maintain their
own equilibrium and are unable to give children the love and guidance they need,
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(b) grossly irrational communication patterns, and (c) entanglement of children in the
parent’s emotional conflicts. In all these cases, the children are caught up in an un-
wholesome and irrational psychological environment and as they grow up they may
find it difficult to establish and maintain marital and other intimate relationships.
 Incomplete families : In many cases a family is incomplete as a result of death,
divorce, separation or some other circumstances. Divorce can have traumatic effects
on children too. Feelings of insecurity and rejection may be aggravated by conflicting
loyalties and sometimes, by excessive love received while staying with one of the
parents. Delinquency and other psychopathology are such more frequent among
children and adolescents from divorced families than among those from intact
families, although it is likely that a contributing factor here is prior or continuing
parental strife (Rutter, 1971, 1979) , Amato and Keith (1991) also note that there
may be long-term effects of divorce on adaptive functioning in early adulthood as
some studies have found lower educational attainment, lower incomes, increased
probability of being on welfare and having children out of wedlock in young adults
from divorced families. However, they also found that the effects seem to be
decreasing over the past four decades. The effects of divorce on children have been
compared with the effects of remaining in a home torn by marital conflict and
dissension, and the effects of divorce are often more favourable (Hetheringtron et al,
1989). At one time it was thought that detrimental effects of divorce might be
minimized if a successful remarriage provided an adequate environment for child
rearing. Unfortunately however, the Amato and Keith review revealed that such
children were more likely to be abused than those living with a single parent,
although this was more true for girls than for boys. Studies have also shown that
children living with a step-parent, relative to children living with two biological parents
(Daly and Martin, 1988). Indeed, some studies have found that the period of
adjustment to re-marriage may be longer than that for adjustment to divorce
(Hetheriroyton et al., 1989).
b. Mal-adaptive peer relationships : Another important set of relationships
outside the family usually begins in the pre-school years-those involving age-mates, or
peers. The experience of intimacy with another, a friend, has its beginning in this period
of intense social involvement. If all has gone well in the early juvenile years, & child
emerges into adolescence with a considerable repertoire of social knowledge and skills.
However children at this stage are hardly masters of the fine points of human
relationships. A child at this stage is hardly a master of the fine points of human
relationships. A significant number of them withdraw from their peer; a large number of
others (especially among males) adopt physically intimidating and aggressive lifestyles.
Many rejected children have poor entry skills in seeking to join ongoing group activities.
They draw attention to themselves in disruptive ways; make unjustified aversive
comments to others; and frequently become the focal point of verbal and physical
aggression (Cole and Kupersmidt, 1983). Cole (1990) pointed out that such isolation is
likely to have serious consequences because it deprives a child of further opportunities
to learn the rules of social behaviour and interchange, rules that become more
sophisticated and subtle with increasing age. Repeated social failure is the usual result,
 66
with further damaging effects on self-confidence and self-esteem. He found that peer
rejection often leads a child to associate with deviant peers several years later, which in
turn is associated with a tendency toward juvenile delinquency. Peer social problems in
childhood have been linked to a variety of breakdowns in later adaptive functioning,
including schizophrenia, school dropout, and crime. A complicating factor is that a child’s
position is a group tends to remain stable, especially by the fifth grade and beyond. On
average “Stars” tend to remain stars and “rejects” rejects.
c. Inadequate, irrational, and angry communication: Inadequate
communication may take a number of forms. Some parents are too busy or pre-occupied
with their own concerns that they do not listen to their children and not try to understand
the conflicts and pressures they are facing. As a consequence, these parents often fail
to give needed support and assistance, particularly when there is a crisis. Other parents
have forgotten that the world often looks different to a child or adolescent-rapid social
change can lead to a communication gap between generations, in other instances,
faculty communication may take more deviant forms in which messages become
completely garbled because a listener distorts, disconfirms, or ignores a speaker’s
intended meaning. Bateson (1960) used the term double bind to describe the conflicting
and confusing communication that occurs in schizophrenic families.
d. Psychic trauma : The term psychic trauma is used to describe any aversive
(Unpleasant) experience that inflicts serious psychological damage on an individual.
Psychic trauma in infancy or early childhood are especially damaging because children
have limited coping resources and are helpless in the face of threat. Conditioned
response are readily established in situations that evoke strong emotions; and such
responses are often highly resistant to extinction. Conditioned responses stemming from
traumatic experiences may also generalize to other situations. Young children are thus
especially prone to acquiring intense anxieties that remain resistant to modification even
as their coping resources develop over time. Many psychic traumas in childhood,
although highly upsetting at the time probably have minor long-term consequences.
Some children are less vulnerable than others and show more resilience and ability to
recover from hurt (Crittenden, 1985).
e. Adulthood : Different stressors operate in adulthood. Some significant ones are:
 Employment : Unemployment in itself is a major problem in today’s world.
Unemployment not only creates practical problems, but also creates psychological
problems being its self-demeaning. Frequently, a young person may commit suicide
or turn to drugs because of unemployment. Even if the person is employed if his job
is below his capabilities then he is under-employed. In any job it is necessary that the
individual is satisfied with the job itself, with his pay, with the working conditions and
relations with his boss.
 Menopause or climatic changes : A source of disturbance in the middle period of
his life is the menopause. However the disturbance that comes during middle age
can’t be attributed only to biological phenomena. Male menopause refers to the
psychological changes experienced even by men during this age. Thus it is the
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changes in the environment that make it possible for underlying conflicts to break out
in the form of outward illness. The major environmental changes are :
 Changes in the family establishment : The person may loose his parents or
brothers or sisters and this creates a frustration and insecurity and he tends to
question his own existence. His children may have authority conflicts with them or
they may go for away from home seeking their own future.
 Restriction of possibility of future changes : In middle age there is very little
possibility of changing jobs and finding new places. Generally the last promotion
level is reached. There is no novelty in life thus living is a monotonous, constant day
to day affair which creates an apathetic attitude.
4. Old age : Retirement from the vocation generally signifies the beginning of old age.
The problems are :
 Retirement problems : Very rarely do people adapt easily to retirement.
The status enjoyed previously is suddenly lowered mainly due to financial
loss. No facilities are given to a retired person. The enormous increase in
leisure time is a problem for most people who have been working all their
life. Even for women who remain at home this stage brings a decrease in
work because their children leave the home for their own careers. These
changes create feelings of worthlessness and depression.
 Preparing for death : After about 70 years of age of person shows
impairment in sensitivity to stimuli and he may have other problems that
hamper his physical activities and competency as the person has to depend
on other for all things such as money physical movement, social contact etc.
A major problem in this stage arises due to the fear of death. People in old
age are like terminally ill patients in their reaction to death. According to
Kubler-Ross (1975) This reaction occurs in four stages- denial, anger,
bargaining, and acceptance. The old person must not be rushed through
these stages. Rather Erikson (1982) suggests that he should realize the
utility of his life for other in his family and the worthiness of his life for himself.
It is only when feelings of worth are generated and the individual does not
feel that he has wasted away his life that he would face death calmly.
4.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL CAUSES
Ruth Benedict (1934) pointed out that even the definitions of psychopathology in
the west might not apply to behaviour in other cultures. Behaviour considered abnormal
in one society was sometimes considered normal in another. Early research also found
that some types of psychopathology occurred only in certain cultures. Socio-cultural
factors also appear to influence what disorders develop, the forms that they take, and
their courses. Human biology does not operate in a vacuum; cultural demands serve as
causal factors and modifying influences in psycho-pathology. Investigators cannot
ethically rear children with similar genetic or biological traits in diverse social or
 68
economic environments in order to find which variables affect development and
adjustment. Nevertheless, natural occurrences have provided laboratories for
researchers. Such researches have shown that some universal symptoms appear, but
cultural factors do influence psychopathology, such factors are :
A. The Socio-Cultural Environment : In much the same way we receive a genetic
inheritance that is the end product of millions of years of biological evolution, we also
receive a socio-cultural inheritance that is the end product of thousands of years of
social evolution. Because each group fosters its own cultural patterns by systematically
teaching its offspring, all its members tend to be somewhat alike-to conform to certain
basic personality types. In New Guinea , for example, Margaret Mead (1949)found two
tribes- of similar racial origin and living in the same general geographical area –whose
members developed dia-metrically opposed characteristics. The Arapesh were a kindly,
peaceful, co-operative people, while the Mundugumor were warlike, suspicious,
competitive, and vengeful. Such differences appear to be social in origin.
Sub-groups within a general socio-cultural environment-such as family, sex, age,
class, occupational, ethic, and religious groups-foster beliefs and norms of their own,
largely by means of social roles that their members learn to adopt. In fact, an individual’s
life can be viewed as a succession of roles-child, student, worker, spouse, parent and
senior citizen, When social roles are conflicting, unclear, or uncomfortable, or when an
individual is unable to achieve a satisfactory role in a group, healthy personality
development may be impaired-just as when a child is rejected by juvenile peer groups.
The extent to which role expectations can influence development is well
illustrated by masculine and feminine roles in our own society and their effects on
personality development and on behaviour. In recent years, a combination of masculine
and feminine trait (androgyny) has often been claimed to be psychologically ideal for
both men and women. However, studies show that low “Masculinity” is associated with
mal-adaptive behaviour and vulnerability to disorder for either biological sex, possibly
because his condition tends to be strongly associated with deficient self-esteem
(Carson, 1989). Given findings like these, it should not be too surprising that women
show much higher rates of anxiety and depressive disorders.
B. Pathogenic societal influences : Within a society or cultural group, specific
factors that operate are :
 Low socio-economic status : In our society, an inverse correlation exists between
socio-economic status and the prevalence of psychopathology- the lower the socio-
economic class, the higher the incidence of psychopathology (Eron and Peterson,
1982). The strength of the correlation seems to vary with different types of
disorder.For example, the incidence of schizophrenia is inversely correlated with
social class, while that of mood disorders bears a less distinct relationship to class.
 69
There is evidence that some people with mental disorders slide down to the lower
rungs of the economic ladder and remain there because they do not have the
economic or personal resources to climb back up (Gottesman, 1991). It is almost
Certaining true that people living in poverty encounter more, and more severe,
stressors in their lives than do people in the middle and upper classes, and they
usually have fewer resources for dealing with them. Resilience here was best
indicated by childhood IQ and having adequate functioning as a child in school ,
family, and peer relationships (Felsman and Valliant, 1987).
 Disorder-engendering social roles : An organized society, even an “advanced”
one,sometimes asks its members to perform roles in which the prescribed
behaviours either are deviant themselves or may produce mal-adaptive
reactions. A soldier who is called upon by his superiors (and ultimately by his
society) to deliberately kill and main other human beings may subsequently
develop serious feelings of guilt. He or she may also have latent emotional
problems resulting from the horrors commonly experienced in combat and hence
be vulnerable to disorders. Military regimes and organization are especially likely
to foster problematic social roles. Street gangs demand extreme cruelty and
callousness on the part of their members . Well-organized terrorist groups,
feeling that the world is ignoring their just claims, train their members for taking
hostage, mass destruction, and murder. Many people are thus subjected to
conditions of extra-ordinary stress and feel compelled to enact difficult and
painful social roles. In some cases, the end result will be psychological disorder
 Prejudice and discrimination : Vast member of people in our society have
been subjected to demoralizing stereotypes and overt discrimination in area such
as employment, education, and housing. Many more women than men seek
treatment for various emotional disorders, notably depression and many anxiety
disorders. Mental health professionals believe this as a consequence of the
vulnerabilities(Such as passivity and dependence) intrinsic to the traditional roles
assigned to women. In addition there are the social stressor with which many
modern women must cope (being full-time mothers, home-maker, and
employees at the same time) as their traditional roles rapidly change. However, It
must be recorded that working outside the home has also been shown to be a
protective factor against depression under at least some circumstances (Brown
and Harris, 1978).
 Economic and employment problem: Economic difficulties and unemployment
have repeatedly been linked to enhanced vulnerability and thus to elevated rates
of psychopathology. Recession and inflation coupled with high unemployment
are sources of chronic anxiety for many people. Unemployment has placed a
burden on a sizeable segment of our population, bringing with it both financial
hardships, self-devaluation, and emotional distress. In fact, unemployment can
be as damaging psychologically as it is financially. Rates of depression, marital
problems, and somatic complaints increase during periods of unemployment
 70
(Jones, 1992). Many studies document an association between child abuse and
father’s unemployment (Dew et al., 1991)
 Social change and uncertainty :The rate and pervasiveness of change today
are different from anything our ancestors have experienced. The resulting
despair, demoralization, and sense of helplessness are well-established
predisposing conditions for abnormal reactions to stressful events (Dohrenwend
et at. 1980). Toffier (1971) uses the term future shock to refer to the reaction to
the rapid pace of change.
Self Assessment Questions
1. Psychic Trauma is used to describe an______________ experience.
2. A Schema is an ______________ representation of prior knowledge.

Answers
1. Aversive 2. Organized
4.4 SUMMARY
A single research program or theory cannot do justice to the variety of factors in
psychopathology. Realization of this fact has resulted in making use of two or more
diverse approaches in a more general, eclectic approach. The bio-psycho-social
viewpoint acknowledges the interaction of biological, psychosocial, and Sociocultural
causal factors in the development of psychopathology. All researchers acknowledge that
the self of the person integrates these diverse factors.
The integrator of all factors : the self-schema - A schema is an organized
representation of prior knowledge about a concept or about some stimulus that helps
guide our pressing of current information. These assumption make up our frames of
reference our schema about other people and the world around us, and our self-
schemes or ideas that we have about our own attributes. We all have schemas about
other people (for example, expectations about their roles, or what is the appropriate
sequence of events for particular situations). Our self-schema includes our views on
what we are, what we might become, and what is important to us. The various aspect of
a person’s self-schema also can be construed as his or her self-identity (similar to
Roger’s self-concept and Sullivan’s self-system). Most people have clear ideas about at
least some of their own personal attributes and less clear ideas about other attributes.
Some of our schemas or certain aspects of our self-scheme may be distorted and
inaccurate. In addition, some schemas even distorted ones-may be held with conviction,
making them resistant to change. We are usually not completely conscious of our
schemas.
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On the one hand, the self-scheme can be seen as a set of rules for processing
information and for selecting behaviour alternatives; on the other hand, it can be seen as
the product of those rules- a sense of self-hood, or self-identity. Deficiencies of
deviations in either aspect of the development of the self can make one vulnerable to
disorder. As Vallacher and colleagues (1980) have put it, we look through the rules of
the self-rarely at them. For this reason, the rules, once established, may be hard to
identify, and it may be difficult to change them deliberately.
New experiences tend to be worked into our existing cognitive frameworks, even
if the new information has to be reinterpreted or distorted to make it fit-a process known
as assimilation. We tend to cling to existing assumptions and reject or change new
information that contradicts them. Accommodation-changing our existing frameworks to
make it possible to incorporate discrepant information – is more difficult and threatening,
especially when important assumption are challenged. The ability to make effective use
of new experience depends very much on the degree to which past learning has created
cognitive structures that facilitate the integration of the novel or unexpected. A well-
prepared child will be able to assimilate or when necessary accommodate new
experience in ways that will enhance growth; a child with less adequate cognitive
foundations may be confused, unreceptive to new information, and psychological
vulnerable.
A good example is afforded by modern research on the cognitive antecedents of
psychological depression. The onset severely incapacitating depression has been linked
repeatedly with prior occurrence of negative life events, such as illness, divorce, or a
serious financial setback. Such a negative set seems to involve a kind of over-reaction to
and over-generalization of the meaning of negative events, one that was learned much
earlier and may have remained dormant for many years (Beck 1967, 1987). Exposure to
multiple uncontrollable and unpredictable frightening events is likely to leave a person
vulnerable to anxiety (Seligman, 1975) a central problem in a number of the mental
disorders . A clinically anxious person is someone whose schemas include strong
possibilities that terrible things over which he has no control may happen unpredictably,
and that the world is a dangerous place.
Some uncontrollable experiences to which children are subjected are so over-
whelming that they do not develop a coherent self-schema. This situation is perhaps
seen most clearly in cases of dissociative identity disorder, where separate personalities
have developed separate self-schemas due to repeated, traumatic sexual and physical
abuse in childhood. Thus a fragmented sense of identity, whatever its origin, leads to the
development of psychopathologys.
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4.5 References
1. Carson, R.C. Butcher, J. N., and Mineka, S. (2003). Abnormal Psychology and
Modern Life, New York : Pearson Education.
2. Feldman (2014), Understanding Pscychology, New Delhi : Tata McGraw Hill.
4.6 Further Readings :
1. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India.
2. Goldenberg. H. (1983) Contemporary Clinical Psychology Monterey, C.A. :
Brooks/Cole.
3. Darison : G.C. and Neale, J. M. (1996). Abnormal Psychology : The Experimental
Clinical Approach, New York : John Wiley.
4.7 Model Questions
1. Psychosocial causes of psychopathology.
2. Maladaptive peer relationships – as reason of psychopathology.
3. Socio cultural causes of Psychopathology.

--s--
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Lesson-5

CONCEPT OF STRESS- STRESSORS & MANAGEMENT

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Models of Stress
5.3 Categories of Stressors
5.4 Impacts of Psychological Stress
5.5 Factors determining severity of the stress
5.6 Summary
5.7 References
5.8 Further Readings
5.9 Model Questions
5.0 Objectives
This lesson aims to enable the reader to :
 understand the concept of stress and its concept
 the factors causing stress and their remedies
 study various models/ approaches of the stress.
 implement the remedies in the daily life.
5.1 Introduction
Stress has become an inevitable companion today in all walks of life, whether
theperson is an officer getting late for office or a soldier standing guard on show clad
mountains or an overworked house wife etc. Stress could originate from the external
environment includes the physical environment with climate factors like heat, cold etc.
The Psychological factors become the source of endogenous stress which may result
from aninner conflict or the psychic trauma. All of us face stress in our lives, the daily life
actuallyinvolves a series of repeated sequences of perceiving a threat, considering ways
of copingwith it and ultimately adopting to the threat, with greater or lesser success.
This lesson deals with following important issues on a stress :
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(I) Concept of stress
(II) Models of stress.
(III) Categories of stressors.
(IV) Factors influencing the severity of stress :
(V) Stress tolerance capacity.
(VI) Management of stress & counselling for stress.
(VIl) Decompensation.
(I) STRESS : MEANING & CONCEPT.
Stress may be conceived as a condition where motivation is high but ability to
copewith it is low. It has been called the crisis of the 80’s and even the product of
modern life.Stress is not necessarily bad in and of itself. While stress is typically
discussed in negativecontext. It also has positive value. It is an opportunity when it offers
potential gain. Consider,for example, the superior performance that an athlete or stage
performer gives in “Clutch” situations. Such individuals often use stress positively to rise
to the occasionand performat or near their maximum. More typically stress is associated
with constraints and demands.The former prevents you from doing what you desire. The
latter refers to the loss ofsomething desired. So when you undergo your annual
performance review at work youfeel stress because you confront opportunity, constraints
and demands. Two conditionsare necessary for potential stress to become actual stress.
There must be uncertaintyover the outcome and the outcome must be important. Stress
is higher for those individualswho perceive that they are uncertain as to whether they will
win or loose and lowest forthose individuals who think that winning or loosing is a
certainity. But importance of winningor loosing is also critical. If winning or loosing is an
unimportant outcome there is no stress.If keeping job or earning a promotion does not
hold any importance to you, you have noreason to feel stress over having to undergo a
performance review.
The word ‘stress’ is used in psychology in at least two different ways. First, it
isdefined as the state of psychological upset or disequalibrium in the human beings
causedby frustrations, conflicts and other internal as well as external strains and
pressures. Whatto do and what not to do ? How to do? Where to go? Such questions
depict the stage orstate of stress under which one is expected to act or behave. In a
more serious conditionof the stress, the individual reaches a point where the physical
processes are seriouslyaffected, the mental processes are confused, and the emotional
state is chaotic.
In the second case, stress is regarded as a class of stimuli which threaten
anindividual in some way and thus cause disturbances inhis behaviour. In this way
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stressesare the factors or causes that lead to maladaptation and disorganisation of the
behaviour.
Reputed Psychologists Has Explained Stress in Following Manner
All situations, positive or negative that require adjustment are stressful. It was
Hans Selye(1976) who pointed out that stress could be distinguished into positive stress,
eustress, andnegative stress, distress. Distress is more damaging to the individual,
though positive situationsare sometimes no less stressful. E.g. deciding between two
careers, which are equally appealingis full of stress. Generally, however, the term stress
refers to negative feelings. When there areproblems in the process of adjustment, the
individual experiences stress. The term stress hastypically been used to refer both to the
adjustive demands placed on an organism and to,theorganism’s internal biological and
psychological responses to such demands. Cofer and Appley(1964) define stress as,
“the state of an organism when he perceives that his well being (orintegrity) is
endangered and that he must elevate all energies to its protection”. Carson, Butcher,and
Mineka (1996) refer to adjustive demands as ‘stressors’, to the effects they create within
anorganism as ‘stress’ and to efforts to deal with stress as copingstrategies. According
to Sarasonand Sarason (1996) stress is 'a reaction to a situation that poses demand,
constraints oropportunities” Cohen. Kessler, and Gordon (1997) hold that stress is “a
process in whichenvironmental demands tax or exceed the adaptive capacity of an
organism resulting inpsychological and biological changes that may place a person at
risk for disease”.
5.2 MODELS OF STRESS
Three broad traditions of assessing the role of stress can be distinguished.
Theenvironmental tradition focuses on assessment of environmental events or
experiences that areobjectively associated with substantial adjustive demands. The
psychological tradition focuses onthe individual’s subjective evaluations of their abilities
to cope with the demands posed by specificevents or experiences. The biological
tradition focuses on activation of specific physiologicalsystems that are modulated by
both psychologically and physically demanding conditions. Indealing with abnormals,
thefollowing models are relevant
1. The Stress - coping process. Sarason and Sarason (1996) hold that the stress
that inindividual experiences in a particular situation is a function of the situation
itself the vulnerability of the individual and the coping resources he has.
 Situation : whether a situation is stressful or not depends on how the individual
appraisesit and his ability to deal with it. There are two stages in appraisal.
During primaryappraisal the individual interprets the situation as either
threatening or harmless. Duringsecondary appraisal the individual considers the
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action that is called for and hisresources for coping The individual may respond
in the situation in a variety of waysdepending on the extent of coping resources
he has.
• Vulnerability : This term refers to how likely we are to respond maladaptively to
contain situations. Conceptually it is similar to diathesis, which is a part of the
diathesis-stressmodel.
• Coping Resources : These imply all the personal/social characteristics that the
individualmay use when he faces stress. E g. money, social status, intelligence,
locus of control. etc.
2. The Diathesis stress model : According to this model. psychopathology results
froman interaction of genetic predisposition or diathesis and stress. Diathesis
increases the individualsvulnerability to developthe disorder in response to stressful
life circumstances. The term diathesisrefers most precisely to a constitutional
predisposition towards illness but is often extended to anycharacteristic of a person
that increases his/her chance of developing a disorder (Division and Neale, 1998),
For example, a chronic feeling of hopelessness may be considered a diathesis for
depression. The diathesis is a relatively distal necessary or contributory cause but it
is not sufficient to cause the disorder. Instead, there must be a more proximal cause
(the stressor), which may also be contributory or necessary, but is not sufficient by
itself to cause the disorder. Both together, however, may cause the disorder.
5.3 CATEGORIES OF STRESSORS
The variety of stressors that exist in our lives may be classified into categories
:pressures, conflicts and frustrations.
Pressures
Stress may stem from pressures to achieve particular goals or behave in
particular ways.Pressures may originate from external or internal sources. A student
may face external pressurefrom her parents to study or she may face internal pressure
because she wants admission to themedical college. In general pressures forces a
person to speed up, i.e. intensify effort or changethe direction of goal - oriented
behavior. Pressures are distinct form frustrations in the sense thatthey do not involve a
block. They also differ from conflicts because they do not involve multiplegoals.
All of us encounter many everyday pressures, and we handle them without
unduedifficulty. However, if they become excessive, they may lead to maladaptive
behavior andbreakdown of integrated functioning. In the modern world, the sheer pace
of life is an importantsource of pressure. Occupational demands are also significant.
Many jobs make severe demands in terms of responsibility time, and performance.
Carruthers (1980) point out that our “stone-agebiochemistry and physiology has in
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several important respects failed to adapt to present-agesituation”. He notes that
occupations such as coal-mining, airplane-flying, out racing, controllingair-traffic etc. put
people under severe pressure, resulting in vulnerability to disorders.
Conflicts
Conflicts involve stress due to a choice between mutually incompatible
responses orgoals. Usually the choice of one alternative implies frustration with regards
to the other. Lewin (1936) has given the best framework for understanding various types
of conflicts. Lewin (1936)defined a conflict situation as one in which the forces acting on
the person are opposite indirection and about equal in strength. He has classified
conflicts into three kinds.
Double Approach Conflict: These involve a choice between two or more
desirablegoals. E.g. deciding whether to go for amovie or a picnic on Saturday.
Inevitably these conflictsresult from paucity of resources in terms of time, money or
energy. There is an unstableequilibrium at the point of conflict : The moment the
individual moves towards one goal the forceacting upon him increases and he is still
more attracted towards it. Generally delaying one optionand doing the other first easily
resolves such conflicts. However, if neither of the two alternativescan be delayed, and
one option must be chosen at the cost of the other, the decision can be verystressful and
difficult. E.g. Deciding between two equally good career opportunities can be
verystressful.
Double Avoidance Conflict : These involve a forced choice between two or
moreequally undesirable goals. The individual is caught between the ‘devil and the deep
sea. E.g. thechoice between finishing a job we dislike, or leaving it and being called a
failure. Fighting duringwar with possible death or fleeing during war resulting in guilt
feelings. This conflict ischaracterised by a stable equilibrium. Since force increases with
a decrease in psychologicaldistance if the individual moves towards a goal the repulsive
force increases and he is thrownback to his original position. Thus the conflict is very
difficult to resolve. Such conflicts areresolved only by ‘leaving the field’, signifying the
flight from reality which so often characterizesthe behavior of persons caught in this web
of unresolvable conflict.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict : It involves strong tendencies to approach and
avoidthe same goal. The individual is drawn to and repelled by the same situation at the
same timeE.g. A woman may want to marry for sexual, social, or security reasons but
she also wants toavoid marriage due to the responsibilities and loss of freedom it
endanger. A drug addict may bestrongly drawn toward a cure but dreads undergoing the
process of withdrawal symptoms and thereturn to a lonely meaningless life. Numerous
experimental investigations have found that theavoidance gradient is steeper than the
approach gradient. As the individual moves toward thegoal, the avoidance force
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increases more than the approach force and he is repelled back to thepoint of conflict.
He cannot leave the situation because beyond the point of conflict the approachforce
predominates and he wants to approach the goal. Lewin cites the example of a child
whowants a toy riding on the ocean waves but is afraid of waves. He approaches the
ocean, but as heapproaches, his fear increases and he backs up. However as he moves
away his attraction forthe ball does not diminish and he again tries to approach the
ocean. A stable equilibrium exists inthis conflict also, and it cannot be easily resolved
except by extra force acting on the individual. Inthe example of the child perhaps his
father, who gets the ball for himwill help the child.
Besides these three basic types of conflicts. Lewin’s analysis does admit the
possibility ofmore complex situation. In fact, real life is often a complex situation
involving multiple approachavoidance conflicts. Such a conflict involves choosing among
several different course of actionthat each have their own positive and negative aspects.
Each alternative has its good and badpoints. E,g. Many young girls face the choice
between a career and marriage. Marriage impliessocial security and sexual satisfaction
but it also implies immense responsibility. Career impliesindependence and financial
security but it also implies hard work and responsibility. For boys,there is often a choice
between going for higher studies or starting on job. Immediately getting ajob may mean
financial independence but they wonder later whether studies would have helpedthem to
further their career. By continuing education they delay financial independence
andreduce job alternatives for a rosier future. The many forces acting in such conflict
situationscollectively determines the individual’s actions. In most instances an impulsive
decision ratherthan a logical one settles the matter. After making the impulsive
decision, the individualconcentrates on the advantages to be derived from selected
goals and ignores the rejectedcourse of action.
Frustrations
Stress that occurs when one’s strivings are thwarted either by obstacle blocking
progresstoward a desired goal or by absence of an appropriate goal is called frustration.
Frustratingobstacles may be external or internal.
External Frustrations : There are a wide range of environmental obstacles
bothphysical and social that may lead to frustration of our needs and efforts. Wars,
storms, firesearthquakes, accidents death of a loved one, injuries are major sources of
frustration in thephysical environment. There are also the more commonly experienced
minor frustrating situationssuch as trouble with the car when one is in a hurry or rain on
a picnic day etc. social obstaclesare the various restrictions and regulations that the
society places on the behavior of the individualand the punishment impose for breaking
the rules. To meet our needs we must direct ourenergies towards socially approved
goals and use only socially approved means.Deviations from these social rules such as
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stealing homosexuality, physical violence etc.means risking social disapproval and
punishment. Such punishment may take a variety offorms such as withdrawl of affection
lowering of one’s social status, loss of a job,confinement in persons : all of which are
severely frustrating. On the other hand, abiding bythe social rules may also result in wide
range of frustrations. The individuality of the personis thwarted. Social rules often lead
us to delay gratification, or to concentrate our efforts inone direction only. Delay may
take the form of postponing sexual relations until marriage,postponing financial
independence until one has a job, postponing ones right to be heard onpolitical issues
until one can vote etc. Concentration of effort in one direction is often seenin
specialization in one area, directing our energies to one particular goal to the exclusion
ofall others.
Internal Frustrations : Personal limitations such as physical handicaps,
insufficientability, low IQ or lack of social charm may all become sources of frustration in
thecompetitive struggle for social recognition, success marital partners and status.
Failuresresulting from personal limitations and mistakes are likely to be serious sources
of self-devaluation and frustration, particularly when such failures involve our key
motives andpurposes. Many internal frustrations come from psychological barriers in the
form of realityand ethical constraints. E.g. the individual may refrain from pre-marital
sexual intercourse because of fear of pregnancy (a reality constraint) or because of
moral attitudes that makesuch behavior unacceptable. If these restraints break down,
guilt and self-blame may follow.We all do things, which we later regret and the resulting
self-devaluation is extremelyunpleasant and frustrating to our important need for self-
esteem. Internal frustration alsoinvolve biological conditions such as fatigue, disease,
handicap etc. Fatigue may be frustrating in its own right and in addition it is often
important in lowering our generalpsychological resistance to other types of stress.
Diseases may tax or even exceed ouradjustive capacities.
Causes and Stressors / Sources of Stress
Visual Presentation of frustration, Conflict and Pressures
Table 1
I. Frustrations Frustration means emotional tension resulting from the
blocking of a desire or need.
II. Conflict Psychological conflict is state of tension brought by the
presence in the individual of two or more opposing desires.
III. Pressures Internal Pressures : Maintaining picture of our own according
to norms of society
External pressure
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1. Environmental demands
2. Social obligations
3. Family responsibilities

Important resources of stress/stressors (by Coleman).

1. Stress as the State of Psychological Upset
According to Coleman frustration, conflict and pressures are the three
importantsources of stressors. A wide range of environmental obstacles both physical
and social andthe internal factors in the form of personal limitation, biological conditions,
.and psychologicalbarriers may lead to frustration of our needs, motives and efforts.
Such frustrations place agreat deal of stress upon many of us. Similarly, conflict of
motives and desires may alsocause frustrating and stress situations. In choosing of
either alternative from the contradictoryneeds, a person may be forced to postpone a
decision for days, weeks or perhaps monthsbefore he decides what to do. An approach
avoidance conflict is likely to cause more severestress. A teengar who has a natural
curiosity ofreading a sex magazine or seeing movie meant for adults faces a stress
situation on accountof the feeling of guilt and embarrassment associated with his
motives. Such conflictingsituations can’s resist stress and eventually develops into a
disorganized personality.
Apart for frustrations and conflicts, internal as well as environmental pressures
alsoprove a major source of causing stress. Internal pressures are caused by our own
self ofmaintaining the picture of ourselves-as we think we could and should be. We strive
hard toreach the top to achieve success, and in doing so put an unreasonable pressure
onourselves. On the other hand, the environmental demands, social obligations,
familyresponsibilities aspirations and demands of the person who concern us and the
problems ofthe complexities of life exert a good deal of pressure. Such pressures force
us to strive andstruggle resulting severestress.
2. Stress as a Class of Stimuli
Let us now consider the sources of stress in the case where stress is considered
as aclass of stimuli that affect the individual and bring about stress situations.
Every one of us is faced many times each day with minor stress situations.
Breakfastor lunch is not served in time, the bus is not available students are not attentive
the supply ofelectricity or cooking gas is very poor: Such situations are very common to
every one andoften cause some or the other type of frustration or disappointment
resulting in irritationsadness of annoyance. But such happenings and results are easily
forgotten.
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The story does not end with such easily faced or easily forgotten situations. We
areoften faced with stress situations of a much more serious nature which have a
considerableimpact on our physical and mental health. The hazards and calamities of
life like losing a job money or property a severe illness or the death of someone close:
financial liabilitiesbeyond one’s income: and similar events and situations are such
threatening stimuli orstresses of life which cannot be ignored or underestimated. Such
stress situations are capable of bringing about behaviour disorders and personality
disorganizations of a seriousnature.
5.4 Impact of Psychological Stress
Stress situation may be biological or psychological in nature. At the biological
level physical injury and other stresses like physical illness diseases, fatigues, pains
result in theorganic adjustive reactions. The human body is placed on a “war footing”
contributing to theadaptive potential providing biological defences against stress.
Psychological stress, especially severe ones, upset the psychological balance
orequilibrium of an organism. His reactions to such stresses are both physiological
andpsychological in nature.
The psychological stresses may be reflected in the form of changes in the
nervousand endocrine systems like increased muscle tension pumping of stored sugar
into the bloodstream, change in breathing, perspiration and secretion of glands. This fact
is utilized in theinterrogation of criminals who, being under more than ordinary stress,
exhibit definite physicalreactions in the form of faster beating of heart, rapid and irregular
breathing, rising bloodpressure, and change in the electrical conduction of the skin. Such
changes may be recordedby the lie detector or polygraph for the identification of the
physiological reactions to stress situations.
On the psychological front, the reactions to severe stresses, as Coleman
observes,may be classified as task oriented reactions, and ego defence oriented
reactions.
In the task oriented reactions to a stress situation, one feels competent to handle
itby beginning changes in oneself or one’s environment or both, whatever the
situationswarrant: This reaction behaviour takes the following forms (i) Attacking
behaviour (ii)withdrawal behaviour ; and (iii) compromising behaviour.
(i) She may build up a high level of hostile tension which is discharged in
deliquent behaviour.
(ii) She may simply resort to withdrawal rather than attack the sources of
frustration.Consequently, she will be limited to herself by being an introvert
and passive.
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(iii) She may compromise with the situations by thinking that she is a girl and
has toadjust in a make dominated society, where the sons are likely to get
more affectionand therefore she need not be perturbed.
Ego defence oriented reactions usually come into picture when we feel a threat to
ourintegrity All of us under stress use these ego defence mechanisms, for maintaining
andenhancing ourself. Like task oriented reactions, these reactions may involve
attackingwithdrawal or compromising behaviour. For example, the person may defend
himself byattacking and blaming others for his mistakes. He may escape from the painful
truth bydenying it or by pushing it to his unconsciousness or he may bargain a
compromise byadmitting it in his consciousness in such a distorted way that it no longer
hurts.
The defence oriented reaction: asunconsciously learned responses are essential
forthe protection of one’s self from the stress situations. Although they involve self
deceptionand reality distortion; they may still be considered quite normal and even
desirable except incases where they are used to such an extreme degree that they
begin to injure the self instead of protecting it.
5.5 FACTORS DETERMINING SEVERITY OF THE STRESS
Stresses are common in our life. We often face stress situations some time or
theother. We usually overcome these moments or situations by spending more energy,
effort andresources at our disposal or being change in our goals or methods of dealing
with thesesituations. We use our adjustive capacity to meet the emerging demands of
the stress, butsometimes the severity of the stress crosses the limit of one’s adjustive
capacity. It thenbecomes a devastating situation to the self. The severity of the stress
depends upon it intensity and tolerance capacity as described below.
A. The intensity of Stress
It is the intensity of the stress that makes it severe and it depends on the
followingfactors
1. Duration of Stress : The length or the duration of stress may turn it into a
mild orsevere stress.
2. Number of Stress : Facing a number of stresses at the same time will result
in a moresevere situation than if these stresses are suffered separately,
3. Amount of Anticipated Stress : How much the individual suffers as a result
of thestress situation if these are not met in a positive way, depends on the
degree ofanticipation which may increase or decrease the severity of stress.
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4. Strength and Quality of the Sources of Stress : The nature of the stress
will alsodepend upon the strength and quality of frustrations, conflicts,
pressures or other stimuliorganizing the stress events or situation.
(V) Stress Tolerance Capacity
It has been observed that people are able to cope severe adverse
circumstanceswithout showing significant psychological damage. They are able to
handle the mostthreatening situations without much difficulty while other breaks down
under relatively mildstresses. Therefore, the severity of a given stress depends on one's
tolerance capacity.
The terms stress tolerance thus refers to the amount of stress one can tolerate
beforebreaking down under the pressure of stress. Individual differences in the stress
tolerancecapacity are not easy to explain. While a biological explanation may involve the
assumptionthat more stable neuro - endocrine systems show a greater resistance to
stress situations,psychological interpretation will involve the individual’s evaluation of the
stress situation. Twoyoung lecturers on probation may view their termination of services
by a private management in quite different ways for one, it mayseem a humilating failure
leading to frustration andsevere stress. The other may view in a painful but fortunate. in
the sense that he may get anopportunity to work in a better institution or try for another
good job.
In a true sense, people learn to perceive stress events in the light of
previousexperiences which may condition a person to regard life events as threatening.
Consequently,such a person will have less stress tolerance than the people who has
been conditioned toregard such events in a more philosophical and less personal way.
(VI) STRESS MANAGEMENT / COUNSELLING
Every person, including the stress victim has a wealth of stress
managementstrategies at his or her disposal. These skills have been learned and
practiced over a lifetime. Some remedies are used after and for many stress provoking
situations - a hot bath long run and a good cry. Others may be saved for major cries -
blowing up full scale retreata valuesover haul prayer, laughter and deep breathing are
also the common practices ofstress management.
In teaching stress management; it is important to include not only strategies
thatreduce physical tension but, also a wide variety of skills from every dimension of life:
Stresseffects the whole person Just as symptoms of distress are not limited to physical
realm sostress management approach need to be expanded to attend to all aspects of
humanexperiences.
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Table-II
Whole-Peson Stress Management
1. Physical strategies 2. Intellectual/Mental Strategies
Progressive relaxation : Congitive restructuring :
Biofeedback : Systemtic desensitization :
Autogenic training : Stress inoculation :
Visualisation : Covert sensitization :
Sensory awareness Thought-stopping :
Deep breathing Reframing :
Hot tub (jacuzzi Sauna) Values clarification :

Message Paradoxical intention :

Yoga :
Exercise
Diet .
3. Social Strategies 4. Emotional Strategies
Interpersonal skills training Catharsis/emotional discharge
Assertiveness : covert assertion :
Support groups : Self-awareness :
Networking : Withdrawal :
5. Spiritual Strategies 6. Environmental Strategies
Meditation : Time management
Praver Problem-solving :
Faith/hope : Goal setting :
Lifestyle assessment :
Decision making :
Conflict resolution
Physical strategies can prevent the build to physical tension and provide
immediate toolsto control situational stress and situational stress reactions.
Intellectual strategies are also beneficial in interrupting the stress cycle by
altering theperception of a specific event as stressful. Social strategies tend to increase
the individual skill indealing with potentially stressful situation and after options for
receiving nature and support fromothers.
The list of emotional and spiritual strategies for managing stress are much
shorter and arebased primarily on clinical observation. These techniques may be helpful
at any stage of thestress cycle.
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Environmental strategies help individuals assess and alter the stress producing
aspects oftheir surroundings as well as change habitual behaviour that tend to disrupt
and complicate theirenvironment. Tubesing (1981) classified stress skills into four
categories. They are personalmanagement skills, relationship skills, outlook skills, and
stamina skills.
Counselling for Stress
In recent years there has been a considerable amount of attention given to the
impact ofstress on the human body. When any external force threatens the body. The
pituitary gland signalsthe alarm and sends hormones to the endocrine glands which in
term secrete adrenalin andnonadrenalin hormones into blood stream. As, a result the
body gets ready to adapt throughneutralizing or minimizing the damage on the human as
a whole. Professional counselling canaid the person in understanding the nature and
impact of stress upon one psychological andphysiological well being.
Table Ill
Classification of stress skills
Overall Strategy Skill
1. personal Management Valuing : Energy, investment, with core
self-regulation skills for organization values.
time and energy expenditure Personnel planning
Setting goals and progressing steadily
towards accomplishment
Commitment : saying “yes” wholeheadedly.
Time Management : setting priorities to
spend time effectively.
Pacing : regulating the tempo of life
2. Relationship Contact : the forming satisfying friendships.
Scene-changing skills for altering Listening : tuning into others feelings
environment and interaction with and meanings.
Assertiveness : attending to self and
boundaries.
Fight (a) Standing firm to effect change
Flight (b) retreating from the pressure
Nest-building : beautifying the
environment.
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3. Out look Relabelling: seeming the promise in the

Change your kind skills for controlling problem.
attitudes and perceptions Surrender : letting go and letting be.
Faith accepting limits and the unknowable.
Whisper : talking positively to self.
4. Stamina Imagination using creativity and humour
Body building skills to exercise Nourishment eating for health
: strengthen and fine tuning the body Gentleness : treating self with
Strengthen resistance and relieve care and kindness.
tension
Realization : cruising in neutral and
replenishing resources.

Directive counselling is a good technique for stress reduction. The major tool of
correctionused by the directive counsellor, upon discovering the nature of difficulty are
advice workingexhortation phase and reassurance. All these actions emphasize the
superior position of thecounsellor and the dependent one of the employee. The directive
counsellor will make use ofpraise and reassurance in order to encourage the employee
to overcome problem or to realize that no problem really exists.
In the non directive counselling discussion the roles of counsellor and employee
are morenearly equal and as one of understanding rather than one passing judgement.
Counselling session can be divided into three parts (i) release of tension (ii) the
development of insight and (iii)the formation of new plans of choices.
In selecting the appropriate person to execute the counselling function, the two
mostapparent choices are either immediate supervisor or a staff personal counsellor. In
addition, thereis certain of counselling done by friends and acquaintances as well as by
outside professional personnel such as psychiatrists psychologists and representatives
of religious organisations.
(Vil) DECOMPENSATION
According to Carson; Butcher, and Mineka (1996) “when stressors are sustained
orsevere the adaptive capabilities of the organism may be overwhelmed, in which case
there is alowering of integrated functioning and eventually a possible breakdown of the
organism. Thislowering of integration is referred to as decompensation. The generalised
effects of severe stressare :
 Lowering of adaptive efficiency : Physiologically. severe stress can result in
alterationsthat can impair the body’s ability to fight off invading bacteria and
viruses.Psychologically perception of threat brings a narrowing of perceptual field
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and rigidity sothat the individual see the choices he has. Emotions accompanying
stress are alsoharmful E.g acute stage fright may disrupt our performance on
stage or in a speech.
 Lowering of resistance to other stressors : Apparently coping resources are
limited ifthey are already mobilized against one stressor they are not available for
coping withothers. Prolonged stress may lead to “Pathological over-
responsiveness” or to “Pathological insensitivity” to stressors. It also involves loss
of hope and apathy.
 Wear and tear of the organism : Many people believe that after stress rest
cancompletely restore us. Selye (1976). however, believes that this is not true
and “even aminute deficit of adaptation energy every day add up - it adds up to
what we call aging”.With any stress there is a lowering of the previous level of
adaptation.
Decompensation can be studied as being of three kinds - biological,
psychological andsociological
Biological Decompensation : When an individual is faced with a threat he
respondswith anxiety and prepares to fight and overcome the threat or he prepares for
flight i.e. runningaway from the situation. There are three types of biological defenses.
• Cellular Defenses - This involves the protection of the organism against
disease. Whenthis defense fails, particularly in the case of the cells of the
CNS, there is an impairmentof both biological and physiological functioning.
For example : infection of the brain or atoxic reaction of the brain.
• Neural Defenses - These range from alerting the organism for extra vigilance
ofsensitivity in the face of danger, to actually protecting the organism from an
excess ofstimulation or disorganization. On a simple neural level, protective
inhibition takes placewhen stimulation exceeds the working capacity of a cell.
Normal reaction of a neuron to astimulus is limited in such cases to protect
the life to the cell. On a more global level theindividual may become
unconscious to avoid trauma.
• Emergency Process - Due to threatening stimuli the sympathetic nervous
system isaroused and it leads to the secretion of adrenaline which prepares the
individual for hisfight or flight reaction. This preparation involves the effect of
adrenaline on other glandsand body organs also. Some such effects are.
• Acceleration of Heart Beat - The circulatory system is stimulated to a state
of maximumefficiency. The heart beats at a faster rate, which raises the blood
pressure.
 88
• Inhibitions of Digestive Process - The digestive processes are inhibited
and blood isredirected to other muscles necessary for emergency reaction.
• Stimulation of the Liver - Rapid release of glycogen from the liver results in
the formationof sugar which in turn supplies the muscles with energy.
• Dilation of Pupils - More light stnkes the retina. which improves the vision of
the person.
These physiological manifestations combined with emotional attitude help the
person tomeet threatening situations Psychological danger such asloss of social prestige
humiliation, orany ego-threatening situation brings about the same physical changes as
the threat of physicaldanger.
Selye (1976) introduced the concept of General Adaptation syndrome (GAS) a
model todescribe the biologicalreaction to sustained and unrelenting stress. Typically
there are threephases.
1. Alarm and mobilization : The body is mobilised for action - fight or flight.
The alarm reaction is initiated by- the brain and regulated by the endocrine
system and thesympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
2. Stage of Resistance : This is also called the adaptation state in which the
body uses its resources in an optimum way to combat the stressful situation.
Endocrine andsympathetic activity remains at high levels but not so high as
during the alarm reaction.
3. Stage of Exhaustion (Collapse) : Despite individual differences, all
organisms eventuallylose their ability to fight stress. The bodily resources
are depleted so that theparasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous
system takes over the conserveresources. We seldom profit from this
takeover, however, since the source of stress isstill there. Thus, the
exhaustion stage may lead to diseases of adaptation' such as ulcers,
coronary heart disease, skin disorders etc and eventually death.
Whatever the source of stress, according to Selye, the body reacts the same
way. Each stressor the individual faces leaves its mark on the individual for the
restorative process is only areorganising of remaining parts and resources. There is a
permanent lowering of previous level ofintegration and functioning due to stress which of
course predisposes the individual tofuture stress or increases his vulnerability.
Psychological Decompensation : Personality decompensation under
severestress follows a similar course and infact also involves biological responses.
1. Alarm and Mobilization : It involves alerting of the organism and a
mobilizing ofresources for coping. The individual shows emotional arousal,
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heightenedsensitivity and alertness (vigilance). He undertakes various task-
oriented anddefense-oriented coping strategies. Symptoms of
maladjustment may appear-anxiety, stomach upsets etc. to indicate that the
mobilization of resources isinadequate.
2. Stage of Resistance : It involves concerted task-oriented coping measures
andintensive use of ego-defense mechanisms and mild reality distortion.
During laterphases the individual becomes rigid and clings to previously
developed defensesrather than trying to re-evaluate the situation to work out
more adaptive patterns.
3. Stage of Exhaustion : There is a lowering of functioning and an introduction
ofexaggerated and inappropriate defensive measures.. There is
psychologicaldisorganisation and a break with reality involving delusions and
hallucination. Eventually, if excessive stress continues, the process of
decompensation proceeds toa state of complete psychological disintegration
- perhaps involving uncontrolledviolence, apathy, stupor, and eventually
death.
Most often psychological decompensation is a gradual process though it may
beprecipitated by sudden and extreme stress.Typically, treatment measures are stated
beforethe process of decompensation is complete. Treatment increases the individual’s
adaptationso that the process of decompensation is reversed to recompensation.
Sociocultural Decompensation: It appears that the concept of
decompensationis just as applicable to group pathology (sickness in societies). Internal
and external stressor lead many societies to extreme rigidity and conservatism. Historian
Toynbee and others have used this concept to explain the rise and fall of many
civilizations. e.g. ancientGreek and Roman empires.

Self Assessment Questions

1. High motivation and Low Coping ability causes_______________.
2. Emotional tension is also known as _________________.
3. ____________ Defenses Alert the organism for extra vigilence.

Answers :
1. Stress 2. Frustration 3. Neural
5.6 Summary
We can conclude the lesson as that stress is the widespread, generalized or
social situations. Stressors are the situations or events which cause the stress
responses of thebody. Among the many situations acting as stressors are : change in
 90
one’s life, injury,infection, exercise, noise, climate, frustration, job and social or family
pressures. The body’sresponse to stressors are the general adaptation syndrome.
5.7 References :
1. Carson, R.C., Butcher, J. N., and Mineka, S. (2003). Abnormal Psychology and
Modern Life, New York : Pearson Education
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The problem of
Maladaptice Behavior (11/e) _Prentice Hall of India.
5.8 Further Readings :
1. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India.
2. Goldenberg. H. (1983) Contemporary Clinical Psychology Monterey, C.A. :
Brooks/Cole.
3. Darison : G.C. and Neale, J. M. (1996). Abnormal Psychology : The Experimental
Clinical Approach, New York : John Wiley.
5.9 Model Questions
1. ElaborateConcept of stress.
2. What is Conflict & its types.
3. Give Hans Selye Model.
--s--
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Lesson-6

COPING STRATEGIES - TASK ORIENTED ANDDEFENSE

ORIENTED RESPONSES
Structure

6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Task Oriented Responses
6.3 Defense Oriented Responses
6.3.1 Characteristics of Defense Mechanism
6.3.2 Classification of Defense Mechanisms
6.3.3 Socially approved Defense Mechanisms
6.3.4 Sociallytolerated Defense Mechanisms
6.3.5 Socially criticized Defense Mechanisms
6.3.6 Sociallydisapproved Defense Mechanisms
6.4 Summary
6.5 References
6.6 Further Readings
6.7 Model Questions
6.0 Objectives

The lesson is made to obtain the objectives as -

 to protect the individual himself / herself by using various defense
mechanisms.
 to get an idea about the defense Mechanisms.
 to know about the effective coping strategies.
6.1 Introduction
The stress coping mechanisms usually are aimed to modulate the stress
perception as well as reaction of body and mind to stress factor. The sympathetic
activation,secretion of stress hormones and behavioural alterations which normally
accompanystress help towards coping with stress. Stress is a normal part of living. Too
much stresscan take its toll on both physical and psychological health. How do people
 92
deal with stress?Is there a way to reduce its negative effects ? The efforts to control,
reduce, or learn totolerate the threats that lead to stress are known as coping. We
habitually use certaincoping responses to help ourselves deal with stress. Stress forces
a person to do some-thing.
The variety of reactions to stress is practically unlimited. They may range
fromconstructive direct approaches of the normal individual to the mental symptoms of
apsychotic patient. The coping strategies vary with the personality for the individual.
Incoping with the problems of the life or stress, the individual is confronted with two
challenges :
- To meet the requirements of the stressor.
- To protect the ‘self” from psychological damage and disorganization.
A person who feels competent to handle a stressful situation tends to act in
atask-oriented way; to direct behaviour primarily at dealing with the requirements of
thestressor. However, when the stressor seriously threatens one’s feeling of
adequacy,reactions will tend to be defense -oriented i.e. directed primarily at protecting
the self fromhurt and disorganisation, rather than resolving the stressor situation. Thus,
the responseof the individual may be a task oriented response or a defense oriented
response. In fact,each individual has a characteristics pattern of a reaction, which rarely
changes during hislifetime.
6.2 TASK-ORIENTED RESPONSES
When the person feels competent to handle a stressful situation, a task
orientedresponse is typical. These responses focus on the goal and the means to
achieve thegoal, rather than the individual himself. These are :
1. Attack- It implies removing obstacles to satisfy our needs Attack reaction
isapparently based upon the fundamental tendency of living organisms to increasethe
activity and variation of efforts in the face of obstacles. The typical emotionassociated
with attack behaviour is anger or hostility towards the situation or theobject, which
hinders achievement of the goal. Many stress situations cannot bedeal with direct
aggression and hence attack is unsuccessful many times. Thus,the individual is
subjected to unpleasant and painful frustration. E.g. if an adultfeels unwanted he may
develop a high level of tension which is discharged indelinquent behaviour, destruction
of property, setting things on fire, sexual offenses,and other hostile reactions. The rules
and regulations of the society, however, mayfrustrate these reactions. Generally
however, attack is the best way of coordinatingthe abilities of the individual so that
constructive action results.
2. Withdrawal - it implies admitting defeat, reducing ego-involvement in a
situation,lowering aspiration, decreasing energy and effort, and eventually,
 93
becomingapathetic. Resistance and protective inhibition are common forms of avoidance
orwithdrawl in face of excessive stimulation. As the individuallearns to associatecertain
goals and situations with frustration, he may avoid them instead of attackingthem.
However, withdrawl generally arouses feeling of guilt in the individual.
3. Compromise - Since all the situations cannot be dealt with successfully
by direct attach ofwithdrawl, it becomes necessary to work out some sort of compromise.
It involveschanging one’s method of operation, accepting substitute goals or resorting to
normallyunacceptable means. E.g. faced with starvation an individual may compromise
with hisvalues and steal food. Making a decision that resolves a conflict is usually a
compromisereaction. Choice of either goal or means of action in a conflict implies a
compromisebetween the two. Sometimes we also make compromise with the goals that
are not easilyattainable, in such cases, we lower our goal. The common emotion that
accompaniescompromise is anxiety and guilt.
6.3 DEFENSE ORIENTED RESPONSES
When a stressor seriously threatens a person's feelings of adequacy, a defence-
orientedresponse is generally given. These responses try to save the person, but do not
deal with theblock directly. Two types of defense-oriented patterns are differentiated :
• Responses such as crying, repetitive talking, and mourning which seem to
function aspsychological damage-repair mechanisms.
• Ego or self,defense mechanisms, which protect the self from hurt and
devaluation andplay a major role in psychopathology.
It was Freud who first described and popularized the concept of defense
mechanisms orego defense mechanisms as he called them. Ego is the conscious,
integrating aspect of personality; which faces three 'harsh masters’ - Id, reality, and
superego. The mechanisms usedby the ego to counter the neurotic reality, and moral
anxiety, and thus to protect itself, are knownas the ego-defense mechanism.
6.3.1 Characteristics of Defense Mechanisms
1. Defense mechanisms are used to protect the ego. However, they may be
combined withtask-oriented approaches
2. Defense mechanisms can be and often are used in combinations.
3. Every individual has a tendency to use a particular defense mechanism or a
particularcombination of defense mechanisms consistently (Gleser and
Sacks, 1973)
4. All defense mechanisms are unconscious. The individual is unaware of using
them andin fact resents it if his attention is drawn to them. Defense mechanisms
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lose theirdefensive value if they become conscious. By using defense
mechanisms an individualis not only fooling others but also his own self.
5. Extreme exaggerated use of defense mechanisms is an indication of
psychopathology.Frequent use of defense mechanisms also signifies mal-
adjustment.
6. Defense mechanisms originate from negative experiences. According to
Freud,repression is the basic defense mechanism. Negative events are
repressed into theunconscious. However, this repressed material is always
trying to gain an entry intounconsciousness. To counter the anxiety thus
generated, and to keep the repressedmaterial in theunconscious, the ego
uses additional defense mechanisms.
7. According to Adler defense mechanisms develop so that the ego can
protect itself fromfeelings of inferiority- Feelings of inferiority develop due to
actual or perceived traumasand inferiority.
8. To protect the individual from external threats such as devaluating failures
or internalthreats such as guilt arousing desires and actions, defense
mechanisms use thefollowing methods :
• Denying distorting or restricting the individual’s experiences.
• Reducing emotional or self-involvement
• Counteracting threat or damage.
• 0ften a defense mechanismoffers more than one kind of protection.
6.3.2 Classification of Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms have been classified in various ways :
Active vs. Passive defense mechanisms: Active defense mechanisms bring a
persontowards reality and into contact with other people. E g. in rationalization, he
attempts to explain hisbehaviour to others Defense mechanisms such as rationalization
compensation, identification, projection, displaced aggression, etc. are active defense
mechanisms. Passive defensemechanisms involve a retreat from reality, particularly
from interpersonal situations. The individualfirst withdraws from others and then tries to
handle his frustrations and anxieties. E.g. withdrawlfantasy etc.
According to Rosenzweig (1936). defense mechanisms may be classified into
three categories :
• Extropunitive The individual aggressively attributes his frustrations to external
personsor things. The associated emotions are anger and resentment.
 95
• Intropunitive The individual aggressively attributes his frustrations to his
own self.Associated emotions are guilt and remorse.
• Impunitive The individual denies his aggression to adopt a compensatory
attitude.Aggressive impulses are repressed and do not appear to supply the
motivating forces.
Thorpe and Katz -(1967) haveclassified defense mechanisms on the basis of
whetherthey are socially approved tolerated criticized or disapproved.
6.3.3 Socially Approved Defense Mechanisms
1. RationalizationRationalization means making excuses or giving
acceptable reasonsinstead of real ones. Rationalization is “unconsciously false self-
justification” i e. the individualhimself is unaware of using false reasons - he is not aware
that he is lying. Rationalization is asocially approved, active defense mechanism, which
has two defensive values :
It helps to lesser the disappointment connected with unattainable goals.
It helps us to justify what we do and believe.
Two idioms exemplity the defense mechanism in normal behaviour. “Sour
grapes” implies the inability to do a certain task with the subsequent explanation that it
was not worth doinganyway. “Sweet lemons” implies that having achieved something, a
person does not really like it.It implies having to accept something that one does not
really like. But due to ego-involvement the person does not admit his mistake. E.g. If one
has taken up psychology despite oppositionfrom the family and then one finds it very
difficult one may not admit this fact even to oneself inpsychopathology we find an
example of rationalization when a rapist justifies rape buy savingthat the woman acted or
dressed provocatively. Various types of rationalization are :
• Face-saving : which impliesgiving plausible but untrue reasons.
• Procrastination : which is based on the unconscious idea that if a task can
be put off,may be it will never have to be faced.
• Emotional insulation :reducing ego involvement by withdrawl and passivity.
• Intellectualization : giving cognitive reasons rather that the real emotional
ones. E.g. awoman’s husband dies and she mentions the rituals rather than
the death of her beloved.
Rationalization is not “lying” in the sense that the individual is doing it
unconsciously andprimarily to save his own ego. Conclusive indications of rationalization
are :
• Hunting for reasons to justify behaviour and beliefs.
• Being unable to recognize inconsistencies or contradictory evidences.
 96
• Being upset when reasons are questioned.
2. Compensation This is a defense against the feelings of inferiority and
inadequacygrowing out of real or imagined weaknesses, failures or setbacks. Frequently
it may leads toexcellence or even a superiority complex. Adler emphasized that
compensation may be direct orindirect. Direct compensation implies intensive hard work
for success in the field of Inferiority. E g.(1) A child with a frail physique compensates
through exercise and careful diet to develop thephysique of an athlete. (2) An
unattractive old woman may use a lot of make-up. Indirectcompensation implies
excellence in a different field. It is shown if one is too weak in one aspect.E.g. An
unattractive girl may strive hard to be a scholar. The desirable quality or normalcy of
thisdefense mechanism depends upon how far it satisfies the individual himself and the
society.Sometimes compensation may be undesirable, as for example, when an
unpopular student triesto gain attention by being aggressive, rude, and acting like a
bully. Mal-adjustment is evidentwhen the person decides on a lesser goal in indirect
compensation. In direct compensation it maystem from overcompensation. Over
compensation involves compensating to such an extent thatone makes a nuisance of
himself. The most notorious example in this respect is Hitler.
3. Sublimation : According to Freud, all glories of civilization and creativity
result from asublimation of libido. particularly the sexual instinct. Sublimation refers to a
situation in which theenergy of an anti-social or disapproved urge is redirected into
socially approved channels. Thechannelization of energy towards socially approved
substitute goals is sublimation E g.individuals with strong feelings of hostility may seek
an outlet for their aggression in vigoroushouse-cleaning, wood-chopping, hunting
gardening etc. According to psycho-analysts, frustratedsexual desires are sublimated
into artistic, literary or scientific pursuits. E.g. a cruel anddestructive child may become a
butcher. Sublimation is not usually associated with psychopathology.Indeed by
definition. it is channelization of unacceptable desires into acceptable channels.
6.3.4 Socially Tolerated Defense Mechanisms
1. Ego - centrism : Ego-centrism implies focussing all energies on the self.
It is a completeinability to see the other person’s viewpoint. In fact an ego-centric person
would not evenacknowledge the existence of an alternative viewpoint. Behaviourally an
ego-centric personalways tries to gain attention, which he is not able to achieve through
socially approved means.Often this is done by indirect but crude methods E.g. a child
may throw a temper tantrum so thathis parents pay attention to him A student may crack
silly jokes in the class to gain attention.Among adults such attention-getting behaviour is
considered an psychopathology. Examples ofabnormal ego-centrism are (1) attention
seeking behaviour in anti-social personalities sexualexhibitionists etc (2) Delusions of
 97
grandeur are also a form of extreme ego-centrism. Obviouslyego-centrism develops
from feelings of inferiority.
2. Identification : Identification implies living our life through another
person. It involvesmaking another person a part of one’s self and gaining satisfaction
from his experiences. Theaccomplishment and satisfactions of the person, with whom
we identify, become a substitute forour own. To some extent identification is normal. A
growing child realizes that he is classified withother members in his group. Thus, he
himself shows the same behaviour. Children identify withparents; students and adults
with their organizations. According to Freud, identification with thefather is necessary to
resolve the Oedipus complex. Hero-worship is another form of identificationas one
strives to become like one’s hero in dress, manners, gestures and views. Watching a
filmleads to identification with the characters to the extent that we cry when the film
characters are indistress. Identification occurs in an extreme form as an
psychopathology when psychotics loose theirown self completely and identify with
scientists, Hitler, Kennedy or other famous personalities.
3. Projection: Projection is attributing to others our own shortcomings,
desires or normal. defects as a means of lessening our own sense of inadequacy. A
simple illustration is blamingothers for our own mistakes. It is an ancient device to save
our ego. In the Garden of Eden Adamblamed Eve for his downfall: Eve blamed the
serpent, and so on. Offence is the best defense. Incriticism of others for their
selfishness, stupidity and obstinacy, we defend ourselves againstbehaviour of a similar
nature. In a way, projection is also manifested in our tendency to see othersin the light of
our own personality makeup. If we are honest we think so of others. It is importantto
remember that projection is unconscious. Individuals who are aware of their own
objectionabletraits are less prone to project them onto others. Projection probably
develops from the earlyrealization that blaming otherskeeps us away from social
disapproval and punishment and savesus from devaluation. Projection is seen in an
extreme abnormal form in paranoids who developdelusions of persecution.
6.3.5 Socially Criticized Defense Mechanisms
1. Regression: Regression is moving to a primitive infantile mode of
behaviour. E.g. whenthere is an addition to the family, the first-born may revert to bed-
wetting thumb sucking, baby-talk etc. Regression is thus a defensive reaction involving a
retreat to the use of reaction patternsthat were appropriate at an earlier level of
development. E g. a frustrated adult may revert totemper tantrums which were useful
during childhood. A bride may run away to her mother at thefirst sight of trouble. An old
person lives in the past emphasizing the joys of the good old days.Thus in the face of
severe stress, we may retreat from adult reactions to a less mature level ofadjustment.
In extreme forms.It is shown by psychotics who regress to such infantile level
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ofbehaviour that they are unable to walk dress, or even feed themselves. Regression
isunconscious - thus some times the patient may crawl like a baby, but swim like an
expert.
2. Sympathism : Sympathism implies avoiding a problem by gaining
sympathy from others.The sympathy of others provides the individual with a certain
amount of comfort, security andmakes him feel that others care about him. Though he
fails in solving his problems and attaininghis goals, he tries to gain social approval and
sympathy by telling others how hard he tried andhow many obstacles he encountered.
Depressives who try to gain the sympathy of others withoutacting in a task-oriented way
show an extreme from sympathism.
3. Dissociation : it implies refusing to solve a problem by ignoring it or by
dissociating itfrom consciousness. The individual avoids unpleasant and painful
situations by eliminating themfrom conscious experience. Such an individual refuses to
face facts. In a normal form it implies aloss of memory for unpleasant facts. In extreme
psychopathology, it may be shown as amnesia, fugue and multiple personality disorder.
6.3.6 Socially Disapproved Defense Mechanisms
1. Repression : Repression is an unconscious process of ignoring the
memory of painfulexperiences in order to avoid the stress involved in a direct solution of
the problem. The painfulexperiences then become a part of the unconscious. It is also
called selective forgetting.Repression is different from suppression in that suppression is
a willful conscious act whereasrepression is unconscious. According to Freud,
repression is the basic defense mechanism usedby the ego. Negative experiences are
repressed by the ego. However, this repressed material isalways trying to gain an entry
back into consciousness. Then the ego uses other defensemechanisms to keep the
repressed material in the unconscious and to counter the anxietygenerated by it.
Nevertheless, regression is never complete and the repressed material shows upin slips
of tongue, slips of pen etc. in a normal individual; and as phobias and obsessions in
anabnormal individual. Moreover,the negative event itself may be repressed, but its
effects linger onand appear in various forms. E g. repressed emotions may be
experienced in the form of variousaches and pains functional paralysis, functional
blindness etc. Repression is extremely importantfor controlling dangerous desires and
minimizing the effects of painful experiences. However, theprice paid for repression is
that it does not offer a chance for realistically appraising the situationand possibly
working it through for a solution.
2. Negativism : It consists in becoming contradictory, stubborn and
rebellious when aproblem confront us: Generally negative attitudes are a reaction
against unfair treatment. E.g. agirl who readily admits being negative and aggressive
states “when I was young, I was alwaysblamed for the mischief of my brothers and
 99
sisters regardless of any fault. I was often punished fortheir wrong doings. So l acquired
the habit of not responding to the parents’ questions”. Gradually,the individual resents all
authority and does the opposite of what they ask him to do. Pamperedspoilt children
often have this habit. Later such individuals hold others in low esteem and are quickto
ridicule-others. They feel flattered when asked for an opinion but if a decision has
already beentaken, they generally take an opposite view and say. “I am against it”. In
extreme form, negativismis shown in depression.
3. Fantasy : Fantasy is considered next step in withdrawl and regressive
behaviour. Itimplies wish fulfillment in imagination. All our desires and ambitions are
fulfilled without any effortin fantasy and we succeed in every endeavour of ours. Fantasy
is thus based on our mentalimages associated with needs. E.g. starving people
commonly have mental images of food wouldbe businessmen have fantasies of wealth,
success, and high social, status; a physically weakperson imagines himself to be an
athlete, an ugly girl imagines herself to be Miss Universe andso on. Fantasy may be
productive or non-productive. Productive fantasy is usually constructive inmaintaining
motivation and in the solution of immediate problems, e.g. creative imagination. Non-
productive fantasy is merely a wish-fulfilling activity. Its two common varieties are
“Conqueringhero” and suffering here”. In the former, the individual imagines himself to
be a famous athlete asurgeon, a courageous soldier, the president etc. i.e. a remarkable
figure who is rich powerful and respected. In the latter (Suffering hero) the individual
imagines himself to be a victim of fate,having a tamble handicap, or illness. Thus, he is
the objectof sympathy. All normal individualsindulge to some extent in fantasy when they
daydream about success. It is most frequent among college students followed by
children. However, psychotics who have hallucinations and believeonly in fantasy show
it in an extreme form. Fantasy becomes mal-adaptive if the make-
believeaccomplishments are substituted for real-life endeavours.
4. Denialof Reality : It is also called ‘escapism’ or reality evasion'. It is
perhaps the simplestor most primitive formof defense mechanism. It is a simple refusal
to acknowledge reality. The individual refuses to perceive or face his unpleasant
situation. E.g. a smoker may concludethat the evidence linking smoking to health
problems is scientifically worthless. Denial of reality is evident in ‘escapism’ - when the
individual remains pre-occupied with work, social engagements, or other activities to
such an extent that he is just busy to face his real problems.In psychopathology, denial
of reality is evident in the schizophrenic withdrawal from reality.
5. Displacement : In this defense mechanism, there is a shift of emotions
from a personor object (towards whichthey are actually directed), to another person or
 100
object. Typically, itinvolves the discharge of aroused emotions on neutral or less
dangerous objects. E.g. a childwho has been thwarted by his mother may kick his little
sister or break his toys. This mechanism is of considerable adjustive value since it
enables the individual to discharge dangerousemotions and tensions without even
knowing that they existed. In psychopathology, displacement is often evident in the
development of phobias. E.g. a fear of murder may be displaced to a fear of all sharp
instruments. In the case of little Hans, Freud concluded that theboy has displaced the
fear of his father to horses.
6. Reaction formation : It is a rather unusual method of controlling
undesirable urgesby developing an opposite trait. It prevents the awareness or
expression of unacceptabledesires by an exaggerated adoption of seemingly opposite
behaviour. E.g. a mother whounconsciously did not want a child, in her conscious
behaviour may indulge in overprotection,and make a greater show of affection.
Nevertheless, her slips of behaviour show herunconscious negative motivations; e.g.,
she may not allow the child to play or eat the food helikes because the child may catch
some disease. In psychopathology, reaction formation isevident in the behaviour of
sexual offenders like exhibitionists who actually try to cover up fortheir basic sexual
inadequacy.
7. Introjection : Introjection is a primitive form of identification in which the
individualinternalizes aspects of threatening situations. It involves the acceptance of
values and normsof others even when they are contrary to one’s previous assumptions.
The idiom” if you can’tbeat them, join them” explains introjection. E.g. after revolutions
leading to dictatorial forms ofgovernment, many people introject the new values and
beliefs for their own protection. Thusintrojection is incorporating external values and
standards into one’s ego structure, so thatone is not at the mercy of externalthreats.
8. Acting - out : in this reaction, the individual deals with desires by actually
permittingtheir expression. E.g. a person who is mistreated may become physically
violent towardsother people.The damage and destruction evident in looting and
vandalism serves this purpose.Antisocial juvenile delinquents use this defense
mechanism in an extreme form. Anotherexample is of sexually frustrated people who
may indulge in a string of affairs, disregardingsocial,norms and possible negative effects
of their behaviour.
Though the use of defense mechanisms is widely prevalent, it must be
understoodthat they do not eradicate the stress emanating from the stressor. It is only
the task-orientedapproaches that deal with stress permanently.
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Self Assessment Questions :
1. Repression is a socially approved/disapproved defence mechanism.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Attack is a Task oriented or Defense oriented response.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Answers :
1. Socially disapproved 2. Task Oriented
6.4 Summary
In this lesson we can sum up that how individuals can cope up with different type
ofstresses directly and indirectly. In direct method we can list the stress with great
strength andchallenge andin indirect method different defense mechanisms are given.
This means lessongives a good insight for fighting with day to day’s problems and
challenges and frustratingsituations with boldness.
6.5 References :
1. Carson, R.C., Butcher, J. N., and Mineka, S. (2003). Abnormal Psychology and
Modern Life, New York : Pearson Education.
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The problem of
Maladaptice Behavior (11/e) _Prentice Hall of India.
6.6 Further Readings :
1. Nystul, M.S. (2001). Introduction to Couselling : New Mexico State University :
Allyn and Bacon.
2. Sarason, B.R. & Sarason, I.G. Abnormal Psychology : The Problem of
Maladaptive Behavior (11/e)_Prentice Hall of India.
3. Goldenberg. H. (1983) Contemporary Clinical Psychology Monterey, C.A. :
Brooks/Cole.
4. Darison : G.C. and Neale, J. M. (1996). Abnormal Psychology : The Experimental
Clinical Approach, New York : John Wiley.

6.7 Model Questions

 102
1. Explain Task-oriented Responses.
2. Enumerate Socially Criticized Defense Mechanisms.
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 103
Lesson -7

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION [S.D] AND

CO-EFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mean when data is ungrouped
7.3 Mean when data is grouped (long-method)
7.4 Mean when data is grouped (short-method)
7.5 Standard deviation
7.5.1 SD when data is grouped (long method)
7.5.2 SD when data is grouped (short method)
7.6 The meaning of significance
7.7 Coefficient of Correlation
7.7.1 Meaning of Correlation
7.7.2 Characteristics of Correlation
7.7.3 ProductMoment Correlation
7.7.4 Rank Order/Difference Correlation
7.8 Summary
7.9 References
7.10 Further Readings
7.11 Model Questions

7.0 OJECTIVES
This lesson mainly deals with significance & computation of important statistics

 To understand about mean and calculate it.

 To understand S.D. and Calculate it.
 To understand Correlation and Calculate it.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
This lesson mainly deals with significance & computation of important statistics
i.e. Mean, standard deviation and co-efficient of correlation. First part of the lesson deals
with computation of mean, Standard deviation and coefficient of correlation. Second part
of the lesson deals with the significance of above side statistics terminology.
[1] THE MEAN, THE S.D., THE CORRELATION
Before we undertake to study significance of the mean and other statistics, we
must first know what these are. A brief discussion of the same is as follows.
The mean : - This is an ‘average’, a measure of central tendency and gives a concise
description of the performance of the group. It also enables us to compare two or more
groups in terms of typical performance. It is simply the sum of the separate scores
divided by their number.
7.2 MEAN WHEN DATA IS UNGROUPED

Here the formula is = X/N

Where - (Sigma) – is the “sum of” separate measures.

N – is the number of measures in the series.

X – stands for a score, number or any other measure.

An example will make it clearer– 3,4,5,3,4,2,2,1= 24. A group of 8 students have

obtained the above mentioned marks in a psychology test. Each of these marks is
symbolized by X. 24 is the total of all these marks i.e. it is [ X]. 8 is the number of
students. Therefore the mean of the marks of these 8 students is 24/8 = 3
7.3 MEAN WHEN DATA IS GROUPED [LONG METHOD]
When we convert raw or ungrouped scores into class-intervals, tallies and
frequencies, the data become grouped into a frequency distribution. The formula of the
frequencies, X is the mid point of each class-interval, FX is obtained by multiplying the
mid point X of each interval by its corresponding frequency. N is the total number.
An example will make it clearer
C1 (Class Interval) F X FX
20-21 2 20.5 41.0
18-19 2 18.5 37.0
16-17 4 16.5 66.0
14-15 0 14.5 00.0
12-13 4 12.5 50.0
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10-11 0 10.5 0
8-9 4 8.5 38.0
N=16 232.0
FX
: Mean =
N
Here  FX = 232
N= 16
232
Mean = =14.5
16
7.4 MEAN WHEN DATA IS GROUPED [SHORT METHOD]
THE FORMULA IS :-
C.I
A.M. + CI
N
Where A.M. is the Assumed Mean
CI –is the interval (size of the class interval)
N – is the total number
C – is the correction
Referring to the same example :-
C.I. F X’ Fd’
20-21 2 +3 +6 A.M. =14.5*
18-19 2 +3 +4 Here C=16-16=D
16-17 4 +1 +4i+16 C=2
0 N=16
14-15 0 0 0 2
AM=14.5+ N=2
16
12-13 4 -1 -4
10-11 0 -2 0 =14.5+0=14.5
Therefore
Mean=14.5
8-9 4 -3 12
N=16 16
Entered the deviations of the mid point of the different steps measured from the
AM in units of Class interval. Thus if in the given example the AM is 14.5, 16.5 deviates
from this by one interval and hence +1 is placed in the X column opposite 16.5, In the
 106
similar way 18.5 deviates from 14.5 by two intervals and hence +2 placed in the X
column opposite 18.5,like wise below 14.5 all entries of ‘x are negative.
The column X’ is multiplied by f to get fx’, All fx’ on intervals above [greater than
AM] are positive, and all fx’ on intervals below [smaller than AM] are Negative. Hence
algebric sum of the plus and minus fx’ is the obtained and divided by N. This gives C, the
correction f’ units of class interval. This C is multiplied by I-interval and divided by N.
then Cl is added to AM to get the actual mean. Some times Cl Will be positive and
sometimes negative depending upon where the Mean has been assumed.
When to use the mean
(1) When the scores are distributed symmetrically around a central point i.e. when
the distribution is not badly skewed. The M is the centre of gravity in the
distribution, and each score contributes to its determination.
(2) When the measure of central tendency having the greatest stability is wanted.
(3) When other statistics (e.g. SD, or coefficient of correlation) are to be computed
later. Many statistical analysis are based on the mean.
7.5 Standard Deviation – (S.D.)
This is the most stable index of variability, and is customarily employed in
experimental work and in research studies.
FORMULA FOR SD WHEN DATA IS UNGROUPED

x 2
SD is denoted by  (SIGMA) =
N
Where (sigma) is to add up
xare the deviations from the means [x=X-m]
N is the total number.
Taking the example of marks
X  6,8,10,12,14,= 50 : mean is =10
 X  M x  4, 2, 0, 2, 4
x2  16, 4, 0, 4,16  40
x 2 40
~    2.83
N 5
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7.5.1 SD when DATA is grouped (Long Method)
~=|fx’/N we obtain x by plotting mid point of each class interval. The process is identical
with that used for the ungrouped items except that here we multiply each x with its
corresponding frequency to get the column fx. Then we multiply the obtained x column
with fx to obtain fx2. The sum of fx2 column is divided by N and its square root gives us
the SD.
An example will make the clearer.

CI f x fx x[x-m] fx fx2
195-199 1 197 197 26.20 26.20 686.44
190-194 2 192 384 21.20 42.40 898.88
185-189 4 187 784 16.20 64.80 1049.76
180-184 5 182 910 11.20 56.00 627.00
175-179 8 177 1416 6.20 49.60 307.52
170-174 10 172 1720 1.20 12.00 14.40
165-169 6 167 1002 -3.80 -22.80 86.64
160-164 4 162 648 -8.80 -35.20 309.76
155-159 4 157 628 -13.80 -55.20 761.76
150-154 2 152 304 -18.80 -37.60 706.88
145-149 3 147 441 -23.80 -71.40 699.32
140-144 1 142 142 -28.80 -28.80 829.40
N=50 8540 520.00 7978.00
fx 8540
M=   170.80
N 50

fx 2 7978
SD =   12.63
x 50
7.5.2 SD WHEN DATA IS UNGROUPED (Short Method)

FX12  c 2
 = t
N
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When fx ‘2 is the sum of squared deviation is ratios of class-interval taken from the
assumed mean, C2 is the squared correction in units of class interval; I is the class
interval N is the total number.
An example : -

C.I f X' fx' fx"2

195-199 1 +5 5 25
190-194 2 +4 8 32
185-189 4 +3 12 36
180-184 5 +2 10 20
175-179 8 +1 8 8
170-174 10 0 0+43 0
165-169 6 -1 -6 6
160-164 4 -2 -8 16
155-159 4 -3 -12 36
150-154 2 -4 -8 32
145-149 3 -5 -15 75
140-144 1 -6 -6 36
N = 50 -55 322
-55+43=12
M= 170.80C = -12/50 =- -.240
C2=.0576
i=5
N=50

:~= 5 322 / 50  .0576

=12.63
When to use the S.D.
(1) When the statistic having the greatest stability is sought.
(2) When extreme deviation should exercise a proportionally greater effect upon
the variability.
(3) Where coefficients of correlation and other statistics are subsequently to be
computed.
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7.6 THE MEANING OF SIGNIFICANCE
The main objective of statistical inference is to enable us to generalize from a
sample to some large population of which the sample is a part. It is rarely possible to
measure all the members of a given population and hence we must be content with the
sample drawn from this population. Usually we have only the single sample and our
problem is to determine how well we can estimate the M pop. [mean of population] e.g.
from the one sample mean, Means and other measures computed from samples are
called statistics, while measures describing a population are called parameters and are
thought to be of as fixed reference values. Hence under specified conditions we can
forecast the parameters from out sample statistics with known degree of accuracy. The
degree to which a sample mean represents its parameters is an index of the significance
or trust worthiness of the computed sample mean. When we have calculated a statistic
therefore, we may ask ourselves–“How good an estimate is this statistic of the
parameter based upon the entire population from which this sample is drawn?” The
purpose of significance is to provide methods to enable us to answer this question for
the mean, S.D. and for other statistics.
The significance of Mean, standard error of the Mean [~M] in large samples:
The degree to which a sample mean approximates its parameter depends on
how impartially we have drawn our sample and that is done through random number of
cases. (2) M [standard error of mean] is


SE m or M =
N
~ = the standard deviation of the population
N = the number of cases in the sample.
The ~M varies directly with the size of the sample SD[or S] and inversely with the
size of N. We can decrease ~M by increasing the size of N. ~ M measures the degree
to which M[Mean] is affected by [1] error of measurement [2] error of sampling i.e.
inevitable fluctuations from sample to sample.
An example : -
The mean on a test of abstract reasoning for 255 boys in class X of city ‘A’ was
27.26 with SD of 11.20. How dependable is this mean? How good an estimate is it of
this mean which could be expected if all of the X class boys in city A were tested?
 11.20
Applying the formula for ~ M=   .75
N 22.5
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Now we have to set up confidence intervals. Two confidence intervals are generally
used. The one is at P=0.95 or the limits M1.96M and the other is P=0.99 or the limits
M2.58M. Hence applying these confidence intervals we have 27.961.96 0.75=25.79
and 28.73. The given mean of 27.26 falls within this interval, hence our given mean is
highly significant at =.95, in other words, basing our judgement as to the size of M pop
on these limits we stand to be right 95% of the time and wrong 5%.
27.262.58 .75=25.33 and 29.19
We may be quite confident that the M pop is not lower than 25.33 nor higher than
29.19, and we stand to be right 99% of the time and wrong 1%. Since the sample mean
[27.26] is significant [within the confidence intervals at both P=.95 and P=.99. We can
say that the sample is a true representative of the population of city a from which it was
drawn.
Specifying a confidence interval is an expression of our confidence in the
inference, namely of our confidence that the given interval does infact include M pop.
The limit of the confidential Interval of a parameter have been called by R.A. Fisher
(1935) fiduclary limits and the confidence place in the interval defined by the limits as
containing the parameter is called fiduclary probability.
M is small samples :-
Whenever N is less than about 30
s s
M =
N N

 x2
In which s = (s is  when sample is small)
N 1
Since sample is small the appropriate sampling distribution is called t-distribution, this
does not differ greatly from the normal unless N is quite small, in such a case that
distribution lies under normal curve but the tail ends of the curve are higher than the
corresponding part of the normal curve.
An example
Ten measures of reaction time of light are taken. The mean is 175.50 ms
(milliseconds) and s is 5.82 ms. Determine the .95 and .99 confidence interval for the M
pop.
Using the formula :
 111
5.82
SM ( M)   1.82ms
10
We will refer to Table-D, the table of t(in Garrett’s Book), table of t can be found
in other book’s of statistics too. Tables are given at the back of these notes.
We must have df (degrees of freedom) to determine the value of t at selected
points in the sampling distribution.
The df = (N-1) = (10-1) = 9 in the present case.
The degrees of freedom are the number of restrictions imposed upon the observations.
One df is lost for each restriction imposed.
From table D with 9 df we find that at .05 level value of t = 2.26
and at .01 level value of t=3.25
Hence confidence intervals are established. Hence for the .05 level we have :-
175.50 2.261.84=171.34 and 179.66
At .01 level, we have :- 175.50  3.25 1.84=169.52 and 181.48
The probability here hence is that M pop is not less than 169.52 and not more than
181.48. Since the given mean of 175.50 lies at both the interval set up for both are
probability levels of .05 and .01 we can say that sample is a representative of the
population from which it has been drawn and the results are significant at both .05 and
.01 level.
Significance of SD
The standard error of SD ()

This like the SEM is found by computing the probable divergence of the sample
SD from its parameter (Population SD)
The formula is:-
.71
SE or ~=
N
Using the same example as used in finding SEM when sample is large
11.20  .71
 = =.53
225
Hence confidence interval at .05 level is 11.201.96 x.53
 112
And at .01 level is 11.202.58 x .53=9.83 and 12.57
If we assure that SD pop, lie between the limits 9.83 and 12.57 we should be
right 99% of the time and wrong 1%.
Significance of the Coefficient of Correlation :-
The SE or r

(1  r 2 )
r =
N

When N is large is Ser () =

1  r 
2

N
If correlation between height and weight is r = .60 and N=120

1  60 
2

Then r   .06
120
Setting up confidence interval at .01 level
.602.58 x .06=.45 and .75
The correlation of .60 is significance a both .05 and .01 levels, in other words
population correlation is atleast at large as .49 and no longer than .72 (at .05 level) and
least large as .45 and no longer than .75.
Converting r’s into Fisher’s Z function.
When the coefficient of r is very high or very low, we must convert r into fisher’s Z
function and find the SE of Z, this is because the functions Z has two advantages over r
(1) Its sampling distribution is approximately normal
(2) Its SE depends upon only the size of the sample N, and is independent of the
size of r
The formula for Fisher’s Z is –
1
~Z=
N3
(SE of Fisher’s function)
Suppose r = .85; N=52
From table C we read that a
(From Garrett’s Book)
 113
R of .85 corresponds to a Z of 1.26
1
Therefore SEz = =.14
52  3
Confidence intervals for the true Z at .05 level is
1.26 1.96 x .14=.99 to 1.53 and at .01 level is 1.26 2.58 x .14]
Converting these Z’s back into r’s we get a confidence interval from .76 to .91.
Hence the given r of .85 lies between this interval.
Testing r against Null Hypothesis
The significance of an obtained r may also be tested against the population r is in
fact zero. If the computed r is large enough to invalidate Null Hypothesis we then see the
significance from Table 25 at page No. 201 (Garrett’s Book)- at (N-2) degrees of
freedom and compare the obtained r with tabulated entries. Table given at the back of
these notes e.g. When N=55 and df is 50, a r must be .275 to be significant at .05 level
and .354 to be significant at .01 level
7.7 COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
Methods: Rank Order and Product Moment Correlation.
In behavioural and social correlation is that statistical procedure which has
opened up so many new avenues of discovery in Psychology.
This is understandable when we remember that scientific progress depends upon
finding out what things are correlated and what things are not coefficient of correlation in
that single number which tells us to what extent two things are related, to what extent
variations in the one go with variation in the other, Without the knowledge of how one
thing varies with another, it would be impossible to make predictions.
7.7.1 Meaning of Correlation
Correlation my be defined as the relationship of any two variables. When we wish
to find out relationship between two sets of measures, we study them by method of
correlation. What influence is one variable giving to another is the main function or
interpretation of correlation values. For easy understanding we may take the example of
height and weight of girls as two variables for correlation. How the height effects the
weight of girls are the problems of correlation. Similarly relationship between intelligence
and scholastic achievement scores can be found by the method of correlation. We can
classify correlation in two types.
(1) Positive Correlation
(2) Negative Correlation
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1. Positive Correlation :-When one variable is increasing and another is
also increasing that is positive correlation and vice versa if one variable is decreasing
and another variable is also decreasing that is also positive correlation. The example of
positive correlation is that if the Academic Scores are increasing and mental
development in the form of mental maturity is also increasing. This type of relationship
will be called as positive correlation. Second example of positive correlation is that the
health of one person is deteriorating and his efficiency for work is also deteriorating. In
this example both the variables are decreasing. Therefore we can conclude that in
positive correlation the direction of both the variables will be same.
2. Negative Correlation : - In negative correlation one variable increases
the other, variable decreased and vice versa which means, one variable decreases the
other variable increases. Example of this correlation can be given like this. One variable
is bad health, which is increasing and the second variable stamina that is decreasing is
the good example of negative correlation, we can quote another example in which one
variable is decreasing and second variable is increasing. As the earning of an individual
is decreasing the second variable to put more labour for making money is increasing.
This was about the meaning and types of correlation. When we calculate values
by two methods rank difference and product moment. Following is the table for
interpretation of correlation values.
.81 1.00 Very high correlation
.61 .80 High correlation
.41 .60 Moderate correction
.21 .40 Low correlation
.00 .20 Negligible correlation
7.7.2 Characteristics of Correlation
Following are the characteristics of correlation.
1. Firstly correlation tells us about the relationship of any two variable, which
means if we do not calculate correlation values. We do not know the right association
between these two variables. For example if we do not calculate correction of height and
weight of adolescent girls, we can not generalize the existing relationship between these
two variables.
2. Second characteristics of correlation is that it is always relative to the
situation under which it is obtained, and its size does not represent any absolute natural
fact. Say for example correlation between intelligence and achievement depends upon
the population, circumstance and the test which were used for computing correlation
values. Thus these values should be interpreted in the light of circumstances, population
and tests used these relationship will be reliable only for that particular circumstances
and population.
 115
3. Reliability of coefficient values is also dependent upon the urgency of the
outcome. For example there are probably some medical treatments like surgeries,
vaccinations concerning which the knowledge is rather incomplete but which are
administered even though the correlation between the treatment and survival (between
non treatment and death) is of the order .10 to .20. Although the probability of survival
may be increased only 1 percent by the treatment the saving of one life in 100 is
regarded as worth the effect. As the life is precious and treatment is saving only one life
out of 100 lives. Therefore above said negligible correlation value gives us a moral boost
at the time of urgency and emergency. His characteristics of correlation may be said as
the positive reinforcement at the time of urgency and need.
7.7.3 Product Moment Correlation:
Sir Francis Galton about 1885, discovered the method of statistical correlation
when he was investigating the best way of analyzing his work on the inheritance of
human traits. After a short time, Professor Karl Person developed the product-moment
method. The product moment co-efficient of correlation is also referred to as The
Pearson R. It may be taken as that ratio which expresses the extent to which changes in
one variable are dependent upon changes in a second variable. The various steps in the
process of calculating product-moment coefficient of correlation are as follows:
xy
 =
x 2  y 2
The ratio method is used for computing the co-efficient of co-relation by the application
of the formula.
Subject (Test 1) (Test 2) X Y x2 y2 xy
X Y
A 50 22 -12.5 -9.4 156.25 79.56 105.00
B 54 25 -8.5 5.4 72.25 29.16 15.90
C 56 34 -6.5 3.6 42.25 12.96 -23.40
D 59 28 -4.5 -2.4 12.25 5.76 8.40
E 60 26 -2.5 -4.4 6.25 19.36 11.00
F 62 30 -0.5 -0.4 0.25 0.16 0.20
G 64 32 -1.5 -1.6 2.26 2.55 -2.40
H 65 30 2.5 -0.4 6.25 0.16 -1.00
I 67 28 4.5 2.4 20.25 5.76 10.80
J 71 34 8.5 3.6 72.25 12.96 30.60
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K 71 36 8.5 5.6 72.25 31.36 47.60
L 74 04 11.5 9.6 133.25 92.16 110.40
750 365 595.00 282.92 372.30
2 2
(x ) (y ) (xy)
Mx=62.5 My=30.4
xy 372.3
r = 
x  y
2 2
595  282.95
3723
=
410.3
r = 0.90 (very high correlation)
Steps followed :
(1) Find the mean X and the mean of Y .
(2) Find the deviation of each score x from its mean and enter it in the
column x, Next find the deviation each score x and enter it in column y.
(3) Square all of the x’s and all of the y’s and enter these squares in column
x2 and y respectively. Find out x2 and y2
(4) Find out xy and calculate xy.
(5) Calculate r by the application of the formula:-
xy
r=
x 2  y 2

7.7.4 Rank Order/ Difference Correlation

Suppose there are two groups of scores for the same individuals. Then the
calculation by Rank difference method depends upon the following steps:
1. Rank the individual from the highest to lowest in the first variable. These
values will be called R1. The highest score get the rank the next higher 2 etc.
But if two individuals have the same score we take the average of the two
ranks and give the same rank to both the individuals.
2. Rank the second list of scores in the same manner. This gives us R2.
3. For every pair of ranks (for each individual) determine the difference in ranks.
This gives us D.
4. Square each difference. This gives us D2.
5. Add the squares to the difference to give d2.
Calculate the co-efficient (Greek letter ‘rho’) by the formula :
 117
/rho by Spearman’s formula (Generally denoted as P).

6 d2
/rho=1-
N ( N 2  1)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Traits Judge X Judge Y D D2
A 2 1 1 1
B 1 2 -1 1
C 4 5 -1 1
D 3 6 -3 9
E 6 4 2 4
F 5 3 2 4
0 20
6  20
 = 1
6  35
 = .43 (Positive Moderate Correlation)
In the example given above, the correlation is computed between judges X and Y
we have rated an individual on six traits. In this example, we started with ranks and so
the question of assigning ranks to scores did not arise. Now an example would be taken
upto which the scores would have to be converted into ranks and problem of tied ranks
would also be covered.
Subject Test 1 Test 2 Test 1 Test 2 Test 2 D2
Scores (x1) Scores (x2) Scores (R1) Scores (R2) (R1-R2)
1 24 40 3.50* 1.00 2.50 6.25
2 26 29 2.00 5.00 -3.00 9.00
3 15 25 9.00 8.00 1.00 1.00
4 17 28 8.00 6.00 2.00 4.00
5 23 34 5.00 3.00 2.00 4.00
6 18 23 7.00 9.00 -2.00 4.00
7 24 30 3.50* 4.00 -0.50 4.25
8 20 26 6.00 7.00 -1.00 1.00
9 30 38 1.00 2.00 -1.00 1.00
10 14 20 10.00 10.00 0.00 0.00
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d2=35.50

* Note : Ss 1 and 7 both get a score of 24 on test 1. As the first and second
ranks are taken by Ss 9 and 2 who get scores 30 and 26, respectively, on test, two
scores of 24 would occupy the third and the fourth ranks. In this case of tied ranks the
average 3.5 is assigned to both Ss and 7.

In this problem d2=35.50

N = 10
So applying the formula for computing rho

6 d 2
rho= 1= we get,
N(N2 -1)
6  35.50
=1-
10(100 -1)
213.00
=1-
990.00
=1-.215
=1-.22
=.78 (Positive High Correlation)
For these two methods, we can say, whereas the product moment method take into
account the size of the scores and its position in the series, the rank-difference method
takes into account only the positions of the items in the series. So rank difference
method is not as accurate as the product moment method. This method is rarely used
when N is larger than 30. It is merely an exploratory device.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Correlation measure cause and Effect. (Yes/ No.)
2. Mean is the measure of ____________ tendency.
3. Ungrouped data has class Intervals (Yes / No)
Answers :
1. No 2. Central 3. No
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7.8 Summary
In this lesson we can conclude that mean, standard deriation of grouped and
ungrouped data can be compiled.Concept of correlation i.e. meaning and types of
correlation will be clear by the end of this Lesson and what are the different ways of
computing correlation will be understood.
7.9 References
1. Garrett, H.E. (1966). Statistics in Psychology and Education, New Delhi : Vakils,
Fetter, and Simons.
2. Mangal, S. K. (2002). Statistics in Psychology and Education. PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
7.10 Further Readings
1. Singh, A.K. (1986). Tests, Measurements and research methods in behavioural
sciences. Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of behavioral research : Educational,
Psychological and Sociological inquiry, Holt Rinehart and Winston.
7.11 Model Questions
1. Coefficient of correlation.
2. Product Moment correlation.
---S---
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Lesson -8

SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS

(CORRELATED AND UNCORRELATED)
Structure

8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Null hypothesis
8.3 The S.E. of the difference between two independent means
8.4 Significant of differences between means in small Independent Samples :
8.4.1 Single group method
8.4.2 The method of equivalent groups matching by pairs.
8.4.3 Groups matched for mean and SD
8.5 Summary
8.6 References
8.7 Further Readings
8.8 Model Questions
8.0 Objectives
 to understand the types of hypotheses
 to understand the types of Errors.
8.1 Introduction
This lesson mainly deals with significance of difference between correlated and
uncorrelated means it also deals with testing of Null hypothesis.
Suppose that we wish to discover whether 20 years old boys and 20 year old girls
differ in numeric ability. We would at first take a large sample of both boys and girls.
Then give them a test of numerical ability find out the means of the two groups on this
test and then find the mean difference. The question is when can we feel reasonably
sure that a difference between two means is large enough, to be taken as real and
dependable? This question involves the standard errors of the two means being
compared. A difference is called significant when the probability is high that it cannot be
attributed to change or accidental factors, and hence represents a true difference
between population means. A difference is insignificant when it appears reasonably
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certain that it could easily have arisen from sampling fluctuations, and hence implies no
true difference between population means.
8.2 The null hypothesis
This is useful tool in testing the significance of difference. This hypothesis asserts
that there is no true difference between populations means, and that the difference
found between two population means is accidental and unimportant.
The SE of the difference between two independent means
Here two situation arise
(i) Those in which means are uncorrelated or independent (Difference Samples)
(j) Those in which means are correlated.
The SE of the difference (D) when means are uncorrelated and samples are large:
D = SEMI 2  SE M 2

Where SEMI=the SE of the mean of the first sample.

SEM2= The SE of the mean of the second sample.
D= The SE of the difference between the two sample means
eg. In a study of abstract reasoning, a sample of 83 12th grade boys and a
sample of 95 12thgrade girls scored as follows on a test of abstract reasoning :
SEX N Mean 
Girls 95 2921 11.56
Boys 83 30.92 7.81

Is the difference in their means significant ?

D= SEM1 2  SEM2 2

 1 7.81
Where SEMI or M1  
N .83
 2 11.56
SEM2 or Μ2  
N2 95
Substituting for the given formula

 7.81  1156 
2 2
D =
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= 2.1415
= 1.46 (to two decimals)
The obtained difference between means of boys and girls = 30.92-29.21=1.71
and D =1.46
 M -M 
M1 -M2  1 2 
t=  D   1.71  1.17
D 1.46
Experimenters and research workers have for convenience chosen several
arbitrary standards called levels of significance of which .05 and .01 levels are most
often used.
At df (N1-1)+(N2 -1)
i.e. (95-1) +(83-1)=94+82=176
at df 176 from Table of t, we see that the value at .05 level is 1.97 and at .01
level it is 2.60.
Our present derived t value of 1.17 falls below both the given values. Hence the
difference of 1.71 between the Boys and Girls must be marked insignificant. In other
words NULL Hypothesis is upheld, which states that no true difference exists between
these two groups since the t value has come out insignificant.
Two tailed and one-tailed tests of insignificance
In many experiments our primary concerns is with the direction of the difference
rather than with its existence in absolute terms e.g. we wish to determine the effect of
additional reading on gain in vocabulary we are interested in the difference in
performance which will be positive in case like these one-tailed test of significance in
appropriate.
When difference can either be positive or negative, so that in determining the
probabilities we take both tails of the sampling distribution. This is a two tailed test, and
is used when we wish to discover whether two groups have been conceivably drawn
from the same population with respect to the trait being measured.
It may be noted that in using the one tailed-test, the experimenter sets up the
hypothesis, he wishes to test before he takes his data. This means that the experiment
is designed at the outset to test hypothesis. If we are interested in simple knowing
whether 2 given groups are different on any given ability, a two-tailed test would be
appropriate. The one-tailed test should be used when we wish to determine the
probability of a score occurring beyond a stated value.
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Errors in making inferences:
In testing hypothesis, two types of wrong inferences can be drawn and must be
reckoned with by the researcher.
These are : TYPE-I ERRORS: These are made when we reject a Null hypothesis
by making a difference significant, although no true difference exists.
TYPE-II ERRORS: These are made when we accept a Null hypostesis by
making a difference not significant, although a true difference actually exists.
8.3 The SE of the difference between means in small independent samples :
When N’ s of two independent samples are small (less than 30), the SE of the
difference between two means should depend upon the SD’s computed by the formula

x 2
 
N-1
and the df must be taken into account by using Table of significance of t.
e.g. An Interest Test is administered to 6 in a Vocational Training Class and to 10
boys in a Latin Class. Is the mean difference between the two groups significant at the
.05 level?
Scores are as follows :
Vocational Class Latin Class
N1 =6 N2=10
Scores X1 X2 Scores X1 X2
28 -2 4 20 -4 16
35 5 25 16 -8 64
32 2 4 25 1 1
24 -6 36 34 10 100
26 -4 16 20 -4 16
35 5 25 28 4 16
6 180 110 31 7 49
M1=30 24 0 0
27 3 9
15 9 81
10 240 352
M2 =24
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110  354
SD or D =  5.74
14

6  10
SED =5.74  5.74  .5164  2.96
60
30  24
t=  2.03
2.96
For df
N1 – 1 = 5
N2 – 1 = 9
Total df = 5+9=14
At 14 given value at .05 level is 2.14 and at .01 level it is 2.98. Since our obtained it
does not reach the .05 level, the obtained mean difference of 6 must be marked “Not
significant”.
8.4 SIGNIFICANT OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TO CORRELATED MEANS
8.4.1 The Single Group Method : When we have to study significance between
correlated means obtained from the same test administered to the same group upon two
occasions we use the Single group method.

SED  2 M1  2 M2  2r12M1  M2
(SE of the difference between correlated means)
Here M1 and M 2 are the SE’s of the initial and final test means and r12 is the
coefficient of correlation between scores made on initial and final test.
eg. INITIAL TEST FINAL TEST
No of children 64 64
Mean Scores 45.00(M1) 50.00(M2)
SD’s 6.00( 5.00(
EM’s .75( .63(

Difference between means 5.00

And between initial and final test .60
Has the class made significant progress during the year.
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This is a one-tailed test, since we are concerned only with progress or gain.

SED  (.75)2  .63  2.  .60  .75  .63  .63

2

5.00
t=  7.9
.63
Since there are sixty-four children, there are 64 pairs of scores, and 64 differences df
=64 -1 =63
From the table for t at df 63 the value at .05 is 2.00 and at .01 level it is 2.66. The
obtained value of 7.9 is greater than both these values and hence can be marked very
significant.
When groups are small the “Difference method” is used :
e.g. Twelve subjects are given 5 successive trials upon a digit-symbol test of which only
the scores for trials 1 and 5 are shown.
Is the mean gain from initial to final trial significant?
Trial 1 Trial 5 Difference (5-1) X X2
50 62 12 4 16
42 40 -2 -10 100
51 61 10 2 4
26 35 9 1 1
35 30 -5 -13 69
42 52 10 2 4
60 68 8 0 0
41 51 10 2 4
70 .84 14 6 36
55 63 8 0 0
62 72 10 2 4
38 50 12 4 16
572 668 12 96 354

Mean = 8

354
SDD =  5.67
11
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5.67
SEMD =  1.64
12
8
t=  4.48
1.64
From Table of t at df at .05 level is 2.20 and at .01 level is 3.11
Our t of 4.88 is far above the .01 level and the men difference of 8 is obviously
very significant.
8.4.2 THE METHOD OF EQUIVALENT GROUPS MATCHING BY PAIRS
Two groups X and Y of seventh grade children 72 in each group are paired child
for child for age and score on Form A of the Otis Group Intelligence Scale. Three weeks
later, both groups are given Form B of the same test. Before the second test, Group Y,
the Control group is given the second test without comment. Will the incentive (Praise)
cause the final scores of Group X and Group Y to differ significantly?
Experimental Group X Control Group Y
No. of Children in each 72 72
Group
Mean Scores on Form A, 80.42 80.51
initial test
SD on Form A, initial Test 23.61 23.46
Mean Scores on Form B, 88.63 (M1) 83.24 (M2)
final test
SD on form B, final test 24.36( 12 24.36( 22

Gain M1-M2=5.39
SEMS Final tests 2.89 2.57

Correlational between final scores

(experimental and control groups =.65

 2.89   2.57   2  .65  2.89  2.57

2 2
D =

=2.30
M.Diff. =88.63-83.24=5.39
5.39
Therefore t =  2.34
2.30
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Entering at df (72-1)=71, table of t values at .05 and .01 levels are 2.00 and 2.65
respectively. The given difference is significant at .05 level but not at .01 level.
8.4.3 Groups matched for mean and SD:
When it is impracticable or impossible to set up groups in which subjects have
been matched person for person, investigators often resort to the matching of groups in
terms of mean and .
The matching variable is usually different from the variable under study but it is,
in general, related to it and sometimes highly related. No attempt is made to pair off
individuals and the two groups are not necessarily of the same size, although a large
difference in N is not advisable.
Suppose that X is the variable under study and Y is the function or variable terms
of which our two groups have been equated at to mean and SD. Then if xy is the
correlation between X and Y in the population from which our samples have been drawn,
the SE of the difference between means in X is

SDDM1-M2   D   M
2
x1 
  2Mx2 . 1  r 2 xy 

(SE of the difference between the X means of groups matched for means and for SD in Y).
An example will illustrate the procedure.
Example (10) The achievement of two groups of first-year high-school boys, the
one from an academic and the other from a technical high school, is compared on a
mechanical Aptitude Test. The two groups are matched for mean and SD upon a
general intelligence test so that the experiment becomes one of the comparing the
mechanical aptitude scores of two groups of boys of “equal” general Intelligence enrolled
in different courses of study. Do the two groups differ in mean ability ?
Academic Technical
No of boys in each group : 125 137
Means on Intelligence Test (Y): 102.50 102.80
’s on Intelligence Test (Y): 88.65 81.62
Means on Mechanical Ability Test (X) : 51.42 54.38
’s on Mechanical Ability Test (X): 6.24 7.14
Correlation between the General Intelligence Test and the Mechanical Ability
Test for first-year high-school boys is .30.
Mx1  Mx2  54.38  51.42  2.96

  6.24 2  7.14 
 2

By (60) D     1  302 
 125 137 

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=.79
2.96
t =  3.75
.79
Again this is a two-tailed test. The difference between the mean scores in
the Mechanical ability Test of the academic and technical high-school boys is 2.96 and
D is .79. The t is 2.96/.79 or 3.75; and the degree of freedom to be used in testing this
t are (125-1) +(137-1)-1, or 259*. We must subtract the one additional df to allow for the
fact that our groups were matched in variable Y. The general rule (P. 194) is that I df is
subtracted for each restriction imposed upon the observation, i.e., for each matching
variables.
Entering Table D with 259 df, We find that our t 3.75 is larger than the entry of
2.59 at the 0.01 level. The observed difference in mechanical aptitude, therefore though
small is highly significant. In rejecting the null hypotesis in this problem we are asserting
that in general boys in the technical high school are higher in mechanical aptitude than
are boys of “equal general intelligence” in the academic high school.
Table D: Correlation Coefficient at the 5% and 1% levels of significance
Example : When N is 52 and df is 50, an r must be .273 to be significant at .05 level, and
.354 to be significant at .01 level.
Degrees of .05 .01 Degrees of .05 .01
freedom (N-2) freedom (N-2)
1 .997 1.000 24 .388 .496
2 .950 .990 25 .381 .487
3 .878 .959 26 .374 .478
4 .811 .917 27 .367 .470
5 .754 .874 28 .361 .463
6 .707 .834 29 .355 .456
7 .666 .798 30 .349 .449
______________________________________________________________________
* when df=259 little is gained by using 1 as the CR.
8 .632 .765 35 .325 .418
9 .602 .735 40 .304 .393
10 .576 .708 45 .288 .372
11 .553 .684 50 .273 .354
12 .532 .661 60 .250 .325
13 .514 .641 70 .232 .302
14 .497 .623 80 .217 .283
15 .482 .606 90 .205 .267
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16 .468 .590 100 .195 .254
17 .456 .575 125 .174 .228
18 .444 .561 150 .159 .208
19 .433 .549 200 .138 .181
20 .423 .537 300 .113 .148
21 .413 .526 400 .098 0.128
22 .404 .515 500 .088 .115
23 .396 .505 1000 .062 .081
.00; and only once in 100 trials would an r as large as  .24 appear if the population r
were .00 (Fig. 49). It is clear that the obtained r of 60, since it is much large than .24 is
highly significant, i.e., at the .01 level.

Table 25 takes account of both ends of the sampling distribution – does not consider the
sign of r, when N=120, the probability (P/2) of an t of .18 or more arising on the null
hypothesis s .025; and the probability of an r of 18 or less is, of course, .025 also. For a
P/2 of .01 (or P of 0.2) the r by linear interpolation between .05 (.18) and .01 (.24) and
.22. On the hypothesis of a population r zero, therefore, only once in 100 trials would a
position r of .22 or larger arise through accidents of sampling.
Table C Conversion of a Peason r into a corresponding Fisher’s Z coefficient *

R Z R Z R Z R Z R Z R Z
.25 .26 .40 .42 .55 .62 .70 .87 .85 1.26 .950 1.83
.26 .27 .41 .44 .56 .63 .71 .89 .86 1.29 .954 1.89
.27 .28 .42 .45 .57 .65 .72 .91 .87 1.33 .960 1.95
.28 .29 .43 .46 .58 .66 .73 .93 .88 1.38 .965 2.01
.29 .30 .44 .47 .59 .68 .74 .95 .89 1.42 .970 2.09
.30 .31 .45 .48 .60 .69 .75 .97 .90 1.47 .975 2.18
.31 .32 .46 .50 .61 .71 .76 1.00 .905 1.50 .980 2.30
.32 .33 .47 .51 .62 .73 .77 1.02 .910 1.53 .985 2.44
.33 .34 .48 .52 .63 .74 .78 1.05 .915 1.56 .990 2.65
.34 .35 .49 .54 .64 .76 .79 1.07 .920 1.59 .995 2.99
.35 .37 .50 .55 .65 .78 .80 1.10 .925 1.62
.36 .38 .51 .56 .66 .79 .81 1.13 .930 1.66
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.37 .39 .52 .58 .67 .81 .82 1.16 .935 1.70
.38 .40 .53 .59 .68 .83 .83 1.19 .940 1.74
.39 .41 .54 .60 .69 .85 .84 1.22 .945 1.78
*r’ s under .25 may be taken as equivalent to z’s .
Table of t, for use in determining the significance of statistics
Example : When the df are 35 and t=2.03, the .05 in column 3 means that 5 times in 100
trials a divergence as large as that obtained my be expected in the positive and negative
directions under the null hypothesis.
Degrees of 0.10 Probability (P) 0.02 0.01
Freedom 0.05
1 t= 6.34 t=12.71 t=31.82 t=63.66
2 2.92 4.30 6.96 9.92
3 2.35 3.18 4.54 5.84
4 2.13 2.78 3.75 4.60
5 2.02 2.57 3.36 4.03
6 1.94 2.45 3.14 3.71
7 1.90 2.36 3.00 3.50
8 1.86 2.31 2.90 3.36
9 1.83 2.26 2.82 3.25
10 1.81 2.23 2.76 3.17
11 1.80 2.20 2.72 3.11
12 1.78 2.18 2.68 3.06

13 1.77 2.16 2.65 3.01

14 1.76 2.14 2.62 2.98
15 1.75 2.13 2.60 2.95
16 1.75 2.12 2.58 2.92
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17 1.74 2.11 2.57 2.90
18 1.73 2.10 2.55 2.88
19 1.73 2.09 2.54 2.86
20 1.72 2.09 2.53 2.84
21 1.72 2.08 2.52 2.83
22 1.72 2.07 2.51 2.82
23 1.71 2.07 2.50 2.81
24 1.71 2.06 2.49 2.80
25 1.71 2.06 2.48 2.79
26 1.71 2.06 2.48 2.78
27 1.70 2.05 2.47 2.77
28 1.70 2.05 2.47 2.76
29 1.70 2.04 2.46 2.76
30 1.70 2.04 2.46 2.75
35 1.69 2.03 2.44 2.72
40 1.68 2.02 2.42 2.71
45 1.68 2.02 2.41 2.69
50 1.68 2.01 2.40 2.68
60 1.67 2.00 2.39 2.66
70 1.67 2.00 2.38 2.65
80 1.66 1.99 2.38 2.64
90 1.66 1.99 2.37 2.63
100 1.66 1.98 2.36 2.63
125 1.66 1.98 2.36 2.62
150 1.66 1.98 2.35 2.61
200 1.65 1.97 2.35 2.60
300 1.65 1.97 2.34 2.59
400 1.65 1.97 2.34 2.59
500 1.65 1.96 2.33 2.59
1000 1.65 1.96 2.33 2.58
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 1.65 1.96 2.33 2.58

Self Assessment Questions

1. Null Hypothesis connotes no true difference between two population means.
(yes/ No)
2. Two types of Errors in deriving inferences are?

Answers :
1. Yes 2. Type I & Type II errors
8.5 Summary
In this lesson we conclude that significance of difference between means can be
computed of correlated and uncorrelated means.It also helps one to understand the
concept of hypothesis testing.
8.6 References
1. Garrett, H.E. (1966). Statistics in Psychology and Education, New Delhi : Vakils,
Fetter, and Simons.
2. Mangal, S. K. (2002). Statistics in Psychology and Education, PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
8.7 Further Readings
1. Singh, A.K. (1986). Tests, Measurements and research methods in behavioural
sciences, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of behavioral research : Educational,
Psychological and Sociological inquiry, Holt Rinehart and Winston.
8.8 Model Questions
1. What is the method of equivalent groups matching by pairs.
2. Define Null Hypothesis.
_________________________