Integrated circuit

An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip

or simply chip, is a compact assembly of electronic circuits
formed from various electronic components — such as
transistors, resistors, and capacitors — and their
interconnections.[1] These components are fabricated onto
a thin, flat piece ("chip") of semiconductor material, most
commonly silicon.[1] Integrated circuits are integral to a
wide variety of electronic devices — including computers,
smartphones, and televisions — performing functions such
as data processing, control, and storage. They have
transformed the field of electronics by enabling device
miniaturization, improving performance, and reducing A microscope image of an integrated
circuit die used to control LCDs. The
cost.
pinouts are the dark circles surrounding
the integrated circuit.
Compared to assemblies built from discrete components,
integrated circuits are orders of magnitude smaller, faster,
more energy-efficient, and less expensive, allowing for a very high transistor count.

The IC’s capability for mass production, its high reliability, and the standardized, modular
approach of integrated circuit design facilitated rapid replacement of designs using discrete
transistors. Today, ICs are present in virtually all electronic devices and have revolutionized
modern technology. Products such as computer processors, microcontrollers, digital signal
processors, and embedded chips in home appliances are foundational to contemporary society due
to their small size, low cost, and versatility.

Very-large-scale integration was made practical by technological advancements in semiconductor

device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity of chips have
progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more transistors on chips
of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of transistors in an area the size of a
human fingernail. These advances, roughly following Moore's law, make the computer chips of
today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer
chips of the early 1970s.

ICs have three main advantages over circuits constructed out of discrete components: size, cost
and performance. The size and cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed
as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore,
packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the IC's
components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their small size and
proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high initial cost of designing them and the
enormous capital cost of factory construction. This high initial cost means ICs are only
commercially viable when high production volumes are anticipated.
Terminology
An integrated circuit (IC) is formally defined as:[2]

A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and
electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of
construction and commerce.

In its strict sense, the term refers to a single-piece circuit construction — originally called a
monolithic integrated circuit — consisting of an entire circuit built on a single piece of silicon.[3][4]
In general usage, the designation "integrated circuit" can also apply to circuits that do not meet
this strict definition, and which may be constructed using various technologies such as 3D IC, 2.5D
IC, MCM, thin-film transistors, thick-film technology, or hybrid integrated circuits. This
distinction in terminology is often relevant in debates on whether Moore's law remains applicable.

History

The first integrated circuits

A precursor concept to the IC was the development of
small ceramic substrates, known as micromodules,[5] each
containing a single miniaturized electronic component.
Jack Kilby’s original integrated circuit —
These modules could then be assembled and
the first in the world — made from
interconnected into a two- or three-dimensional compact germanium with gold-wire interconnects.
grid. The idea, considered highly promising in 1957, was
proposed to the U.S. Army by Jack Kilby,[5] leading to the
short-lived Micromodule Program (similar in spirit to
1951's Project Tinkertoy).[5][6][7] However, as the project
gained traction, Kilby devised a fundamentally new
approach: the integrated circuit itself.

Newly employed by Texas Instruments, Kilby recorded his

initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958,
successfully demonstrating the first working example of an Robert Noyce invented the first
[8]
integrated circuit on 12 September 1958. In his patent monolithic integrated circuit in 1959. The
application of 6 February 1959,[9] Kilby described his new chip was made from silicon.
device as "a body of semiconductor material … wherein all
the components of the electronic circuit are completely
integrated".[10] The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force.[11] Kilby won the
2000 Nobel Prize in physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit.[12]

However, Kilby's invention was not a true monolithic integrated circuit chip, as it relied on
external gold-wire connections, making large-scale production impractical.[13] About six months
later, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed the first practical monolithic IC
chip.[14][13] The monolithic integrated circuit chip was enabled by the inventions of the planar
process by Jean Hoerni and of p–n junction isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's invention was
built on Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick's work on surface protection and passivation by silicon
dioxide masking and predeposition,[15][16][17] as well as Fuller, Ditzenberger's and others work on
the diffusion of impurities into silicon.[18][19][20][21][22]

Unlike Kilby's germanium-based design, Noyce's version was fabricated from silicon using the
planar process by his colleague Jean Hoerni, which allowed reliable on-chip aluminum
interconnections. Modern IC chips are based on Noyce's monolithic design,[14][13] rather than
Kilby's early prototype.

NASA's Apollo Program was the largest single consumer of integrated circuits between 1961 and
1965.[23]

TTL integrated circuits

Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was developed by James L. Buie in the early 1960s at TRW Inc.
TTL became the dominant integrated circuit technology during the 1970s to early 1980s.[24]

Use of dozens of TTL integrated circuits was the standard

method of construction for the processors of
minicomputers and mainframe computers. Computers
such as IBM 360 mainframes, PDP-11 minicomputers and
the desktop Datapoint 2200 were built from bipolar
integrated circuits,[25] either TTL or the faster emitter-
coupled logic (ECL).

MOS integrated circuits

Modern integrated circuits (ICs) are based on the metal–
oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET),
forming MOS ICs.[26] The MOSFET was developed at Bell
Labs between 1955 and 1960,[15][27][16][28][29][30][17]
enabling the creation of high-density ICs.[31] Unlike
bipolar transistors, which required additional steps for p–n
junction isolation, MOSFETs could be easily isolated from
Dov Frohman, an Israeli electrical
one another without such measures.[32] This advantage for
engineer who developed the EPROM in
integrated circuits was first highlighted by Dawon Kahng
1969–1971
in 1961.[33] The list of IEEE Milestones includes Kilby's
first IC in 1958,[34] Hoerni's planar process and Noyce's
planar IC in 1959.[35]

The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman
and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[36] General Microelectronics later introduced the first
commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964,[37] a 120-transistor shift register developed by Robert
Norman.[36] By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing
costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's
law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by
the late 1960s.[38]
Following the development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET by Robert Kerwin,
Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967,[39] the first silicon-gate MOS IC technology
with self-aligned gates, the basis of all modern CMOS integrated circuits, was developed at
Fairchild Semiconductor by Federico Faggin in 1968.[40] The application of MOS LSI chips to
computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a
complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. This led to the
inventions of the microprocessor and the microcontroller by the early 1970s.[38] During the early
1970s, MOS integrated circuit technology enabled the very large-scale integration (VLSI) of more
than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.[41]

At first, MOS-based computers only made sense when high density was required, such as
aerospace and pocket calculators. Computers built entirely from TTL, such as the 1970 Datapoint
2200, were much faster and more powerful than single-chip MOS microprocessors, such as the
1972 Intel 8008, until the early 1980s.[25]

Advances in IC technology, primarily smaller features and larger chips, have allowed the number
of MOS transistors in an integrated circuit to double every two years, a trend known as Moore's
law. Moore originally stated it would double every year, but he went on to change the claim to
every two years in 1975.[42] This increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and increase
functionality. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost every aspect of an IC's operation
improves. The cost per transistor and the switching power consumption per transistor goes down,
while the memory capacity and speed go up, through the relationships defined by Dennard scaling
(MOSFET scaling).[43] Because speed, capacity, and power consumption gains are apparent to the
end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. Over the
years, transistor sizes have decreased from tens of microns in the early 1970s to 10 nanometers in
2017[44] with a corresponding million-fold increase in transistors per unit area. As of 2016, typical
chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 600 mm2, with up to 25 million
transistors per mm2.[45]

The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for
many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The final ITRS
was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and
Systems.[46]

Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of other
technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost. These
technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.

Charge-coupled devices, and the closely related active-pixel sensors, are chips that are
sensitive to light. They have largely replaced photographic film in scientific, medical, and
consumer applications. Billions of these devices are now produced each year for applications
such as cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won the Nobel Prize in
2009.[47]
Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a technology
known as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). These devices were developed in the late
1980s[48] and are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Examples include
DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers and MEMS gyroscopes used to deploy
automobile airbags.
Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into silicon
chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the
successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical
 devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS based electronics.[49] Photonic integrated
circuits that use light such as Lightelligence's PACE (Photonic Arithmetic Computing Engine)
also being developed, using the emerging field of physics known as photonics.[50]
Integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants or
other bioelectronic devices.[51] Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such biogenic
environments to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor materials.[52]
As of 2018, the vast majority of all transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a single layer on one side
of a chip of silicon in a flat two-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced prototypes
of several promising alternatives, such as:

various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a three-dimensional

integrated circuit (3DIC), such as through-silicon via, "monolithic 3D",[53] stacked wire
bonding,[54] and other methodologies.
transistors built from other materials: graphene transistors, molybdenite transistors, carbon
nanotube field-effect transistor, gallium nitride transistor, transistor-like nanowire electronic
devices, organic field-effect transistor, etc.
fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon.[55][56]
modifications to the substrate, typically to make "flexible transistors" for a flexible display or
other flexible electronics, possibly leading to a roll-away computer.
As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using multi-
chip modules/chiplets, three-dimensional integrated circuits, package on package, High
Bandwidth Memory and through-silicon vias with die stacking to increase performance and reduce
size, without having to reduce the size of the transistors. Such techniques are collectively known as
advanced packaging.[57] Advanced packaging is mainly divided into 2.5D and 3D packaging. 2.5D
describes approaches such as multi-chip modules while 3D describes approaches where dies are
stacked in one way or another, such as package on package and high bandwidth memory. All
approaches involve 2 or more dies in a single package.[58][59][60][61][62] Alternatively, approaches
such as 3D NAND stack multiple layers on a single die. A technique has been demonstrated to
include microfluidic cooling on integrated circuits, to improve cooling performance[63] as well as
peltier thermoelectric coolers on solder bumps, or thermal solder bumps used exclusively for heat
dissipation, used in flip-chip.[64][65]

Design
The cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the
multiple tens of millions of dollars.[66][67] Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce
integrated circuit products with high production volume, so the non-recurring engineering (NRE)
costs are spread across typically millions of production units.

Modern semiconductor chips have billions of components, and are far too complex to be designed
by hand. Software tools to help the designer are essential. Electronic design automation (EDA),
also referred to as electronic computer-aided design (ECAD),[68] is a category of software tools for
designing electronic systems, including integrated circuits. The tools work together in a design flow
that engineers use to design, verify, and analyze entire semiconductor chips. Some of the latest
EDA tools use artificial intelligence (AI) to help engineers save time and improve chip
performance.
Types
Integrated circuits can be broadly classified into analog,[69]
digital[70] and mixed signal,[71] consisting of analog and
digital signaling on the same IC.

Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[45] of logic

gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few
square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows Virtual detail of an integrated circuit
high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced through four layers of planarized copper
interconnect, down to the polysilicon
manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration.
(pink), wells (greyish), and substrate
These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and (green)
microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to process "one" and
"zero" signals.

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the

microprocessors or "cores", used in personal computers,
cell-phones, etc. Several cores may be integrated together
in a single IC or chip. Digital memory chips and
application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are
examples of other families of integrated circuits.

In the 1980s, programmable logic devices were developed.

These devices contain circuits whose logical function and
connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than A-to-D converter IC in a DIP
being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This
allows a chip to be programmed to do various LSI-type
functions such as logic gates, adders and registers.
Programmability comes in various forms – devices that can
be programmed only once, devices that can be erased and
then re-programmed using UV light, devices that can be
(re)programmed using flash memory, and field-
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which can be
programmed at any time, including during operation.
Current FPGAs can (as of 2016) implement the equivalent
of millions of gates and operate at frequencies up to 1
GHz.[72] The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit
NMOS microcontroller that includes a
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of
and operational amplifiers (op-amps), process continuous RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in
signals, and perform analog functions such as the same chip

amplification, active filtering, demodulation, and mixing.

ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to create functions such as analog-to-digital
converters and digital-to-analog converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower
cost, but must account for signal interference. Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be
fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, radio chips
have been developed using RF CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or
802.11 (Wi-Fi) chips created by Atheros and other companies.[73]
Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits:

Digital ICs are categorized as logic ICs (such as microprocessors and microcontrollers),
memory chips (such as MOS memory and floating-gate memory), interface ICs (level shifters,
serializer/deserializer, etc.), power management ICs, and programmable devices.
Analog ICs are categorized as linear integrated circuits and RF circuits (radio frequency
circuits).
Mixed-signal integrated circuits are categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D
converters, D/A converters, digital potentiometers), clock/timing ICs, switched capacitor (SC)
circuits, and RF CMOS circuits.
Three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) are categorized into through-silicon via (TSV)
ICs and Cu-Cu connection ICs.

Manufacturing

Fabrication
The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical
elements were identified as the most likely materials for a
solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide,
proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were
systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today,
monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ICs
although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such
as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications
like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed
integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of
creating crystals with minimal defects in semiconducting
materials' crystal structure.
Rendering of a small standard cell with
Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a planar process
three metal layers (dielectric has been
which includes three key process steps – photolithography, removed). The sand-colored structures
deposition (such as chemical vapor deposition), and are metal interconnect, with the vertical
etching. The main process steps are supplemented by pillars being contacts, typically plugs of
doping and cleaning. More recent or high-performance ICs tungsten. The reddish structures are
may instead use multi-gate FinFET or GAAFET transistors polysilicon gates, and the solid at the
instead of planar ones, starting at the 22 nm node (Intel) bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk.

or 16/14 nm nodes.[74]

Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for special applications, other
semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely silicon.
Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have
polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them. Dopants
are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its electronic properties.
Doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material.

Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by

photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various
dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional
ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (doped polysilicon or metal
 layers), and some define the connections between the
conducting layers (via or contact layers). All
components are constructed from a specific
combination of these layers.
In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed
wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a
diffusion layer (this is called "the self-aligned
gate").[75]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1)
Capacitive structures, in form very much like the
parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical
capacitor, are formed according to the area of the
"plates", with insulating material between the plates.
Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on
ICs.
Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes
used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic
circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the
length of the resistive structure to its width, combined
with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance.
More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-
chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition built in the early 2000s. The graphic
shows LDD-MISFET's on an SOI
between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less
substrate with five metallization layers
current than bipolar junction transistor devices.
and solder bump for flip-chip bonding. It
also shows the section for FEOL (front-
Random-access memory (RAM) is the most regular type of
end of line), BEOL (back-end of line) and
integrated circuit; the highest-density ICs are therefore first parts of back-end process.
memories, although even a microprocessor typically
includes on-chip memory. (See the regular array structure
at the bottom of the first image.) Although device structures are highly intricate—with feature
widths that have been shrinking for decades—the material layers remain much thinner than the
lateral dimensions of the devices. These layers are fabricated using a process analogous to
photolithography, but light in the visible spectrum cannot be used for patterning, as its
wavelengths are too large. Instead, ultraviolet (UV) photons of shorter wavelength are employed to
expose each layer. Because the features are so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a
process engineer working on fabrication process debugging.

Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a procedure
known as wafer testing or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each known
as a die. Each functional die (plural dice, dies, or die) is connected into a package using aluminium
(or gold) bond wires, which are attached by thermosonic bonding.[76] Thermosonic bonding, first
introduced by A. Coucoulas, provided a reliable means of forming electrical connections between
the die and the outside world. After packaging, devices undergo final testing on the same or similar
ATE used during wafer probing. In addition, industrial CT scanning can be employed for
inspection. Test cost can account for over 25% of total fabrication cost for low-cost products, but is
relatively negligible for low-yielding, larger, or higher-cost devices.

As of 2022, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab) can cost over US$12
billion to construct.[77] The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time because of increased
complexity of new products; this is known as Rock's law. Such a facility features:

The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).

 As of 2022, 5 nm transistors.
Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects.
Low-κ dielectric insulators.
Silicon on insulator (SOI).
Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as Strained silicon directly on insulator
(SSDOI).
Multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors.
ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using the
foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that design,
manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing (foundry) services
to other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry model, fabless
companies (like Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing to pure play
foundries such as TSMC. These foundries may offer IC design services.

Packaging
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic
flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for
many years due to their reliability and compact size.
Commercial packaging rapidly shifted to the dual in-line
package (DIP) — first in ceramic, later in plastic, typically a
cresol–formaldehyde–novolac resin.

In the 1980s, the pin count of VLSI circuits exceeded the

practical limit of DIP packaging, leading to the adoption of
pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC)
A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in 1977,
packages. Surface-mount technology (SMT) emerged in the part of a four-chip calculator set designed
early 1980s and gained popularity by the late 1980s, in 1970.[78]
offering finer lead pitch and using leads formed as either
gull-wing or J-lead. A common example is the small-
outline integrated circuit (SOIC) package — which occupies about 30–50% less board area than an
equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner — featuring gull-wing leads extending from its two
long sides with a standard lead spacing of 0.050 inches.

By the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-outline package (TSOP) designs
became the most common for high pin-count devices, though PGA packages remain in use for
high-performance microprocessors.

Ball grid array (BGA) packaging has existed since the 1970s. The flip-chip BGA (FCBGA),
developed in the 1990s, enables much higher pin counts than most other package types. In an
FCBGA, the die is mounted upside-down and connected to the package balls through a substrate
similar to a printed circuit board, rather than by bonding wires. This design allows an array of
input/output (I/O) connections — called Area-I/O — to be distributed across the entire die instead
of being limited to its edges. While BGA devices eliminate the need for a dedicated socket, they are
significantly more difficult to replace if they fail.

Intel transitioned away from PGA to land grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in 2004, with the
last PGA socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018, AMD uses PGA packages on
mainstream desktop processors,[79] BGA packages on mobile processors,[80] and high-end desktop
and server microprocessors use LGA packages.[81]

Electrical signals leaving the die must pass through the material electrically connecting the die to
the package, through the conductive traces (paths) in the package, through the leads connecting
the package to the conductive traces on the printed circuit board. The materials and structures
used in the path these electrical signals must travel have very different electrical properties,
compared to those that travel to different parts of the same die. As a result, they require special
design techniques to ensure the signals are not corrupted, and much more electric power than
signals confined to the die itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a system in package, abbreviated SiP. A
multi-chip module (MCM), is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often made
of ceramic. The distinction between a large MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes
fuzzy.

Packaged integrated circuits are usually large enough to include identifying information. Four
common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch
number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was manufactured.
Extremely small surface-mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a
manufacturer's lookup table to find the integrated circuit's characteristics.

The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week
code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or
approximately in October 1983.

Intellectual property
The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing
photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the
introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip
Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce
integrated circuits.[82]

A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C., in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual

Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits,[83] also called the Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty.
The treaty is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPS agreement.[84]

There are several United States patents connected to the integrated circuit, which include patents
by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3138743), US3,261,081 (https://
patents.google.com/patent/US3261081), US3,434,015 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US343
4015) and by R.F. Stewart US3,138,747 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3138747).

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, including
Japan,[85] the EC,[86] the UK, Australia, and Korea. The UK enacted the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, c. 48, § 213, after it initially took the position that its copyright law fully
protected chip topographies. See British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co.

Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are
summarized in further chip rights developments.[87]
Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection.[88] Korea
passed the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in 1992.[89]

Generations
In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to only
a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively simple.
Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. As metal–oxide–semiconductor
(MOS) technology progressed, the size of individual transistors shrank rapidly. By the 1980s,
millions of MOS transistors could be placed on one chip,[90] and good designs required thorough
planning, giving rise to the field of electronic design automation, or EDA. Some SSI and MSI chips,
like discrete transistors, are still mass-produced, both to maintain old equipment and build new
devices that require only a few gates. The 7400 series of TTL chips, for example, has become a de
facto standard and remains in production.

Acronym Name Year Transistor count[91] Logic gates number[92]

SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12

MSI medium-scale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99

LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999

VLSI very large-scale integration 1980 20 000 to 1 000 000 10 000 to 99 999

ULSI ultra-large-scale integration 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more

Small-scale integration (SSI)

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing tens
of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the
Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated circuit
has increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first used by
IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[93] that term gave rise to the
terms "small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large-scale
integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were
SSI.

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire
development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed
lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance
Computer led and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[94] it was the Minuteman missile that
forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United States
Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968,
U.S. Government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total
production.

The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs
fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the industrial market and eventually the consumer
market. The average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968.[95]
Integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the 1970s decade. A typical
application was FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.

The first application MOS chips were small-scale integration (SSI) chips.[96] Following Mohamed
M. Atalla's proposal of the MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960,[97] the earliest experimental MOS
chip to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in
1962.[36] The first practical application of MOS SSI chips was for NASA satellites.[96]

Medium-scale integration (MSI)

The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained
hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).

MOSFET scaling technology made it possible to build high-density chips.[31] By 1964, MOS chips
had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips.[38]

In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with a then-
incredible 120 MOS transistors on a single chip.[96][98] The same year, General Microelectronics
introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120 p-channel MOS
transistors.[37] It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman[36] and Frank
Wanlass.[99][100] MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law,
leading to chips with hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip by the late 1960s.[38]

Large-scale integration (LSI)

Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors, led to
"large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.[101]

The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as the
microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape or
similar.[102] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by
specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a team of
engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness and
completeness of each mask.

Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began
to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000 transistors. True
LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer
main memories and second-generation microprocessors.

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)

"Very-large-scale integration" (VLSI) is a development that started with hundreds of thousands of
transistors in the early 1980s. As of 2023, maximum transistor counts continue to grow beyond 5.3
trillion transistors per chip.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to
smaller MOSFET design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities. The path of process improvements
was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), which has
since been succeeded by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS). Electronic
design tools improved, making it practical to finish designs
in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient CMOS
replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase
in power consumption. The complexity and density of
modern VLSI devices made it no longer feasible to check
the masks or do the original design by hand. Instead,
engineers use EDA tools to perform most functional
verification work.[103]

In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips

were introduced, containing more than one million
transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-
transistor mark in 1989, and the billion-transistor mark in
Upper interconnect layers on an Intel
2005.[104] The trend continues largely unabated, with
80486DX2 microprocessor die
chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of
memory transistors.[105]

ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC

To reflect the continuing increase in complexity, the term ULSI ("ultra-large-scale integration")
was introduced for chips containing more than one million transistors.[106] Wafer-scale integration
(WSI) is a technique for creating very large integrated circuits by using an entire silicon wafer to
fabricate a single "super-chip." By combining large size with reduced packaging, WSI offered the
potential for significantly lower costs in certain applications, most notably massively parallel
supercomputers. The term itself was derived from Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI), which
represented the state of the art at the time WSI was under development.[107][108]

A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a
computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex
and costly, and whilst performance benefits can be had from integrating all needed components on
one die, the cost of licensing and developing a one-die machine still outweigh having separate
devices. With appropriate licensing, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and
assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are
kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging).[109] Further, signal sources and
destinations are physically closer on die, reducing the length of wiring and therefore latency,
transmission power costs and waste heat from communication between modules on the same chip.
This has led to an exploration of so-called Network-on-Chip (NoC) devices, which apply system-
on-chip design methodologies to digital communication networks as opposed to traditional bus
architectures.

A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic
components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit.
Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than
in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall
wire length for faster operation.[110]
Silicon labeling and graffiti
To allow identification during production, most silicon chips will have a serial number in one
corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip
designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words.
These artistic additions, often created with great attention to detail, showcase the designers'
creativity and add a touch of personality to otherwise utilitarian components. These are sometimes
referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.[111]

ICs and IC families

The 555 timer IC
The Operational amplifier
7400-series integrated circuits
4000-series integrated circuits, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00
series)
Intel 4004, generally regarded as the first commercially available microprocessor, which led to
the 8008, the famous 8080 CPU, the 8086, 8088 (used in the original IBM PC), and the fully-
backward compatible (with the 8088/8086) 80286, 80386/i386, i486, etc.
The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of
the early 1980s
The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series
(the 68000 series was very successful and was used in the Apple Lisa and pre-PowerPC-
based Macintosh, Commodore Amiga, Atari ST/TT/Falcon030, and NeXT families of
computers, along with many models of workstations and servers from many manufacturers in
the 80s, along with many other systems and devices)
The LM-series of analog integrated circuits

See also

Electronics portal

Physics portal

Technology portal
Telecommunication
portal
Engineering portal
History of science
portal
Companies portal
Computer
programming
portal
Telephones portal

Central processing unit

 Chip carrier
CHIPS and Science Act
Chipset
Czochralski method
Dark silicon
Ion implantation
Integrated injection logic
Integrated passive devices
Interconnect bottleneck
Heat generation in integrated circuits
High-temperature operating life
Microelectronics
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
Multi-threshold CMOS
Silicon–germanium
Sound chip
SPICE
Thermal simulations for integrated circuits
Hybrot

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Further reading
Veendrick, H.J.M. (2025). Nanometer CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs. Springer. ISBN 978-3-
031-64248-7. OCLC 1463505655 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1463505655).
Baker, R.J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation (3rd ed.). Wiley-IEEE.
ISBN 978-0-470-88132-3. OCLC 699889340 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/699889340).
Marsh, Stephen P. (2006). Practical MMIC design. Artech House. ISBN 978-1-59693-036-0.
OCLC 1261968369 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1261968369).
Camenzind, Hans (2005). Designing Analog Chips (https://web.archive.org/web/201706120559
24/http://www.designinganalogchips.com/_count/designinganalogchips.pdf) (PDF). Virtual
 Bookworm. ISBN 978-1-58939-718-7. OCLC 926613209 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9266
13209). Archived from the original (http://www.designinganalogchips.com/_count/designinganal
ogchips.pdf) (PDF) on 12 June 2017. "Hans Camenzind invented the 555 timer"
Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh, Resve (2003). Analysis and Design of Digital
Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-228365-5. OCLC 840380650 (https://search.w
orldcat.org/oclc/840380650).
Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic, B. (2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (https://archive.o
rg/details/agilesoftwaredev00robe) (2nd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-090996-1.
OCLC 893541089 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/893541089).
Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1991). Introduction to VLSI systems (https://archive.org/details/in
troductiontovl00mead). Addison Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7.
OCLC 634332043 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/634332043).

External links
The first monolithic integrated circuits (https://web.archive.org/web/20120319150151/http://hom
epages.nildram.co.uk/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm)
A large chart listing ICs by generic number (https://rtellason.com/ic-generic.html) including
access to most of the datasheets for the parts.
The History of the Integrated Circuit (https://web.archive.org/web/20170702192457/http://www.
nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/history/)

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