CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Water is crucial for the survival of life on Earth. However, it can also become a
carrier for dangerous substances and harmful organisms, posing significant health risks to
humans through various means. Over the past few decades, factors such as human
development, population growth, extreme weather events, natural disasters, and climate
change have placed immense pressures on both the quality and quantity of water resources.
These pressures can have a direct impact on the conditions that foster water-related diseases
(Lewin et al., 2017; Fenwick, 2016).
In 2017, the Sustainable Development Goal aimed to ensure that water and sanitation
would be available and sustainably managed for everyone by 2030 (United Nations, 2015).
However, on a global scale, around 780 million people still lack access to safe water, and
approximately 2.5 billion people in the developing world live without adequate sanitation
facilities (Agingu, 2020; Bidhuri et al., 2018). The presence of polluted water and inadequate
sanitation practices exposes individuals to various health risks. The presence of newly
emerging waterborne pathogens poses a significant health risk in both developed and
developing countries (Sharma et al., 2023) as they have the potential to spread rapidly and
impact large portions of the population. Waterborne diseases are transmitted through the
consumption of contaminated drinking water, which contains microorganisms such as
protozoa, viruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites.
According to projections from the Global Burden of Disease report, waterborne
diseases were the second leading cause of mortality in 1990, but by 2020, they had dropped
to the ninth most significant cause of death (Murray et al., 2016). It is estimated that
approximately 829,000 people die each year from diarrheal diseases, including cholera,
dysentery, and typhoid fever, primarily due to the consumption of unsafe drinking water and
poor sanitation practices (Prüss-Ustün et al., 2014).
Furthermore, according to the World Health Organization (2015), approximately 6.3
percent of deaths are attributed to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygiene. The
provision of adequate, safe, and accessible water supplies, as well as satisfactory sanitation
facilities, is crucial for maintaining a healthy population. The WHO (2015) also states that
nearly 4 percent of the global disease burden could be prevented by improving water supply,
sanitation, and hygiene (WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, & Sanitation Monitoring
Programme, 2015).
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Safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) play a fundamental role in improving
living standards for individuals. The benefits of improved WASH practices include enhanced
physical health, environmental protection, better educational outcomes, time savings, the
assurance of dignified living, and equal treatment for all genders. Populations that are poor
and vulnerable often have limited access to improved WASH services and exhibit poorer
hygiene behaviors. Therefore, improving WASH conditions is crucial in reducing poverty,
promoting equality, and supporting socioeconomic development (Hutton & Chase, 2017).
Shortage of clean water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and basic hygiene is a
common phenomenon especially in developing countries. This shortage and inadequate water
is however connected to contamination. All biological organisms depend on water to carry
out complex biochemical processes which aid in the sustenance of life on each. Water is vital
to the existence of all living organisms, but this valued resource is increasingly being
threatened as human populations grow and demand more water of high quality for domestic
purposes and economic activities (UNEPGEMS, 2020). The significance of water to human
and other biological systems cannot be over emphasized, and there are numerous scientific
and economic facts that, water shortage or its pollution can cause severe decrease in
productivity and deaths of living species (sGarba 2018; 2020). Clean and plentiful water
provides lie foundation for prosperous communities.
Over 70 percent of the earth’s surface materials consists of water and a part from the
air that is very important for respiration in human, water is equally significant to human
existence. Although, water is abundant on earth, only 2.53 percent is fresh water while the
remaining is saltwater (UNESCO, 2023). The world water council also records that of the 3
percent of fresh water, only 0.3 percent is found in rivers and lakes, the rest being frozen
(World Water Council, 2015).This suggests that man has a relatively low amount of fresh
water resources with which he carry out his activities. Unfortunately, man’s influence has
begun to degrade the fresh water resources available for his development.
Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and
revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifer and
wells). It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and disease and
that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (West, 2016; Pink, 2016).
Over the last years, in many African countries a considerable population growth has taken
place accompanied by a steep increase in urbanization, industrial and agricultural land use.
This has entailed a tremendous increase in discharge of a wide diversity of pollutants to

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receiving water bodies and has caused undesirable effects on the different components of the
aquatic environment and on Fisheries (Saad, 2020).
The quality of any body of surface or ground water is a function of either or both
natural influences and human activities (Kolawole, 2018). Reports by Food and Agricultural
Organization (WHO) of U.S.A revealed that in African countries, particularly Nigeria, water
related diseases had been interfering with basic human development (FAO, 2017). According
to Galadima (2021) the common sources of water that are available to local communities in
Nigeria are fast being severed by a number of anthropogenic factors, of which pollution
remain most dominant problem. Water pollution occurs when unwanted materials with
potentials to threaten human and other natural systems find their ways into rivers, lakes,
wells, streams, boreholes or even reserved fresh water in homes and industries.
In Nigeria today research indicates that, majority of the common fresh Water sources
are polluted, resulting to serious outbreak of these and other diseases. A study by Umeh
(2014) as cited from Galadima (2021) work showed that 48% of the people in Katsina-Ala
Local Government area of Benue state are affected by urinary schistosomiasis, due to
increase in water pollution index. According to WHO/UNICEF, clean water, basic toilets and
good hygiene practices are essential for the survival and development of children, around 2.4
billion people auto do not use improved sanitation, and 663 million who do not have access
to improved water source.
Water related disease encompasses illness resulting from both direct and indirect
exposure to water, whether by consumption or by skin exposure during bathing or
recreational water use. It includes disease due to waterborne for water-associated pathogen:
and toxic substances. A broader definition includes illness related to water shortage or water
contamination during adverse climate events, such as floods and droughts, diseases related
vectors with part of their life cycle in water habitats; and disease related to inhalation of
contaminated it water aerosols. The importance of implementing effective hygienic practices
in the prevention and control of waterborne infections cannot be overstated.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The impact of contaminated water on morbidity and mortality is substantial and requires
measures to improve the safety of drinking water (World Health Organization (WHO), 2020;
Pandey et al., 2014). Water pollution, open defecation, and poor hygiene practices serve as
major obstacles to achieving good health. Therefore, ensuring the availability of safe and

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accessible water is crucial for public health, whether it is used for drinking, domestic
purposes, food production, or recreational activities.
Preventing waterborne diseases can be achieved through adequate access to safe
water, improving the quality of water sources, treating and storing household water, and
promoting hygiene practices. With the global population increasing rapidly, the availability
of water is expected to decrease steadily (WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, & Sanitation
Monitoring Programme, 2015).
Individuals with weakened immune systems, particularly children and the elderly, are
more vulnerable to waterborne diarrheal diseases caused by pathogens (Pal et al., 2018). This
emphasizes the significance of hygienic practices in the prevention and control of waterborne
diseases. Hence, this study aims to contribute to a better understanding of the role of hygienic
practices in preventing waterborne infections.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. Main Objective
The main objective of this study is to assess the importance of hygienic practices in the
prevention and control of waterborne infections in Eleyele Community, Ibadan North West
Local Government Area, Ibadan, Oyo State.
1.3.2. Specific Objectives
The following are specific objectives the study:
i. To evaluate the current hygiene practices in Eleyele Community.
ii. To assess the prevalence of waterborne infections in the community.
iii. To examine the factors influencing hygiene practices in the community.

1.4. Research Questions

i. What are the existing hygiene practices in Eleyele Community?
ii. What are the prevalence of waterborne infections in the community?
iii. What are the factors influencing hygiene practices in the community ?

1.5. Justification of the Study

The justification for conducting this research is based on the importance of
understanding the role of hygienic practices in preventing and controlling waterborne
infections. Waterborne infections pose a significant public health concern worldwide, causing
illnesses and even deaths. Hygienic practices, such as proper hand hygiene, safe drinking
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water practices, and sanitation measures, have been recognized as effective strategies for
reducing the transmission of waterborne pathogens.
However, there is a need to assess the importance of these measures in the community. By
investigating this topic, the research aims to contribute to the existing knowledge and provide
insights for policymakers, healthcare professionals, and individuals to improve preventive
measures and reduce the burden of waterborne infections.

1.6. Scope of the Study

This research will focus on assessing the importance of hygienic practices specifically
related to the prevention and control of waterborne infections. The research will be conducted
in Eleyele Community, Ibadan North West LGA, and the findings will be limited to the
selected sample.

1.7. Significance of the Study

This study aims to provide insights that can guide policies and interventions to
enhance hygiene practices, ultimately reducing waterborne infections in Eleyele Community.
The findings will contribute to the broader understanding of community health strategies.

1.8. Definition of Terms

Assessment: Assessment is the systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and
development of students. It is the process of defining, selecting, designing, collecting,
analyzing, interpreting, and using information to increase students' learning and
development.
Hygiene practice: This is the practice of keeping yourself and your surroundings clean,
especially in order to prevent illness or the spread of diseases.
Prevention: Prevention is any action taken to keep people healthy, and prevent or avoid risk
of poor health, illness, injury and early death.
Control: Control is a function of management that helps to check errors and take corrective
actions.
Water borne infection: are conditions (meaning adverse effects on human health, such as
death, disability, illness or disorders) caused by pathogenic micro-organisms that are
transmitted by water.

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Water:- Is a transparent, tasteless, odourless, and nearly colourless chemical substance ,
which is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the flu ds of most
living organisms.
Water pollution:- Is any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of water that
has a harmful effect.
Water purification:- Is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological
contaminants, suspended solids and gases from water. The goal is to produce water fit for a
specific purpose.
Potable water:- Also known as wholesome water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for
food
preparation.
Health :- As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Vector :- This is a living organism that transmit diseases causative agent.
Disease: Is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of
part or all of an organism.
Endemic disease: Is a disease which is constantly present in a given area, though usually at
low levels.
Epidemic disease: Is widespread and has a high incidence.
Sporadic disease: This occurs now and then at low levels.
Incubation period: Is the time elapsed between exposure to a pathogenic organism, a
chemical, or radiation, and when symptoms and signs are first apparent.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEWS
2.1. Introduction
The chapter reviews the past research work relating to topic under review. The Study is
reviewed under these following subheadings.
 Overview of waterborne infections
 Classification of Water related-diseases
 Causes of water-borne diseases
 Prevalence of water related and water-borne diseases
 Impacts of waterborne infections
 Hygiene practices in preventing waterborne infections
 Challenges to hygiene practices
 Prevention and control of water-borne diseases

2.2. Overview of waterborne infections

Waterborne infections are caused by the ingestion of contaminated water that contains
pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi (World Health
Organization, 2019). These infections can result in a range of illnesses, including
gastrointestinal symptoms, respiratory issues, skin infections, and even life-threatening
diseases (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020).
One of the most common waterborne infections is caused by the bacterium Escherichia coli,
which can lead to symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2020). Another significant waterborne pathogen is the protozoan parasite
Cryptosporidium, known to cause severe gastrointestinal illness particularly in immune-
compromised individuals (Edge Hill University, 2018). Bacterial pathogens such as
Legionella pneumophila, responsible for causing Legionnaires' disease, can thrive in warm
water environments and be transmitted through contaminated water systems (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2021). Additionally, waterborne bacteria like Pseudomonas aeruginosa
can cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals, further highlighting
the importance of maintaining water quality and safety (National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences, 2021).
Viruses like Norovirus and Hepatitis A are also significant contributors to waterborne
infections, leading to symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice, and liver inflammation
(National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 2017). In addition to microbial
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pathogens, toxins produced by algae in contaminated water sources can also pose a
significant health risk, with blue-green algae blooms being notably toxic (United States
Geological Survey, 2020). Viral infections transmitted through water sources include
rotavirus, a leading cause of severe diarrhea in young children worldwide (United States
Geological Survey, 2021). Hepatitis E virus is another waterborne pathogen that can cause
acute hepatitis in affected individuals, emphasizing the diverse range of viruses that can
contaminate drinking water (World Health Organization, 2021). Parasitic infections from
protozoa such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum pose significant health risks,
particularly in areas with inadequate water treatment and sanitation facilities (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). These parasites are known to cause gastrointestinal
illnesses that can be prolonged and severe, leading to dehydration and nutritional deficiencies
in affected populations (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021). Fungal pathogens like
Aspergillus fumigatus can also contaminate water supplies, particularly in healthcare settings
where water systems may harbor these opportunistic organisms (National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences, 2021). Individuals with compromised immune systems are
particularly susceptible to fungal infections transmitted through water sources, highlighting
the need for stringent infection control measures (United States Geological Survey, 2021).
Preventing waterborne infections involves ensuring the safety and quality of drinking water
sources through proper sanitation, filtration, and treatment methods (World Health
Organization, 2019). Efforts to monitor and regulate water quality in public water systems are
crucial in preventing outbreaks of waterborne diseases (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2020).
Improvements in water infrastructure, including proper sewage treatment and water
purification processes, are essential in reducing the risk of waterborne infections in
communities (Environmental Protection Agency, 2020). Education on safe water practices
and hygiene behaviors can further aid in preventing the transmission of waterborne pathogens
(Edge Hill University, 2018).

Waterborne infections remain a significant public health challenge that can have devastating
consequences for affected individuals and communities. Addressing the root causes of water
contamination, improving water infrastructure, and enhancing surveillance systems are
critical steps in mitigating the risks associated with waterborne pathogens (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2021). Continued research efforts and investments in public health

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interventions are essential in protecting the health and well-being of populations at risk of
waterborne infections (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 2021).

2.3. Classification of Water related-diseases

The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified waterborne diseases into four main
categories based on their causative agents: bacterial, viral, parasitic, and fungal.
1. Bacterial Waterborne Diseases:
- Cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae (World Health Organization, 2021)
- Typhoid fever caused by Salmonella Typhi
- Dysentery caused by Shigella species
2. Viral Waterborne Diseases:
- Hepatitis A affecting the liver (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020)
- Norovirus causing gastroenteritis
3. Parasitic Waterborne Diseases:
- Giardiasis caused by Giardia lamblia (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020)
- Cryptosporidiosis caused by Cryptosporidium
4. Fungal Waterborne Diseases:
- Blastomycosis caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2020)
Waterborne diseases encompass a wide range of infections caused by various
microorganisms transmitted through contaminated water sources. Preventing waterborne
infections requires the implementation of robust sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as
the provision of clean and safe drinking water to communities at risk. Public health
interventions aimed at improving water quality and promoting hygienic practices are essential
in reducing the burden of waterborne diseases globally.

2.4. Causes of Water-Borne Diseases

Waterborne diseases are caused by various pathogens that contaminate water sources, leading
to illness and health concerns among populations worldwide. Understanding the causes of
waterborne diseases is essential for implementing effective preventive measures and
safeguarding public health.
1. Bacterial Contamination: Bacterial contamination is a common cause of waterborne
diseases, with pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Vibrio cholerae posing
significant health risks. E. coli, a fecal coliform bacteria, is an indicator of fecal
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contamination and can cause gastrointestinal illness when ingested (World Health
Organization, 2019). Salmonella species are responsible for diseases like typhoid fever and
food poisoning, often transmitted through contaminated water sources (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2020). Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of cholera, a severe
diarrheal disease transmitted through water contaminated with infected feces (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2021).
2. Viral Contamination: Viruses can also cause waterborne diseases, with pathogens like
Hepatitis A virus, norovirus, and rotavirus being common culprits. Hepatitis A virus is
primarily transmitted through contaminated water sources and can lead to acute liver
inflammation and illness (United States Geological Survey, 2021). Norovirus is a highly
contagious virus that causes gastroenteritis and outbreaks in water and food settings (National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 2021). Rotavirus is a common cause of diarrhea
in children and can be transmitted through contaminated water (World Health Organization,
2021).
3. Parasitic Infections: Parasites like Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, and Entamoeba
histolytica can contaminate water sources and lead to parasitic waterborne diseases. Giardia
lamblia causes giardiasis, a diarrheal illness prevalent in areas with inadequate water
treatment and sanitation (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021).
Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite that can survive in water sources, leading to
gastrointestinal symptoms in infected individuals (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021).
Entamoeba histolytica is responsible for amoebic dysentery, causing severe diarrhea and
abdominal pain in affected individuals.
4. Fungal Pathogens: Fungal contamination of water sources can also contribute to
waterborne diseases, with pathogens like Blastomyces dermatitidis causing fungal infections.
Blastomycosis is a systemic fungal infection that can be acquired through exposure to
contaminated water sources, leading to respiratory and systemic symptoms (World Health
Organization, 2021).
Preventing waterborne diseases requires a multi-faceted approach, including access to clean
and safe water sources, proper sanitation practices, effective water treatment methods, and
public health education (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). Implementing
stringent surveillance systems, testing water quality regularly, and ensuring compliance with
water safety standards are crucial in reducing the transmission of waterborne pathogens and
protecting public health (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021).

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Understanding the causes of waterborne diseases is essential for developing targeted
interventions and strategies to mitigate the risks associated with contaminated water sources.
By addressing bacterial, viral, parasitic, and fungal contamination through comprehensive
water management and sanitation practices, communities can reduce the burden of
waterborne illnesses and safeguard the health and well-being of populations globally.

2.5 PREVALENCE OF WATER-BORNE AND WATER RELATED DISEASES

 Cholera
 Diarrhea
 Malaria
 Scabies
 Typhoid fever
 Diarrheal
 Gastroenteritis
 Guinea worm
1. DIARRHOEA
Diarrhea occurs world-wide and causes 4% of all deaths and 5% of health loss to disability. It
is most commonly caused by gastrointestinal infections which kill around 2.2 million people
globally each year, mostly children in developing countries. The use of water in hygiene is an
important preventive measure but contaminated water is also an important cause of diarrhoea.
Cholera and dysentery cause severe sometimes life threatening forms of diarrhea (Rooney,
2014).
The disease and how it affects people
Diarrhoea is the passage of loose or liquid stools more frequently than is normal for the
individual. It is primarily a symptom of gastrointestinal infection. Depending on the type of
infection, the diarrhoea may be watery (for example in cholera) or passed with blood (in
dysentery for example).
Diarrhoea due to infection may last a few days, or several weeks, as in persistent diarrhoea.
Severe diarrhoea may be life threatening due to fluid loss in watery diarrhoea, particularly in
infants and young children, the malnourished and people with impaired immunity
(Parshionikar, 2023).
The impact of repeated or persistent diarrhoea on nutrition and the effect of malnutrition on
susceptibility to infectious diarrhoea can be linked in a vicious cycle amongst children,
especially in developing countries.
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Diarrhoeais also associated with-' other infections such as malaria and measles. Chemical
irritation of the gut or non-infectious bowel disease can also result in diarrhea (WHO, 2023).
The cause
Diarrhoea is a symptom of infection caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic
organisms most of which can be spread by contaminated water. It is more common when
there is a shortage of clean water for drinking, cooking and cleaning and basic hygiene is
important in prevention.
Water contaminated with human faeces for example from municipal sewage, septic tanks and
latrines is of special concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause
diarrhoea.
Diarrhoea can also spread from person to person, aggravated by poor personal hygiene. Food
is another major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or stored in unhygienic conditions.
Watercan contaminate food during irrigation, and fish and seafood from polluted water may
also contribute to the disease (Hulme, 2021).
Distribution
The infectious agents that cause diarrhoea are present or are sporadically introduced
throughout the world. Diarrhoea is a rare occurrence for most people who live in developed
countries where sanitation is widely available, access to safe Water is high and personal and
domestic hygiene is relatively good. World-wide around .l billion people lack access to
improve water sources and 2.4 billion have no basic sanitation. Diarrhoea due to infection is
widespread throughout the developing world. In Southeast Asia and Africa, diarrhoea is
responsible for as much as 8.5% and 7.7% of all deaths respectively (Hulme, 2021).
Scope of the Problem
Amongst the poor and especially in developing countries, diarrhoea is a major killer. In 1998,
diarrhoea was estimated to have killed over 2.2 million people, most of whom were under 5
years of age. Each year there are approximately 4 billion cases of diarrhea worldwide(WHO,
2020).
2. SCABIES
Scabies is a contagious infestation in the skin, caused by tiny termites called sarcoptesscabie.
As the mite burrows and lay eggs inside the skin, the infestation trigger: a relentless itching
and an angry rash.
How it can be spread, scabies is a contagious infestation in the skin, caused by tiny termites
called sarcoptesscabie. As the mite’s burrows and lay eggs inside the skin, the infestation
triggers a relentless itching and an angry rash (WHO, 2020).
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How it can be spread
 Scabies typically spread through prolong skin to skin contact, giving the mites enough
time to get from one person to another person.
 Can be spread through sharing of personal items; such as towels, beddings etc
 It can be spread through the usage of infested water especially for bathing
 It can also be passed easily between family members or sexual partner
 Pets (although this maybe unserious).
 It may not be spread through quick handshake or hug, because the mites crawl so
slowly
How it can be diagnosed
In most cases, doctors can easily identify scabies based on the appearance of the rash and the
description of the, itch.
Sometimes skin scraping is used to confirm diagnosis. This involve collecting skin from the
affected area, and using a microscope to check the samples for mites, eggs, or fecal matter
(Willian, 2023).
Control measures
Skin contact with infested water can be prevented through adequate water sanitation
Personal hygiene
Ensuring a sanitary environment
It can be treated through the use of drugs and as well as cream and ointment
3. MALARIA
Malaria is one of the water related diseases of notable significance, which has been a treat to
human survival not until about seven years ago.
Malaria is a disease of worldwide distribution caused by protozoan of the genus plasmodium.
Causes
Malaria is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium - single-1 celled
organisms that cannot survive outside of their host(s). Plasmodium falciparum is responsible
for the majority of malaria deaths globally and is the most prevalent species in sub-Saharan
Africa. The remaining species are not typically as life threatening as P. falciparum.
Plasmodium vivax, is the second most significant species and is prevalent in Southeast Asia
and Latin America. P. vivax and Plasmodium ovale have the added complication of a
dormant liver stage, which can be reactivated in the absence of a mosquito bite, leading to
clinical symptoms. P. ovale and Plasmodium malariae represent only a small percentage of
infections. A fifth species Plasmodium knowlesi - a species that infects primate has led to
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human malaria, but the exact mode of transmission remains unclear (Department of Health,
2021).
Susceptible host
Those susceptible to malaria included:
 Pregnant Women
 Infants
 Sickle cellers
 All ages and sex
 Transmission is through the bite of infected female anopheles mosquitoes
Signs and symptoms
 Majority of the patient manifest rigors and fever (high temperature)
 Vomiting
 There could be other syndrome e. g anaemia
 Nausea or vomiting
 Fatigue
 Malaise
 Shivering or sweating
Malaria Control measure
W.H.O. Ministerial Conference held in October, 1992 at Amsterdam evolved a Global
Strategy for Malaria Control. The strategy broadly suggests de-emphasis on vector control
and renewed emphasis on treatment. Early diagnosis and treatment; prevention of deaths;
promotion of personal protection measures like use of ITMs; epidemic forecasting; early
detection and control; monitoring, evaluation and operative research and integration of
activity in Primary Health Centre’s are the salient aspects of this strategy (Shay Fout, 2023).

2.6. Impacts of Waterborne Infections

Waterborne infections have substantial impacts on public health, the environment, and
socioeconomic development globally. These infections are caused by pathogens that
contaminate water sources, leading to a variety of illnesses and health complications in
affected populations. Understanding the impacts of waterborne infections is crucial for
implementing effective preventive measures, improving access to clean water sources, and
reducing the burden of water-related diseases.
1. Health Impacts: Waterborne infections can have significant health consequences,
particularly in vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and individuals with
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weakened immune systems. Gastrointestinal illnesses caused by waterborne pathogens can
result in symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and dehydration, leading to
morbidity and mortality (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020). Severe
waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid fever can be life-threatening if left untreated,
causing extensive damage to the gastrointestinal system and impairing overall health (World
Health Organization, 2021).
2. Economic Impacts: The economic burden of waterborne infections is substantial,
affecting healthcare systems, livelihoods, and overall productivity in communities. The costs
associated with treating waterborne diseases, hospitalizations, and medications can strain
healthcare budgets and resources, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where
access to quality healthcare is limited (United Nations Development Programme, 2021).
Additionally, waterborne outbreaks can lead to economic losses due to absenteeism from
work, reduced productivity, and decreased agricultural outputs in affected regions.
3. Environmental Impacts: Waterborne infections can have adverse environmental impacts,
including contamination of water sources, ecosystems, and wildlife. Polluted waterways and
aquatic environments can result from the improper disposal of untreated sewage, agricultural
runoff, and industrial waste, leading to the proliferation of waterborne pathogens and
increased risks of infection (Environmental Protection Agency, 2021). Contaminated water
sources can also harm aquatic species, disrupt ecosystems, and degrade water quality, posing
long-term challenges for environmental sustainability.
4. Social Impacts: Waterborne infections can have social implications, affecting community
well-being, social cohesion, and quality of life. Outbreaks of waterborne diseases can create
panic, fear, and mistrust among community members, leading to stigmatization of affected
individuals and communities (World Health Organization, 2021). Access to clean and safe
water is essential for maintaining public health, supporting social development, and ensuring
equitable access to basic services for all individuals, regardless of socioeconomic status or
geographical location.
5. Preventive Measures: Implementing preventive measures is essential for reducing the
impacts of waterborne infections and protecting public health. Strategies such as improving
water sanitation, implementing water treatment technologies, promoting hygiene practices,
and enhancing surveillance systems are critical for preventing waterborne outbreaks and
reducing the transmission of pathogens (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020).
Investments in water infrastructure, education, and community engagement are key
components of comprehensive waterborne disease prevention strategies.
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The impacts of waterborne infections are far-reaching, affecting health, economies,
environments, and societies worldwide. Addressing the challenges posed by waterborne
diseases requires a coordinated and multi-sectoral approach, involving governments, public
health agencies, communities, and stakeholders. By prioritizing access to clean water sources,
adopting preventive measures, and raising awareness about the risks of waterborne infections,
we can mitigate the impacts of water-related diseases and promote the well-being of
populations everywhere.

2.7. Hygiene Practices in Preventing Waterborne Infections

Waterborne infections are a significant public health concern worldwide, with millions of
cases reported each year. Proper hygiene practices play a vital role in preventing the spread of
waterborne illnesses and ensuring public health and safety. The World Health Organization
(WHO) emphasizes the importance of hygiene in reducing the risk of waterborne infections,
stating that simple measures such as handwashing can prevent the transmission of pathogens
and diseases (World Health Organization, 2019).
One of the key hygiene practices to prevent waterborne infections is hand hygiene. Washing
hands with soap and water before handling food, after using the bathroom, and after coming
into contact with potentially contaminated water can help prevent the spread of pathogens.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends washing hands for at
least 20 seconds to effectively remove germs and bacteria (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2020).
Regular cleaning and disinfection of surfaces that come into contact with water are also
essential in preventing waterborne infections. Pathogens can survive on surfaces for extended
periods, making proper cleaning and disinfection crucial in reducing the risk of
contamination. Using EPA-registered disinfectants can help kill germs and bacteria, further
reducing the risk of waterborne infections (Environmental Protection Agency, 2022).
In addition to personal hygiene practices, ensuring water sources are properly treated and
tested is paramount in preventing waterborne infections. Municipal water treatment facilities
use various methods such as filtration, chlorination, and UV disinfection to remove
contaminants and pathogens from drinking water. Regular testing of water quality is essential
to monitor for the presence of harmful bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
Recreational water sources such as swimming pools, hot tubs, and natural bodies of water
also pose a risk of waterborne infections. The WHO recommends maintaining proper water
quality through disinfection and pH control in recreational water facilities to prevent the
16
spread of waterborne illnesses. Additionally, avoiding swallowing water while swimming and
showering before entering pools can help reduce the risk of infection.
It is important to raise awareness about waterborne infections and the role of hygiene
practices in preventing their transmission. Education campaigns on the importance of hand
hygiene, clean water sources, and proper sanitation can help empower individuals to protect
themselves and their communities from waterborne illnesses. Community-based
interventions, such as promoting handwashing stations and safe water storage practices, can
further improve hygiene behavior and reduce the burden of waterborne infections (World
Health Organization, 2017).

2.8. Challenges to Hygiene Practices

Hygiene practices are essential for maintaining optimal health and preventing the spread of
infectious diseases. However, there are numerous challenges that individuals and
communities face in implementing and maintaining proper hygiene practices. Challenges to
hygiene practices include a variety of factors that can impact the cleanliness and safety of
environments. One major challenge is the lack of access to clean water and sanitation
facilities, which can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases (UNICEF, 2019). Without
proper water sources and toilets, individuals may resort to unhygienic practices that increase
the risk of illness and contamination.
Inadequate infrastructure and resources also pose a significant challenge to maintaining
hygiene practices. In low-income communities and developing countries, the lack of funds
and support for basic amenities like soap, hand sanitizer, and cleaning supplies can make it
difficult for individuals to practice good hygiene habits (WHO, 2015). Limited access to
healthcare and education on hygiene further compounds the problem, as individuals may not
be aware of the importance of cleanliness in preventing the spread of diseases.
Cultural beliefs and practices can also present challenges to hygiene practices. In some
societies, certain rituals or traditions may discourage the use of soap or water for cleaning
purposes (Shankar et al., 2017). Additionally, social norms around bodily hygiene and
cleanliness can vary widely, leading to inconsistencies in hygiene practices within
communities.
The emergence of antibiotic resistance is another major challenge to hygiene practices.
Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant bacteria,
making it harder to treat infections and control outbreaks (CDC, 2019). Poor hygiene

17
practices, such as not properly washing hands or surfaces, can contribute to the spread of
these drug-resistant pathogens.
Climate change also poses a threat to hygiene practices, as extreme weather events like floods
and droughts can disrupt water and sanitation systems (WHO, 2018). These disruptions can
lead to contaminated water sources and limited access to sanitation facilities, increasing the
risk of disease transmission.
In healthcare settings, the challenge of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) poses a
significant threat to hygiene practices. Inadequate hand hygiene, improper cleaning of
medical equipment, and overcrowding in hospitals can all contribute to the spread of HAIs
(Scott et al., 2016). Healthcare workers must adhere to strict hygiene protocols to prevent
infections in patients and themselves.
Overall, there are numerous challenges to maintaining hygiene practices, ranging from a lack
of resources and infrastructure to cultural beliefs and practices. Addressing these challenges
requires a multi-faceted approach that involves improving access to clean water and
sanitation, promoting proper hygiene education, and implementing policies to prevent the
spread of infectious diseases.

2.9. Prevention and Control of Water-borne Diseases

Prevention and control of water-borne diseases is a critical aspect of public health, as these
diseases can have significant impacts on individuals and communities. Water-borne diseases
are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that are transmitted through contaminated water
sources such as drinking water, recreational water, and water used for irrigation. These
diseases include cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and hepatitis A, among others.
Effective prevention and control of water-borne diseases require a multi-faceted approach
that encompasses various strategies such as water quality monitoring, sanitation and hygiene
practices, and water treatment methods. Improving access to safe water sources and
promoting proper hygiene behaviors are essential components of preventing the spread of
water-borne diseases (Bartram J, 2020).
Water quality monitoring plays a crucial role in identifying potential sources of
contamination and assessing the safety of water sources. Regular testing of water samples for
microbial contamination and chemical pollutants can help ensure that water supplies meet the
required quality standards (World Health Organization, 2021). Implementation of water
quality monitoring programs is essential for early detection of potential risks and prompt
intervention to prevent disease outbreaks.
18
Sanitation and hygiene practices are fundamental in preventing water-borne diseases. Proper
disposal of human waste, promoting handwashing with soap, and ensuring hygienic food
preparation are key measures to reduce the transmission of water-borne pathogens (Curtis V,
2023). Improving sanitation facilities, such as constructing latrines and promoting safe
excreta disposal, is crucial in preventing fecal contamination of water sources.
Water treatment methods, such as chlorination, filtration, and ultraviolet disinfection, are
effective in removing or inactivating pathogens present in water (Sobsey MD, 2018). These
treatment methods play a vital role in ensuring the safety of drinking water and reducing the
risk of water-borne diseases. Promoting the use of household water treatment technologies,
such as biosand filters and solar disinfection, can also help improve water quality at the
household level (Lantagne D, 2021).
In addition to these strategies, community-based interventions, such as health education
campaigns and behavior change communication, are essential in raising awareness about the
risks of water-borne diseases and promoting preventive measures (Francis MR, 2017).
Engaging communities in water and sanitation projects and empowering them to take
ownership of their water resources can lead to sustainable improvements in water quality and
public health.
Global organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations
Children's Fund (UNICEF), play a crucial role in advocating for improved water and
sanitation systems and supporting countries in implementing effective disease prevention and
control strategies (World Health Organization, 2019). Collaborative efforts between national
governments, international organizations, and local communities are essential in addressing
the complex challenges associated with water-borne diseases. Prevention and control of
water-borne diseases require a comprehensive approach that encompasses water quality
monitoring, sanitation and hygiene practices, water treatment methods, community-based
interventions, and global partnerships.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Research methodology is the systematic way to solve research problem. It include the step
that researcher adopt to study this problem with the logic behind. It indicates the general
pattern of organizing the procedure of gathering valid and reliable data for an investigation.
19
This chapter provides a brief description of method adopted by the investigator to conduct the
study. This chapter includes research approach, research design, and setting of the study,
sample and sampling technique. It further deals with development of tool, procedure for data
collection, and for data analysis.
The research methodology for this study will be discussed under the following headings:

3.2 Research design

The descriptive survey design will be adopted for this study. The choice of this design will be
considered appropriate and suitable for this kind of study because the researcher is not
manipulating any variable being measured. This research design enable the researcher to
analyze, interpret and state categorically the relationship that exist among the variables.

3.3 Population of the study

The population for this study will comprise inhabitant of Eleyele Community, Ibadan North
West Local Government Area Ibadan. It comprise adults above the age of 18 and as well as
the general populace of Eleyele Community, Ibadan North West Local Government Area
Ibadan.

3.4 Sample and Sampling techniques

A simple random sampling technique will be adopted to select 100 respondents in Eleyele
Community, Ibadan North West Local Government Area Ibadan. The respondents will be
selected randomly.

3.5 Research instrument

The research instrument for this study will be a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire
will be designed to capture relevant information on the importance of hygienic practices in
the prevention and control of waterborne infections in Eleyele Community, Ibadan North
West Local Government Area, Ibadan, Oyo State. It include both closed-ended and open-
ended questions to gather quantitative and qualitative data.
The questionnaire will be constructed and divided into two sections (i.e. section A and
section B). Section A, consist bio-data of the respondents while section B consist structured
questions which focused on the research questions

3.6 Validity and reliability of research instrument

20
To ensure the validity and reliability of the research instrument, the instrument will be
submitted to the researcher’s supervisor for reading and correction, to ensure the face and
content validity of the instrument. The errors identified will be corrected and the final draft
will be submitted for approval before administration of the instrument (questionnaire).
Additionally, the researcher will establish trustworthiness by ensuring data credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirm-ability throughout the data collection and analysis
process..

3.7 Procedure for data collection

The questionnaire will be distributed to 100 respondents after explanation and the
questionnaire will be collected on the spot. An explanation on research topic will be made
clear while the respondents will be made to know that any information submitted would be
treated confidentially. However, the response of the respondents will influenced in the
process of answering the question.

3.8 Procedure for data analysis

The completed questionnaires will be collated coded and analyzed using a simple percentage
for demographic data and descriptive statistic of frequency count and percentage was used in
analyzing data of all variables.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents result of the finding in this study from the analysis done. The purpose
of the study was to assess the importance of hygienic practices in the prevention and control
of waterborne infections in Eleyele Community, Ibadan North West Local Government Area,
Ibadan, Oyo State. The researcher made use of questionnaire to collect information from the
21
respondents. There were a total of 100 respondents selected for this study and their
questionnaire was completely collected for analysis.

4.2. SECTION A: Demographic of the respondent

Table 1: Age distribution of the respondents
Age Frequency Percentage
15-24 years 29 29%
25-34years 42 42%
35 – 44years 18 18%
45years and above 11 11%
Total 100 100%
The above table 1 shows that 29% of the respondents were between 15-24 years , 42% of the
respondents were between 25-34 years, 18% of the respondents were between 35 – 44years,
while the 11% of the respondents were 45years and above.

Table 2: Level of Education

Education Frequency Percentage
Primary 33 33%
Secondary 35 35%
Tertiary 24 24%
No formal Education 8 8%
Total 100 100%
The table 2 shows that 33% of the respondents had Primary Education, 35% had Secondary
education, 24% had Tertiary education, while 8% No Formal Education

Table 3: Distribution of respondents by religion

Religion Frequency Percentage
Islam 42 43%
Christianity 56 56%
Traditional 0 0%
Others 2 2%
Total 100 100%

22
The table 3 above shows that 42% of the respondents were Muslim, 56% were Christian,
none were Traditionalist, and 2% of the respondents were from other religions

Table 4: Distribution of Respondents by Tribe

Tribe Frequency Percentage
Yoruba 80 80%
Hausa 3 3%
Igbo 10 10%
Others 7 7%
Total 100 100%
The table 4 above shows that 80% of the respondents were Yoruba, 3% were Hausa, 10%
were Igbo, while 7% were from other tribes

Table 5: Distribution of respondents by Occupation

Occupation Frequency Percentage
Farmer 48 48%
Trader 12 12%
Civil Servant 10 10%
Others 30 30%
Total 100 100%
The table 5 shows that 48% of the respondents were Farmers, 12% were Traders, 10% were
Civil Servant, while 30% of the respondents were into other occupations.

4.3. SECTION B:
i. PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Table 6: Regular monitoring and evaluation of hygienic practices are needed to ensure
their effectiveness in preventing waterborne infections.
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%

23
Total 100 100
Table 6 shows that All (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Regular monitoring
and evaluation of hygienic practices are needed to ensure their effectiveness in preventing
waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly disagreed and none disagreed.
Table 7: Hygienic practices have little impact on the prevention of waterborne
infections.
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 0 0%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 100 100%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 7 shows that none of the respondents strongly agreed that Hygienic practices have little
impact on the prevention of waterborne infections, none agreed, 100% strongly disagreed,
while none disagreed.
Table 8: Educating the community on proper hygienic practices can significantly reduce
the incidence of waterborne infections.
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 8 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed Educating the community
on proper hygienic practices can significantly reduce the incidence of waterborne infections,
none agreed, none strongly disagreed and none disagreed.
Table 9: Proper sanitation facilities are essential in preventing the spread of waterborne
infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100

24
Table 9 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Proper sanitation
facilities are essential in preventing the spread of waterborne infections, none agreed, none
strongly disagreed, while and none disagreed
Table 10: Regular handwashing can help prevent waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 10 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Regular handwashing
can help prevent waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly disagreed and none
disagreed.
Table 11: Improving access to clean water is more important than promoting hygienic
practices in preventing waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 0 0%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 100 100
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 11 shows that none of the respondents strongly agreed that Improving access to clean
water is more important than promoting hygienic practices in preventing waterborne
infections, none agreed, 100% strongly disagreed, and none disagreed

Table 12: Community-wide efforts are necessary to effectively prevent waterborne

infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100

25
Table 12 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Community-wide
efforts are necessary to effectively prevent waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed
Table 13: Promoting good hygiene practices can help prevent waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 13 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Promoting good
hygiene practices can help prevent waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed
Table 14: Individuals can prevent waterborne infections on their own without proper
education on hygienic practices
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 0 0%
Agreed 8 8%
Strongly Disagreed 81 81%
Disagreed 11 11%
Total 100 100
Table 14 shows that none of the respondents strongly agreed that Individuals can prevent
waterborne infections on their own without proper education on hygienic practices, 8%
agreed, 81% strongly disagreed, while 11% disagreed

Table 15: Cultural beliefs and practices should take precedence over hygienic practices
in preventing waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 0 0%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 100 100%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100

26
Table 15 shows that none of the respondents strongly agreed that Cultural beliefs and
practices should take precedence over hygienic practices in preventing waterborne infections,
none agreed, 100% strongly disagreed and none disagreed

ii. CONTROL MEASURES

Table 16: Proper sanitation practices can effectively control waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 16 shows that all (100%) of the respondents said that Proper sanitation practices can
effectively control waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly disagreed and none
disagreed.
Table 17: Implementing water treatment protocols is essential in controlling waterborne
infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 17 shows that all (100%) of the respondents said that Implementing water treatment
protocols is essential in controlling waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed.
Table 18: Investing in infrastructure for clean water supply is crucial in controlling
waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100

27
Table 18 shows that all (100%) of the respondents said that Investing in infrastructure for
clean water supply is crucial in controlling waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed
Table 19: Monitoring water quality regularly is important in controlling waterborne
infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 19 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Monitoring water
quality regularly is important in controlling waterborne infections, none agreed, none
strongly disagreed and none disagreed
Table 20: Collaboration between government agencies and healthcare providers is
important in controlling waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 20 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Collaboration
between government agencies and healthcare providers is important in controlling waterborne
infections, none agreed, none strongly disagreed and none disagreed

Table 21: Implementing water safety plans in communities can control waterborne
infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100

28
Table 21 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Implementing water
safety plans in communities can control waterborne infections, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed
Table 22: Promoting sustainable water management practices can help control
waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 22 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Promoting sustainable
water management practices can help control waterborne infections, none agreed, none
strongly disagreed and none disagreed
Table 23: Promoting the use of water filters and purification systems can help control
waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 23 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Promoting the use of
water filters and purification systems can help control waterborne infections, none agreed,
none strongly disagreed and none disagreed.
Table 24: Conducting regular training for water treatment plant operators is important
in controlling waterborne infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100

29
Table 24 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Conducting regular
training for water treatment plant operators is important in controlling waterborne infections,
none agreed, none strongly disagreed and none disagreed.

Table 25: Promoting community engagement in water management is important for

controlling infections
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 25 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Promoting community
engagement in water management is important for controlling infections, none agreed, none
strongly disagreed while none disagreed

Table 26: Healthcare providers at the facility encourage me to practice Exclusive

breastfeeding
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 26 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Healthcare providers
at the facility encourage them to practice Exclusive breastfeeding, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed.

Table 27: Radio jingles plays a role in shaping societal attitudes towards exclusive
breastfeeding
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%

30
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 27 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Radio jingles plays a
role in shaping societal attitudes towards exclusive breastfeeding, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed.
Table 28: Government policies and initiatives can positively impact Exclusive
breastfeeding rate
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 28 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that Government policies
and initiatives can positively impact Exclusive breastfeeding rate, none agreed, none strongly
disagreed and none disagreed

Table 29: Access to skilled midwife can improve Exclusive breastfeeding habit
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 100 100%
Agreed 0 0%
Strongly Disagreed 0 0%
Disagreed 0 0%
Total 100 100
Table 29 shows that all (100%) of the respondents strongly agreed that access to skilled
midwife can improve Exclusive breastfeeding habit, none agreed, none strongly disagreed
and none 20% disagreed.

Table 30: Breastfeeding is inconvenient for working mothers

Response Frequency Percentage (%)
Strongly agreed 14 14%
Agreed 25 25%
Strongly Disagreed 32 32%
Disagreed 29 29%

31
Total 100 100
Table 30 shows that 14% of the respondents strongly agreed that Breastfeeding is
inconvenient for working mothers, 25% agreed, 32% strongly disagreed, while 29%
disagreed.

4.4. Discussion of Findings

The study's findings provide insights into the demographic characteristics of the respondents,
their knowledge and perceptions of hygienic practices, and their attitudes towards preventive
and control measures for waterborne infections.
Demographic Findings:
The demographic findings indicate that the majority of the respondents were between 25-44
years old (60%), had secondary education (35%), and were Yoruba (80%). The majority of
the respondents were farmers (48%), and the remaining were traders, civil servants, and
others.
Preventive Measures:
The results of this study demonstrate a strong understanding of the importance of hygienic
practices in preventing waterborne infections among the respondents. All respondents (100%)
strongly agreed that regular monitoring and evaluation of hygienic practices are necessary to
ensure their effectiveness in preventing waterborne infections. Additionally, 100% of
respondents strongly agreed that educating the community on proper hygienic practices can
significantly reduce the incidence of waterborne infections. The study also found that proper
sanitation facilities are essential in preventing the spread of waterborne infections, with 100%
of respondents strongly agreeing. Regular handwashing was also identified as a crucial
practice in preventing waterborne infections, with 100% of respondents strongly agreeing.
Furthermore, the study revealed that community-wide efforts are necessary to effectively
prevent waterborne infections, with 100% of respondents strongly agreeing. Promoting good
hygiene practices was also identified as an effective way to prevent waterborne infections,
with 100% of respondents strongly agreeing.
However, the study found that some respondents (8%) believed that individuals can prevent
waterborne infections on their own without proper education on hygienic practices, which is a
concerning finding.
Control Measures:
The study found that proper sanitation practices, implementing water treatment protocols,
investing in infrastructure for clean water supply, monitoring water quality regularly, and
32
collaboration between government agencies and healthcare providers are all essential in
controlling waterborne infections, with 100% of respondents strongly agreeing. The study
also found that promoting sustainable water management practices, promoting the use of
water filters and purification systems, conducting regular training for water treatment plant
operators, and promoting community engagement in water management are all important for
controlling waterborne infections, with 100% of respondents strongly agreeing.
The findings of this study highlight the importance of hygienic practices and community-
wide efforts in preventing waterborne infections. The results also emphasize the need for
proper sanitation facilities, regular handwashing, and education on hygienic practices to
prevent waterborne infections. The study's findings can inform public health interventions
and policies aimed at preventing waterborne infections in the community.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. SUMMARY
This study aimed to assess the importance of hygienic practices in the prevention and control
of waterborne infections in Eleyele Community, Ibadan North West Local Government Area,
Ibadan, Oyo State. A total of 100 respondents were surveyed, and their responses were
analyzed. The demographic data revealed that the majority of respondents were aged 25-34
years, had secondary education, were Christians, Yoruba tribe, and engaged in farming as
their primary occupation.
The findings from the survey indicated that the respondents strongly agreed on the
importance of regular monitoring and evaluation of hygienic practices, educating the
community on proper hygienic practices, the significance of proper sanitation facilities, the
33
effectiveness of regular handwashing, and the necessity of community-wide efforts in
preventing waterborne infections. Additionally, the respondents acknowledged the
importance of implementing water treatment protocols, investing in infrastructure for clean
water supply, monitoring water quality regularly, and collaborating between government
agencies and healthcare providers in controlling waterborne infections.
The study highlighted the role of hygienic practices in preventing and controlling waterborne
infections. It emphasized the need for community-wide efforts, proper sanitation facilities,
regular monitoring, and effective collaboration to ensure a safe and healthy environment.

5.2. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the findings of this study emphasize the vital role of hygienic practices in the
prevention and control of waterborne infections. It is evident that educating the community,
promoting good hygiene practices, and implementing proper sanitation facilities are essential
steps in ensuring the well-being of individuals in Eleyele Community. Collaborative efforts
between government agencies, healthcare providers, and the community are necessary to
address the challenges posed by waterborne infections effectively.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance
the prevention and control of waterborne infections in Eleyele Community:
1. The community should prioritize hygienic practices, such as regular handwashing, proper
sanitation facilities, and community-wide efforts, to prevent waterborne infections.
2. The government and healthcare providers should invest in infrastructure for clean water
supply to control waterborne infections.
3. The government and healthcare providers should implement water treatment protocols to
control waterborne infections.
4. The government and healthcare providers should monitor water quality regularly to control
waterborne infections.
5. The community should promote community engagement in water management to control
waterborne infections.
6. The government and healthcare providers should promote sustainable water management
practices to control waterborne infections.
7. The government and healthcare providers should promote the use of water filters and
purification systems to control waterborne infections.
34
8. The government and healthcare providers should conduct regular training for water
treatment plant operators to control waterborne infections.
9. The community should prioritize proper sanitation practices to control waterborne
infections.
10. The government and healthcare providers should implement water safety plans to control
waterborne infections.
11. The community should promote exclusive breastfeeding to prevent waterborne infections.
12. The government and healthcare providers should provide access to skilled midwives to
improve exclusive breastfeeding habits.
13. The government and healthcare providers should promote radio jingles to shape societal
attitudes towards exclusive breastfeeding.
14. The government and healthcare providers should develop policies and initiatives to
positively impact exclusive breastfeeding rates.
15. The community should prioritize access to clean water supply to prevent waterborne
infections.

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APPENDIX-QUESTIONNAIRE
TOPIC: ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPORTANCE OF HYGIENIC PRACTICES IN
THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WATERBORNE INFECTIONS IN
ELEYELE COMMUNITY, IBADAN NORTH WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT
AREA, IBADAN, OYO STATE.
Dear respondents,
I am a final year student of the above named college in the Department of Public Health
Nursing. I am carrying out a study on the importance of hygienic practices in the prevention
and control of waterborne infections in Eleyele Community, Ibadan North West Local
Government Area, Ibadan, Oyo State I hereby solicit for your cooperation and honesty in
completing this questionnaire. You are fully assured that all information collected will be
treated with utmost confidentiality and purely for academic purpose.

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Thanks for your anticipated cooperation
Instruction: Please tick ( ) appropriately
1. Age: (a) 15-24 years [ ] (b) 25-34 years [ ] (c) 35 – 44years [ ] (d)45years and above
2. Level of Education (a) Primary Education [ ] (b) Secondary Education [ ] (c) Tertiary
Education [ ] (d) No formal Education [ ]
3. Religion: (a) Islam [ ] (b) Christianity [ ] (c) Traditional [ ] (d) Others [ ]
4. Tribe: (a) Yoruba [ ] (b) Hausa [ ] (c) Igbo [ ] (d) Others [ ]
5. Occupation: (a) Farmer [ ] (b)Trader [ ] (c) Civil Service [ ] (d)Others [ ]
SECTION B:
Instruction: Please tick () the most appropriate answer where applicable for each statement
Strongly Agreed(SA), Agreed(A), Strongly Disagreed(SD), Disagreed(D)
S/N ITEM(S) SA A SD D
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
1. Regular monitoring and evaluation of hygienic practices are
needed to ensure their effectiveness in preventing waterborne
infections
2. Hygienic practices have little impact on the prevention of
waterborne infections
3. Educating the community on proper hygienic practices can
significantly reduce the incidence of waterborne infections.
4. Proper sanitation facilities are essential in preventing the
spread of waterborne infections
5. Regular handwashing can help prevent waterborne infections
6. Improving access to clean water is more important than
promoting hygienic practices in preventing waterborne
infections
7. Community-wide efforts are necessary to effectively prevent
waterborne infections
8. Promoting good hygiene practices can help prevent waterborne
infections
9. Individuals can prevent waterborne infections on their own
without proper education on hygienic practices
10. Cultural beliefs and practices should take precedence over
hygienic practices in preventing waterborne infections
CONTROL MEASURES
11. Proper sanitation practices can effectively control waterborne
infections
12. Implementing water treatment protocols is essential in
controlling waterborne infections
13. Investing in infrastructure for clean water supply is crucial in

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 controlling waterborne infections
14. Monitoring water quality regularly is important in controlling
waterborne infections
15. Collaboration between government agencies and healthcare
providers is important in controlling waterborne infections
16. Implementing water safety plans in communities can control
waterborne infections
17. Promoting sustainable water management practices can help
control waterborne infections
18. Promoting the use of water filters and purification systems can
help control waterborne infections
19. Conducting regular training for water treatment plant operators
is important in controlling waterborne infections
20. Promoting community engagement in water management is
important for controlling infections

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