UNIT 2.

GENERAL THEORIES ON LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF A

FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE.
THE TREATMENT OF ERROR.

INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................2
2. GENERAL THEORIES ON LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF A FOREIGN /
SECOND LANGUAGE.............................................................................................................3
2.1. Linguistics........................................................................................................................3
2.2. Sociolinguistics.................................................................................................................5
2.3. Cognitive theory..............................................................................................................8
2.4. Neuroscience....................................................................................................................9
2.4. Monitor Model................................................................................................................10
3. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE........................................................................11
4. THE TREATMENT OF ERROR.......................................................................................13
5. LEGISLATION....................................................................................................................14
6. CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................16
7. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES..............................................................................16
1. INTRODUCTION
Language didactics, and methodologies and theories on FLA and SLA are directly
associated with the learning-teaching process, since their success is usually evidenced in
the general process and outcomes shown by the learners throughout time. As new
methodologies and theories emerge, so should the need to update the education system
in order to apply the most successful ones.

Specifically, theories on the acquisition of foreign and second languages can

constitute a helpful tool to understand how speakers learn foreign / second languages
and the similarities and differences with acquiring the mother tongue, the best ways of
addressing errors, and even help teachers apply the most successful theories and
methodologies in their English as a Foreign Language classrooms. Its research has been
broadened to many fields of study, including linguistics, sociolinguistics, cognitive
psychology, neuroscience and education.

The main aim of this study is to (1) outline some general theories related to the
acquisition and learning of a foreign / second language from different perspectives –
linguistics, sociolinguistics, cognitive psychology etc.– Furthermore, I will (2) analyse
the concept of interlanguage and (3) the evolution of the treatment of error. I will finally
wrap up with some general conclusions and add bibliographical references at the end.

This topic can be quite helpful to, among many aspects, reflect in-depth about the
evolution of foreign/ second language didactics over the passage of time and
consequently, the changes that have taken place in the Spanish educational system with
respect to the treatment of foreign languages and that evidence a progress from more
traditional methodologies, which focused on grammar, translation, and a different
treatment of errors, to more modern ones, with use of ICT and access to a broader scope
of the TL culture and community and treating errors as part of the learning process. As
Noam Chomsky said “A language is not just words, it’s a culture, a tradition, a
unification of a community, a whole history that creates what a community is. It’s all
embodied in a language” (2010). Moreover, it may foster some consideration on our
own methodologies as teachers, whether they are helpful or should be modified and
brings about the need to be updated on SLA theories and use the experience of teachers
to keep learning and never settle in our knowledge.
2. GENERAL THEORIES ON LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF
A FOREIGN / SECOND LANGUAGE
2.1. Linguistics
Among the early theories on SLA in the linguistic field two basic theories are
connected. Behaviourism, which accounts for both first and second language
acquisition and a structuralist approach to the study of language.

a) Behaviourism is based on Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning where he

experimented with dogs and their creation of habits through response to certain
stimuli. Learning consists of developing responses to environmental stimuli. When
positive, they are repeated, when punished (in the case of language learning, error
correction), they are abandoned.

Within behaviourism, all learning —including language learning— is seen as an

acquisition of a new behaviour, for which the environment is essential. A child learns
a language by imitating sounds and structures that they hear in the environment. When
produced an utterance with a positive response, they are likely to do so again, but
when there is a negative response, repetition is less probable.

In the case of SLA, it occurs in a similar fashion. With positive reinforcement and
correction of wrong imitations. Furthermore, active participation by the learner is
considered a crucial element of the learning process.

The salient characteristic of SLA that differentiates it from child language learning is
that L2 learners already know a first language (L1), which must be overcome in the
process of acquiring a second language. This process is difficult but can be facilitated
by appropriate instruction. Learners should be exposed to a large number of target
examples of language; they should imitate these models repeatedly and receive
appropriate feedback: positive feedback for accurate imitations and correction of
inaccurate ones. This process should be repeated until these behaviours have become
automatic and error-free.

b) Structural Linguistics is compatible with behaviourism because it gives a

careful description of how learning a language works. It predicts language as based on
a finite set of predictable patterns. Therefore, applied linguistics viewed a L2 learner's
task as the imitation and internalisation of these patterns.
 These ideas are directly connected to Contrastive analysis, in the sense that since L2
was seen as the acquisition of a new set of behaviours, it could be affected positively or
negatively by the L1, i.e. Transfer. Through Contrastive Analysis, a comparison of L1
and L2 could be carried out to predict learner difficulties. When both languages were
similar it could be considered a positive transfer, while if their structures were different,
it would lead to negative transfer, resulting in learner difficulty and error.

These insights influenced researchers in SLA. Nevertheless, following studies

demonstrated that neither behaviourism nor contrastive analysis would count as
evidence for a final theory on SLA. The importance of L1 in SLA seemed apparent,
however, it resulted in being much more complex than Contrastive analysis claimed.

c) Universal Grammar. This theory was developed by Noam Chomsky, who

reflected on the idea that language sets humans apart from animals, which communicate
but without a sophisticated grammar. He studied how it is possible humans learn to
speak a language so easily since they are born.

Since the dawn of philosophy, thinkers and linguists have argued whether humans
have innate ideas, as claimed by Plato, or whether the mind is a blank slate on which
experience writes (John Locke). Chomsky gave a twist to this debate in the 1960s by
claiming that children just do not have enough information to speak to form the
complex grammatical manoeuvres that allows to generate unlimited amount of
sentences, yet they do so with ease.

Chomsky’s hypothesis explains there are inborn strategies in our brains: Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) which gives humans a natural propensity to organise the
spoken language we hear in various grammatical patterns: sentences, words, nouns…
According to this theory, there is a universal grammar for all languages, meaning they
share basic grammatical concepts and humans are born with this ability. Therefore, this
theory involves three main ideas: every child knows basic grammar rules, all languages
follow same basic grammar structures and children do not make expected basic
grammar errors, but more complicated, as they already know the basics according to
Chomsky.

d) Variable Competence Model. Proposed by Rod Ellis (1984), it is divided into

two categories: the process of language and the product of language. According to him,
people have far more knowledge than what is expressed in discourse, which leads to the
basic premiere of the model: that the language user has variable competence and
variable application. Therefore, this model can be explained through the following
propositions:

1) There is a single knowledge store containing variable interlanguage rules

according to how automatic and how analysed the rules are.

2) The learner has a capacity for language use which consists of primary and
secondary discourse and cognitive processes.

3) L2 performance is variable in terms of whether primary processes employing

unanalysed L2 rules are used in unplanned discourses, or secondary processes
employing analysed L2 rules are used in planned discourses.

4) Development takes place as a result of:

a) Acquisition of L2 rules through participation in various types of discourses

b) Activation of L2 rules which initially exist in unanalysed or analysed form, so

they can be used in unplanned discourse.

2.2. Sociolinguistics

1. Communication Accommodation theory. This theory was developed by the

sociolinguist researcher Howard Giles and analyses the adjustments individuals make
when communicating with others. People accommodate their communication activities
to get approval and to set a positive image in front of their interlocutors. Furthermore,
the environment in which they are interacting also affects the communication behaviour.

There are three types of accommodations explained in this theory:

- Convergence, a process in which speakers adjust their speech to accommodate it

to the speech of their interlocutors and thus reducing social differences e.g.
talking in a formal speech in a job interview.
- Divergence, the opposite process, when a speaker adjusts their speech to become
less similar to their interlocutors.
- Over-accommodation process, when an attempted convergence results in being
perceived as patronising and demeaning.

According to Giles, both convergence and divergence can be used depending on the
context, that is, divergence can be used to assert one’s individuality (being British or
Spanish in a context that requires so, for example). However, relationships and personal
communication are built when there is convergence, since the speaker adapts to the
environment they find themselves in.

In the context of SLA/ FLA, progress takes place when the overall predisposition of
the learner is towards convergence, since they try to imitate the TL and have a positive
attitude towards the TL. On the contrary, fossilisation occurs when the overall
predisposition of the learner is towards divergence.

2. Attitudes/ Motivation.

Attitude is generally related to motivation since they form a complex of linked

factors that together operate in SLA. First, Gardner & Lambert (1987) identify two
types of attitudes associated with two types of orientation towards learning:

- Integrative towards the community of L2 speakers.

- Oriented to achieve a specific goal.

In their study of the good language learner, Naiman et al. (1978) conclude that
attitude plays a more important role in language learning than Gardner & Lambert’s
(1972) integrative and instrumental orientations. They also claim that a positive attitude
is a necessary, although not sufficient, condition for success, being the most important
condition at early stages.

Motivation is considered an essential predictor of a high proficiency in SLA, which

has been supported by many researchers, among which the following can be found:

a) Brown (1987), who alluded directly to the importance of the context to determine
a type of motivation:

“... Some learners in some contexts are more successful in learning a language
if they are integratively oriented, and others in different contexts benefit from an
instrumental orientation.” (Brown 1987:116)

b) Gardner (1993) also developed a “socio-educational model” of SLA which

identified several variables for SL: Social milieu (cultural beliefs or environment);
individual differences (situational anxiety, intelligence, language aptitude and
motivation, whose conditions to be considered motivation are having a goal, the desire
to achieve the goal, positive attitudes and effort); learning acquisition contexts and
language learning outcomes (linguistic skills and non-linguistic skills).
 c) Spolky (1989) agrees as well on the idea that attitude does not lead directly to
proficiency if it is not through motivation. He claims that the learner’s achievements are
determined by their motivation, previous knowledge, the ability and the learning
opportunities.

In relation to motivation in-depth, scholars agree with the idea that there are different
types of motivation:

1) Integrative motivation/ intrinsic motivation which reveals an interest for the

language itself and its culture vs. instrumental motivation/ extrinsic motivation which
reflects an interest in the goals that can be achieved with L2 (find a job, pass an exam).

2) Need for achievement is very powerful in academic fields vs fear of failure which
is rooted in general anxiety.

H.D. Brown (1987) distinguishes as well three levels of motivation, all of which
need to be present for efficient L2 learning. These are: global, towards learning a
particular L2; situational, related to the context of learning and task-oriented, related to
specific activities.

Finally, Entwistle (1981) identified four types of students according to the type of
motivation they exhibit:

1) Stable and with achievement motivation

2) Anxious and with a fear of failure

3) Extraverted, syllabus-free, with extrinsic motivation

4) Idle and unmotivated

Entwistle (1987) also distinguishes through Béla Kozéki (1985) different styles of
motivation related to the type of reward the student is seeking, these are: affective
motivation, who requires a reward by relevant ‘others’; cognitive motivation, who
follows academic success and moral motivation, which requires a balanced personality
with clear moral values. A mixture of the three of them seems to be the path for a clear
academic success, but it is important to point out that parents and teachers should not
encourage an exclusive cognitive motivation, since it may foment cold, aloof and
possibly amoral students.
2.3. Cognitive theory

One of the most interesting lines of study in this field is the skill acquisition theory,
which can be found in various fields such as psychology, behaviourism or cognitivism.
This theory (developed, among others, in John Robert Anderson’s Adaptive Control of
Thought- Rational theory) claims that learning a wide variety of skills usually shows a
similar pattern in the development from initial representation of the knowledge, through
changes in behaviour to an eventual spontaneous and effortless performance of that
activity. Furthermore, there are two types of knowledge:

1) Declarative knowledge refers to the knowledge that can be explicitly expressed,

such as a law of physics, a grammar rule, a historical fact…

2) Procedural knowledge refers to the knowledge that can only be performed, such as
how to swim, to do mental arithmetic, or to speak fluently. Sometimes called task
knowledge, or also knowledge how as opposed to knowledge that.

Faerch and Kasper (1985) were the first to apply this concept in the field of SLA,
stating that declarative knowledge consists of internalised interlanguage rules and
memorised chunks of language, whereas procedural knowledge refers to those strategies
and procedures used to process L2 information. As they suggest, most declarative
knowledge is activated in a conscious manner, while procedural knowledge tends to be
more automatic and is activated without awareness, except when the language user has
interruptions in communication.

Generally speaking, researchers claim there are three stages of development, usually
named as cognitive stage, associative stage and autonomous stage. In the cognitive
stage, the student or learner may acquire a bit of knowledge about the skill, in the case
of second languages. This knowledge is usually acquired through perceptive
observation and analysis of others doing the skill or with a combination of both. During
the associative stage declarative knowledge turns into procedural knowledge, that is,
provided that relevant declarative knowledge is available and used in the execution, this
turn into procedural knowledge can be achieved after a few trials. However, a large
amount of practice is needed to decrease the time required to execute the task, the
percentage of errors and the amount of attention required. This practice leads to the
autonomous stage, when performance is done autonomously, effortlessly and less
consciously.
 As some scholars have argued, in the field of SLA, simply knowing 'about' the
language is insufficient if the learner wants to be able to use the language for successful
communication. To use the L2 functionally the learner must have acquired the necessary
procedural knowledge, which, in Anderson's terms, can only be mastered slowly and after
a great deal of practice. With this in mind it becomes clear that L2 teachers need to
concentrate on providing learners with communicative activities which focus on language
as the acquisition of a skill rather than as an object of study

2.4. Neuroscience
The most interesting lines of research in this field are based on clinical examinations
of aphasics. Two important objectives became the establishment of hemisphere
dominance and finding a critical age in language learning.

1. Hemisphere dominance

Early research currents attempted to offer support for hemisphere dominance,

including Marc Dax, credited for establishing the left- hemisphere dominance for
language; or the so-called Broca’s area named after the French scientist to refer to the
brain language area in the frontal lobe. Nevertheless, more current researchers focus on
the different ways of processing information.

Research supports that some language components are processed by the left
hemisphere, while others are processed by the right hemisphere. It is language learning
strategies which determine right or left hemisphere processing. Moreover, two types of
bilingual speakers have been identified according to some studies, compound
bilingualism, in which left hemisphere is the dominant, and co-ordinate bilingualism,
where left and right hemispheres are balanced. Also, according to the type of SLA there
is a different activation of the brain: informal learning is related to right hemisphere
activity, while the left hemisphere is more active in formal learning e.g. school learning.

2. Critical period hypothesis

This hypothesis was studied by different neuropsychologists and linguists. In general

terms, it supports the idea that there is no cerebral asymmetry at birth; instead
lateralization occurs as a result of maturation. The process of lateralization develops
rapidly between the ages of 2 and 5 years, and then slows down, being complete by
puberty. The completion of lateralization means the end of the critical period.
Nevertheless, there are different views about the Critical Period:
 Neuropsychologists Penfield and Roberts (1959) suggested that this period lasts until
around 9 to 12 years of critical age, and it is characterised by neural plasticity.

The Critical Period Hypothesis of Lenneberg (1967) comprises two related ideas,
The first idea is that certain biological events related to language development can only
happen in an early critical period. In particular, hemispheric specialization takes place
during the critical period, and during this time children possesses a degree of flexibility
that is lost when the critical period is finished. The second component of the Critical
Period Hypothesis is that certain linguistic events must happen to the child during this
period for development to proceed normally. Proponents of this theory argue that
language is acquired most efficiently during the critical period.

The most important idea of Critical Period Hypothesis is that unless children receive
linguistic input during the critical period, they will be unable to acquire language
normally. One of the most famous of these cases was the Wild Boy of Aveyron, a child
found in isolated woods in south of France in 1800. Despite attempts by an
educationalist named Dr Itard to socialize the boy, given the name Victor, and to teach
him language, he never learned more than two words.

It is less easy to apply this argument to the unfortunate child known as “Genie”.
Genie was a child who was apparently normal at birth, but suffered severe linguistic
deprivation. From the age of 20 months until she was 13 years and 9 months, when she
was found, she had been isolated in a small room. Not surprisingly, Genie’s linguistic
abilities were virtually non-existent.

2.4. Monitor Model

Krashen's Monitor Model is probably the most comprehensive of existing theories. It
consists of Five Central Hypotheses:
a) The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis: Krashen claims that there are two ways for
adult learners to gain proficiency in a second language: subconscious acquisition and
conscious learning. He considers acquisition by far the more important of the two.
He defines acquisition as the process children use when developing skills in their
mother tongue. It is based on meaningful and purposeful communication with speakers
of the TL in which the learner is concerned not with the form of the language but with
the message he is conveying through language, remaining unaware of the linguistic
rules and structures used in the process. Error correction and explicit teaching of
grammar are not relevant to language acquisition.
 b) The Natural Order Hypothesis. The hypothesis affirms that grammatical structures
are acquired in a predictable order. When the learner is engaged in natural
communication tasks, he will manifest the standard order. But he is engaged in tasks
that require or permit the use of metalinguistic knowledge, a different order will
emerge.
c) The Monitor Hypothesis: The Monitor is the device that learners use to edit their
language performance. Krashen gives three conditions for its use:
(1) There must be sufficient time;
(2) The focus must be on form and not meaning;
(3) The user must know the rule.
d) The Input Hypothesis: it implies that the learner must be exposed to a certain
amount of comprehensible input and only a part of it is absorbed. The input must be
slightly beyond what they already know. The input must have other qualities, such as
authenticity, be adapted, relevant…
e) The Affective Filter Hypothesis: it explains that the emotional state can affect
what the learner hears if they have anxiety or fear.

3. THE CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE

The term interlanguage is used to refer to the linguistic competence of L2 learners
and L2 speakers. It can be described as a set of rules that a particular learner acquires at
a particular stage of learning, a sort of idiolect developed between a second language
and that preserves some features of the first language. It can also overgeneralise some
L2 writing and speaking rules.

It is based on the theory that there is a dormant psychological framework in the

human brain that is activated when one attempts to learn a second language. Its theory is
often credited to Larry Selinker (1972) who coined the terms interlanguage and
fossilization. Its origin is found in contrastive analysis, as previously mentioned, a
theory that compared both L1 and L2 differences to predict and correct errors
beforehand. However, this theory was not based in rigorous analysis. After more
research, it was found out that many learner behaviours could not be easily explained by
transfer from L1 to L2. Furthermore, at the same time, several researchers came to the
idea that language learners’ linguistic system were different from both L1 and L2, such
as William Nemser’s approximate system or Pit Corder’s transitional competence.
 Interlanguage is claimed to be even a language of its own, however, it varies much
more than a native-speaker language. As Selinker implied, the utterances produced by
an L2 learner can differ a lot from one produced by a native speaker to convey the same
meaning, which reveals a separate linguistic system. This variability depends in great
part on the context, e.g. repeating oral drills in class will produce a certain type of
sentences while a spontaneous conversation will involve much more the use of the
interlanguage. There are different types of variability depending on several factors:

1) Free variation, the most common among beginners, when students are still trying
to figure out the rules that govern the language.

2) Systematic variation, usually brought about by the linguistic, sociological and

social context.

3) Other factors, e.g. the time to prepare their speech, the accommodation to the
interlocutor, the affective filter…

In order to acquire and learn a second language, a process with several stages takes
place:

1. Identifying a particular characteristic of the target language, by transfer from the

mother tongue of generalisation, for instance, “Do you” is a chunk noticed by students
of EFL to ask questions.

2. Forming a hypothesis based on that identification, that is, they form questions
using that same chunk as they believe it is used for every type of question.

3. Testing the hypothesis by means of receptive skills e.g. the speaker will break the
chunk “do you” and use it correctly when the rules are explained.

4. Receiving feedback by means or productive skills, that is, when they express
themselves in written and oral forms.

5. Delaying the decision on the rule until more feedback is provided, or either
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.

Finally, Selinker also explained that an interlanguage can fossilize, or cease

developing in any of its developmental stages. It can occur even in motivated learners
who are continuously exposed to their L2 or have adequate learning support. Reasons
for this phenomenon may be due to complacency or inability to overcome the obstacles
to acquiring native proficiency in the L2. It is very common in adult language learners
and can also occur when a learner succeeds in conveying messages with their current L2
knowledge. The need to correct the form/structure is therefore not present. The learner
fossilizes the form instead of correcting it.

4. THE TREATMENT OF ERROR

Errors must be differentiated from mistakes. An error is described as the misuse of a
language rule due to lack of knowledge –either declarative or procedural—about that
rule. A mistake is a misuse of a language rule when it is due to reasons other than lack
of knowledge, e.g. a lapse, a slip of the tongue…

There are several fields of research that have come up with ideas on how to analyse
errors when they come up in a second language learning. Some of them are the
following ones, explained in a chronological order:

1. Behaviourist theory: they approached the concept of error as a sign of non-

learning, since they thought it interfered with the acquisition of a second language.
Error analysis’ goals were mere pedagogic, in order to provide information to be used
for teaching or to find remedial lessons.
2. Contrastive analysis by Chomsky: as aforementioned, its strong form claims
that differences between learner’s first language and the target language can be used to
predict all errors whereas the weak form claims that differences are only used to
identify some of the errors that arise. On the contrary, behaviourism argued that the
prevention of error is much more important than identifying them.
3. Finally, Corder (1930) was one of the first to give errors a new direction with
analysing them, so they changed from being undesired to become a guide on the
language learning process. Furthermore, the natural order hypothesis by Krashen
(1983), explained that the acquisition of grammatical structures takes place in a
predictable order in which errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes.
Errors are no longer seen as ‘unwanted forms’ but an active learner’s contribution to
second language acquisition, a view that is followed by our current educational system
which not only helps to the mere language learning, but motivates students to a higher
extent and lessens their anxiety of failure.

Therefore, results from the SLA research reveal that errors are inevitable as part of
the learning process, they signals of progression and affective variables should be taken
into account, for instance, providing students with positive feedback.
 Errors are classified according to the stage of learning and type of error:

a) Transfer, the most common error during the first stages in language learning. It
happens when learners use their L1 to organise L2 data. As a learning strategy, transfer
is economical and productive in those aspects where the two languages have similar
rules. However, learners must set the limits to this strategy and start applying the L2
rules that have been acquired.

b) Overgeneralisation. It happens when predictions on L2 functioning are wrong,

due to different reasons, for instance, the rule does not apply to that particular item
(exceptions) or the item belongs to a different category that is covered by another rule
(amplify category).

c) Simplification. It happens when learners omit language items or rules. Its two
main types of simplification are:

- Reductive reduction: omission of inflections and other morphemes that are

redundant to conveying the message.

- Elaborative simplification: operating with a limited number of categories and

rules which enables better control of L2 production.

d) Non-systematic errors. They depend on the learners as well as on the learning

situation. The use of some communication strategies is very helpful attending to the
communicative purpose, but it also requires the acquisition of the correct language form
attending to the learning process. Lapses and mistakes are also included in this section
by some authors. Over-use of some language forms, mispronunciation, use of old-
fashioned or archaic forms etc… may be due to teaching effects or other external
reasons.

e) Fossilization, as mentioned in the previous chapter, refers to the process when

errors become permanent features in the speakers’ interlanguage.

According to some research on the issue, the higher percentage of errors vary
according to the learning stages, i.e., interference errors are more frequent among
beginners, while developmental errors are more common in intermediate and advanced
learners.
5. LEGISLATION
This topic can be applicable to the curriculum for teaching second languages in
Secondary Education in Spain following the different education laws and their contents.

A great part of the theories mentioned throughout this topic discuss the importance of
acquiring a language through communication and in different types of discourses, such
as the variable competence model, the accommodation theory or the monitor model.
Their ideas are correlated with some of the ideas contemplated in LOE (Article 19) and
previous legislation, which states that teachers should give importance to oral
expression and comprehension rather than focusing explicitly on the rules and grammar,
i.e. a focus on unconscious learning rather than conscious learning, the latter of which is
more prone to be forgotten or fossilized.

The different education laws also imply the importance of learning a second
language taking not only into consideration the language itself, but everything that
surrounds it: culture, geography, community… The social and civic competence
bolsters an open and positive vision of respect to other cultures and people and fosters
the capacity of the students to adapt themselves to different kinds of situations.

Regarding motivation, the ideas included in Appendix II of BOE Order ECD/65/

2015 explain that teachers should provide students with resources with which students
will understand what they are learning, with active and contextualised methodologies,
so students’ motivation will rise according to Gardner’s conditions for having full
motivation: a goal, a desire to achieve it, positive attitudes and effort. This is also very
important regarding students with special needs, since they may encounter more
difficulties when learning the language, therefore, providing them with the tools to
foster their motivation and especially to treat their errors as part of language learning, as
Corder and Krashen imply, will lessen their anxiety and desire to give up.

6. CONCLUSIONS
To sum up, the majority of the theories exposed in the previous chapters provide
teachers and researchers on SLA of helpful ideas on how to approach second language
teaching, not only in Secondary education, but in every teaching field. Some of these
ideas are interesting to be pointed out:
The importance given to Second language culture and its community, as explained
by researchers belonging to behaviourism or sociolinguistics. It is of great significance
 to provide students with a proper input that is adapted but also that is real, and to teach
students how to behave like the TL culture, to imitate them, since the acquisition will be
much easier. Moreover, neurolinguistics shows that teenagers especially are students
that can acquire much more information with a proper input. A good way to achieve this
is through realia, real materials taken from the TL culture, such as videos, pieces of
newspapers, extracts from novels…
Finally, the attention paid to motivation and attitude plays an important role in SLA
nowadays. As the different researches on this topic show, students have different
attitudes towards learning a language depending on their backgrounds, their fear of
committing errors, their past experiences learning a language… Therefore, teachers
need to take them into account and act according to that. Furthermore, they need to
create a positive environment in classroom with a proactive attitude in order to foster
their interest for the language and culture of the TL, as Deci and Ryan (1985: 245)
explain:

Intrinsic motivation is in evidence whenever students’ natural curiosity

and interest energize their learning. When the educational environment
provides optimal challenges, rich sources of stimulation, and a context of
autonomy, this motivational wellspring is likely to flourish.
7. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES

Bloomfield, Leonard (1933) Language. University of Chicago Press

Chomsky, Noam (1957) Syntactic structures in Language, vol.33 nº3, pp. 375-408.

Ellis, Rod (1985) Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford. Oxford University
Press.

(1984) Classroom second language development: A study of classroom

interaction and language acquisition. Pergamon

Halliday, M.A.K. (1975). Learning how to mean: Explorations in the development of

Language. London: Edward Arnold. (New York: Elsevier, 1977

Gardner, Robert C & Lambert, Wallace E. (1972) Attitudes and motivation in second-
language learning. Newbury House Publishers.