FST 5217 Sugar Technology

Course Outline

 Sources of raw materials for the sugar industry

 Composition of raw materials commercially used for the production of sucrose
 Processes and operations involved in the manufacture of refined sugar and other raw
materials
 Grading of sugar
 Microbiology of sugar
 Uses of sugar in the confectionary industry
 Starch hydrolysis with enzymes and acids
 Sugar and the non-nutritive sweeterners
 Traditional confectionaries and sweeterners

 Sources of raw materials for the sugar industry

 History of Sugar
Before the birth of sugar, honey is used as a sweetener. In the America, their sweeteners are
syrups from trees, agave nectar from cactus, or mashed fruits.
Sugar is native to, and first cultivated in, New Guinea. At the beginning, people chew on the
reeds to enjoy the sweetness. 2,000 years later, sugar cane distributed to Philippines and India.
India was the first country to refine sugar, though the Arabs were masters of growing, refining,
and cooking with sugar; they begin to conceptualize it not just as a medicine or spice, but as a
rare delicacy for royalty and the wealthiest. They combine it with ground almonds to create a
moldable sweet which is still popular today.
Religion, has played a part in the story of sugar, as armies of Muslims take over Egypt, Persia,
India and the Mediterranean, they bring their knowledge of sugar with them. Many European
doctors learn the medicinal uses of sugar from Arab texts. Under Arab rule, Egyptians master the
refining process and become known for making the purest, whitest sugar.
The Spanish colonize the Canary Islands, setting up sugar plantations and enslaving indigenous
people to run the mills. when the islands become mostly deforested, the sugar industry falters.
Later, Columbus brings sugar cane from the Canary Islands to Hispañiola (Haiti and the
Dominican Republic) after which Hispañiola became the most important sugar producer in the
New World.
At a point in time when some beverages such as coffee, tea, and chocolate arrived Europe it
drastically increases sugar consumption, making sugar more popular and increasing demand.
During the 17th century alone, over half a million African slaves are shipped to Brazil and other
New World colonies to work on sugar plantations.

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The largest and most technologically advanced sugar refinery in the world opens in
Williamsburg on Long Island with improvements in manufacturing. The production of American
sugar increases and drives down the prices. Lower prices mean less profit, later, eight leaders in
the American sugar industry form the American Sugar Trust with the intention of reducing
production to increase prices and profits for all of their companies.
 Sugar Cane and Sugar Beet
Beet and cane are almost similar in sugar content (beet typically contains 18% and cane about
15%), however, there are some variation their nonsugars content (beet juice contains about 2.5%
and cane juice about 5%) and fiber (beet contains about 5% and cane about 10%). The
composition differences require different methods to produce sugar from beet or cane. The
differences in farming, composition, and processing of these crops are sufficient to justify two
separate industries:
■ Beet-sugar industry
■ Cane-sugar industry

Figure 1. Sugar cane and Sugar beet

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Sugar cane is widely utilized in the manufacture of sugar. The most industrial users of the
product include the pharmaceutical industries, the food and beverages industries, bakeries, soft
drinks bottling plants as well as biscuit and other confectionery manufacturers. It is used in large
amounts as a refined sweetener.
The beet-sugar industry plays an important role in the economy of beet-sugar-producing
countries, which employ large numbers of people to grow sugar-beet, to produce sugar, and to
support sugar-related areas such as sales, service, and research. For example, about 77,000 U.S.
jobs depend on beet-sugar industry. The United States produces about 30 million tons of beet/
year on 0.6 million haof land, processes in 23 factories, and produces about 4 million tons of
sugar. About 40% of the world’s sugar production is from beet, and 60% is from cane. The
climates of most sugar-producing countries are suitable for growing either beet (in moderately
cold areas) or cane (in tropical areas). sugar cane is a tropical plant, Hence Sugar cane is grown
and cane sugar produced in countries lying mainly within the tropics.
The sugar beet is a temperate-zone crop, and is grown in Europe, Asia, Australia, in North and
South America, and in twenty-two of the United States, of which California, Colorado, Idaho,
Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, and Utah are the leading producers. Acreage planted to sugar
beets in the United States has, in some years, exceeded one million acres in only a few countries
such as United States, Spain, Egypt, and Pakistan. Sugar from sugar beet is produced in about 50
countries worldwide, in North America (United States and Canada), South America (Chile),
Asian, North Africa (Morocco and Egypt) countries, and most of Europe.

 Composition of raw materials commercially used for the production of sucrose

 Nutritional Composition
o Sugar beet
Although sugar beets are primarily treated as a source of sucrose, due to their rich chemical
composition, they can also be a source of other carbohydrates, e.g., mono- and oligosaccharides.
in addition to sucrose, sugar beet tissue also comprises other carbohydrates: kestose and
galactose and, in smaller amounts, glucose, trehalose and raffinose.
Sugar beet contains about 75%–86% of moisture, approximately 70% carbohydrate content, and
about 18% sugar. Various fermentable sugars in the sugar beet are available in sugar beet.
Among the sugars, glucose, arabinose, and uronic acids occupy the major portion compared to
their counterparts. Sucrose content in the root varies from 15% to 20%. Crude fiber is also
present in substantial levels in the sugar beet. Minerals such as phosphorus, sodium, and
potassium are predominantly present in the sugar beet.
The pulp is an excellent source of cellulose and other carbohydrate polysaccharides which
includes pectin, arabinose, galacturonic acid, and galactose. The roots of sugar beets also contain
saponins, betaine, free amino acids, nitrogen-free acids, and organic and inorganic ions.

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 o Sugar cane
The sugarcane stalk consists of approximately 75% water with the remainder divided between
fiber and soluble solids. Fiber is a general term to describe the solid residue left after the juice
(water and soluble solids) is extracted by milling, and consists primarily of cellulose and lignin.
The proportion of both fiber and soluble solids increases as the cane matures, and the relative
rate of increase and the relative level of these components at maturity are heritable. Sucrose, the
major component of soluble solids at maturity and the economically most important constituent
of sugarcane, can reach a concentration in the juice of over 20%. Besides water and sucrose,
other constituents of the juice are glucose, fructose, minerals, protein, gum and polysaccharides,
organic acids and miscellaneous minor constituents. These constituents may vary in
concentration with age of stalk, varieties, weather patterns and plant growth, nutrient uptake and
availability, crop damage due to insects, diseases, wind damage and early freezes, and
application of chemical ripeners.
 Phytochemical composition

o Sugar Beet

Sugar beet is a good source of bioactive compounds. Although information on the biological
activities of sugar beet root is limited but 10 phenolic compounds have been separated and
identified in various parts of sugar beet, including the most abundant epicatechin, gallic acid, and
quercetin‐3‐O‐rutinoside. The biological activity tests indicated that sugar beet peel potently
scavenged the nitric oxide and DPPH (2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl) free radicals. In addition,
sugar beet peel exhibited the highest reducing power, and the highest ion‐chelating activity.
o Sugar Cane
Beyond being an important crop, sugarcane has been globally utilized in manipulating various
diseases for its medicinal value. Sugarcane contains various phytochemicals including phenolic
compounds, plant sterols, and policosanols. Phenols help in the natural defense of plants against
pests and diseases. The phytochemicals have gained increased interest due to their antioxidant
activity, cholesterol‑lowering properties, and other potential health benefits. Several workers
have reported the different biological activities of sugarcane in various in‑vivo and in‑vitro test
models. Wide range of analytical methods, including high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), have been utilized for
characterization and quantification of the bioactive constituents in leaves, juice, and bagasse of
sugarcane. The main phenolic compounds are caffeic acid, catechin, epicatechin, gallic acid,
ferulic acid, myricetin, quercetin, p-coumaric acid, resveratrol, and rutin.

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  Processes and operations involved in the manufacture of refined sugar and other
raw materials

 Quality of the Raw Material

Diversification of varieties, types of varieties, maturation stage, cultivation practices, climatic
conditions, soil type, quality and quantity of fertilizer, among other agronomic factors, determine
the quality of the raw material that will be processed. Furthermore, the varieties received at the
factory for processing are never the same. There are a number of factors that often hamper all
agricultural operations and itis not possible to perform a perfect job that brings the best raw
material from the field to the industry.
The process to produce crystallized sugar from sugar beet was developed by German chemist,
Franz Carl Achard, who also built the first beet sugar factory in Europe in early 1801.Sugar beet
processing is the production of sugar from sugar beets. Byproducts of sugar beet processing
include pulp and molasses. Most of the molasses produced is processed further to remove the
remaining sucrose. The pulp and most of the remaining molasses are mixed together, dried, and
use as livestock feed.
The conveyors transport the beets to storage areas and then to the final cleaning and trash
removal operations that precede the processing operations. The beets are usually conveyed to the
final cleaning phase using flumes, which use water to both move and clean the beets. Although
most plants use flumes, some plants use dry conveyors in the final cleaning stage. The
disadvantage of flume conveying is that some sugar leaches into the flume water from damaged
surfaces of the beets. The flumes carry the beets to the beet feeder, which regulates the flow of
beets through the system and prevents stoppages in the system. From the feeder, the flumes carry
the beets through several cleaning devices, which may include rock catchers, sand separators,
magnetic metal separators, water spray nozzles, and trash catchers. After cleaning, the beets are
separated from the water conveyed to the processing operations.
 Sugar beet processing operations

o Diffusion
o Juice purification
o Evaporation
o Crystallization
o Drying, Cooling, and Conditioning

o Diffusion
The cleaned and washed beets are sliced into long, thin strips, called cossettes. The cossettes are
conveyed to continuous diffusers, in which hot water is used to extract sucrose from the
cossettes. In one diffuser design, the diffuser is slanted upward sand conveys the cossettes up the
slope as water is introduced at the top of the diffuser and flows countercurrent to the cossettes.
The water temperature in the diffuser is typically maintained between 50°C and 80°C. This

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temperature is dependent on several factors, including the thermal behavior of the beet cell wall,
potential enzymatic reactions, bacterial activity, and pressability of the beet pulp. Sulfur dioxide,
chlorine, ammonium bisulfite, or commercial FDA-approved biocides are used as disinfectants.
The sugar-enriched water that flows from the outlet of the diffuser is called raw juice and
contains between 10 and 15 percent sugar.
o Juice purification
The objectives of purification are to remove enough of the non-sucrose components to be able to
make white sugar of good quality at a sufficient rate and yield and to stabilize the juice for the
evaporation stage. In this stage, non-sucrose impurities in the raw juice are removed so that the
pure sucrose can be crystallized. First, the juice passes through screens to remove any small
cossette particles. Then the mixture is heated to 80°C to 85°C and proceeds to the first
carbonation tank. In some processes, the juice from the screen passes through a pre-limer, heater,
and main limer prior to the first carbonation tank. In the first carbonation tank, milk of lime
[Ca(OH)2] is added to the mixture to adsorb or adhere to the impurities in the mixture, and
carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is bubbled through the mixture to precipitate the lime as insoluble
calcium carbonate crystals. The small, insoluble crystals settle out in a clarifier, after which the
juice is again treated with CO2 (in the second carbonation tank) to remove the remaining lime
and impurities. The pH of the juice is lower during this second carbonation, causing large, easily
filterable, calcium carbonate crystals to form. After filtration, a small amount of sulfur dioxide
(SO2) is added to the juice to inhibit reactions that lead to darkening of the juice. Most facilities
purchase SO2 as a liquid but a few facilities produce SO by burning elemental sulfur in a sulfur
stove. Following the addition of SO2, the juice proceeds to the evaporators.
o Evaporation
During evaporation, water is removed in a multiple-effect evaporation system using five or six
stages to produce an evaporation syrup called thick juice, condensate, and different grades of
steam for supply to the rest of the factory. Interestingly, multiple-effect evaporation under
vacuum was developed specifically for the sugar process in New Orleans by French chemical
engineer.
Steam is produced in large boilers in the factory using gas (natural or biogas) or still sometimes
coal or oil. The high-pressure steam from gas is often first fed into alternator turbines to produce
electricity which will also regrade the steam to a suitable quality that can be used in the factory.
This factory steam is used to heat the first set of evaporators. The steam that is produced from
the evaporated water in each evaporator is in turn used to heat the next evaporator all the way
through the five or six evaporator sets. Through each subsequent set of evaporators, the
temperature and therefore pressure of the steam is reduced due to heat loss and vapour bleed and
the pressure inside each evaporator is therefore decreased, allowing the juice to boil at the lower
temperatures provided in each subsequent evaporator. This prevents excessive colour formation
due to thermal reactions of the juice and allows the evaporator station to produce steam of
different grades that can be used throughout the factory in other heating operations as needed.

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 o Crystallization
The crystallization is the final purification stage of the beet syrup and is conventionally arranged
into a three-stage cascading batch or continuous crystallizers and centrifuges to produce white
sugar and final molasses. White sugar is finally conditioned by drying, cooling, and conditioning
to produce a stable, flowable white crystal product.
Sugar is crystallized by low-temperature pan boiling. The standard liquor is boiled in vacuum
pans until it becomes supersaturated. To begin crystal formation, the liquor is either "shocked"
using a small quantity of powdered sugar or is "seeded" by adding a mixture of finely milled
sugar and isopropyl alcohol. The seed crystals are carefully grown through control of the
vacuum, temperature, feed-liquor additions, and steam. When the crystals reach the desired size,
the mixture of liquor and crystals, known as massecuite or fillmass, is poured into high speed
centrifugals, in which the liquid is centrifuged into the outer shell, and the crystals are left in the
inner centrifugal basket. The sugar crystals are then washed with pure hot water and are sent to
the granulator, which is a combination rotary drum dryer and cooler. Some facilities have
separate sugar dryers and coolers, which are collectively called granulators. The wash water,
which contains a small quantity of sucrose, is pumped to the vacuum pans for processing.
o Drying, Cooling, and Conditioning
The wet sugar leaves the centrifuges with between 0.5 and 1.5% moisture content. The level of
moisture is a function of viscosity, particle size, and spin time in the centrifuge. There are three
types of moisture in a sugar crystal: inherent moisture, bound moisture, and free moisture. Free
moisture exists as a sucrose syrup on the surface of the crystal as sucrose would readily dissolve.
If the crystals are not dried and conditioned, the free moisture on the surface of the crystals will
migrate according to temperature and/or humidity gradients in the surrounding area, causing the
dissolved sucrose to form a permeable amorphous layer on the surface of the crystals. The
moisture migration would therefore cause adjacent crystals to fuse together through this unstable
amorphous layer on the surface and will eventually form one big, conglomerated sugar lump if
the process is not interfered with. Sugar, therefore, needs to be dried.
The rotary drum dryer with an integrated cooler, often referred to as a granulator, will dry and
cool the sugar by lifting and dropping it through a fast-moving airstream. Another popular design
is the rotary louvre dryer, where the air is passed through a moving bed of sugar. Other designs
exist of which the fluidised bed drier is of interest as it is the only dryer that will also remove
fines. All other dryers are followed by a screen for fines removal. The air for the dryer does not
need to be heated except in mid-winter, as the sugar itself will supply the heat necessary for
drying. The relative humidity of the air in the dryer and cooler parts are controlled separately for
optimum control.
After cooling (and screening), the sugar will enter the silo where conditioning takes place.
Particle size distribution and especially fines content are key parameters in determining how well
the sugar will mature; in other words, how long the sugar will take to reach stability in terms of
humidity exchange with the environment. Inside the silo, conditioned air with carefully
controlled humidity is forced through the bed of sugar to afford conditioning.

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 Figure 2. Principle steps of sugar beet processing and common product uses
o Thick Juice Storage
After evaporation, the thick juice should be sterile and free from any microbial organisms. The
juice is stored very close to the sucrose saturation point to limit water activity which is necessary
for most microbes to become active. pH of stored syrup is above 9.2 where chemical degradation
of both invert and sucrose occurs slowly and syrups are cooled to below 15°C prior to storage to
promote conservation. Some infections can still occur mainly starting as deterioration on the
surface where the syrup in is contact with the air and therefore exposed to opportunistic microbes
such as common yeast and molds.
The high pH will inhibit microbial growth so that the sucrose destruction will be very slow, yet
some molds and yeasts from the air could be attracted to the sucrose and establish themselves on
the surface. Gradually, the formation of organic acid products will reduce the pH so that

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conditions are slowly becoming more favorable for microbial activity and thus sucrose losses.
Below pH8.3, acid-catalyzed sucrose inversion begins and becomes more and more significant
with pH drop. Further destruction of inverts to lactic and other organic acids will contribute to
the drop in pH. At the same time, the lower pH will support the activity of more and more
microorganisms. Finally, the degradation can no longer remain just on the surface but could
rapidly spread to the body of the tank.
o Sucrose loses
Sucrose is readily hydrolyzed at pH below 8.3 in the sugar factory into its constituent molecules,
glucose, and fructose. The sugar factory, or rather sucrose extraction plant, has therefore been
designed with one of the primary goals to keep sucrose hydrolysisas low as possible. The
understanding, management, and reduction of sugar losses are one of the main focus points of
the process chemist in a factory and substantial monetary savings could be unlocked through
continuous improvement in this area.
 Sugar cane processing operations

o Formation of sucrose in the cane

Sugars are synthesized by the cane plant from water and atmospheric carbon dioxide; hexoses
are first formed and, during the maturing phase, these are synthesized to sucrose. The cane
matures normally in the cooler months, hence the harvesting period is normally in the winter.
The synthesis of sucrose in the cane plant is the result of a complex series of chemical reactions,
commencing with photosynthesis with the aid of the chlorophyll in the cane leaves. Harvest
commences when the leaves turn yellow, green, purplish, reddish or when cane punches show
that there is a sufficiently high content of sucrose. From the sugar manufacturers' point of view,
the important consideration is to harvest the cane as close as possible to its peak of maturity, i.e.,
when its sucrose content is at or near its maximum. The harvesting and crushing season are
therefore arranged accordingly.
The processing of cane involves the flowing operations:
o Extraction
o Clarification
o Evaporation and boiling
o Crystallization
o Centrifugal Separation
o Drying and storage of raw sugar

o Theory of extraction
The term extraction is generally used to mean total sugar extracted by the milling tandem, as
percent of sugar in cane. As defined by the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, it
is sucrose in mixed juice percent sucrose in cane; more specifically, it may be stated as sucrose
extraction or pol extraction according to method of analysis, and is normally determined from

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analysis of bagasse. "Brix extraction' similarly expresses extraction in terms of brix. In
discussing the mechanism of extraction of sugar by a mill, the term "extraction" is used to mean
extraction of juice by a 3 roll mill, or a pair of rollers, and may conveniently be expressed as
"juice extraction" ,i.e. the weight of juice extracted by that mill as percentage of the juice in cane
entering the mill.
 Juice Weighing
Weighing of juice is a step in chemical control rather than a part of the process itself. It is
essential to determine accurately the weight of juice entering the plant, as this generally forms
the basis of process control. The factory is conventionally divided into milling plant and boiling
house, and the clarification process is the first portion of the boiling house. Hence the weight and
analysis of mixed juice give a measure of the sugar entering the boiling house, and this is
generally the starting point for control of the whole factory; hence a dependable weight of juice
is the first essential in process control.
o Clarification
The purpose of the clarification process is to remove impurities from the juice as early as
possible in the process. The juice contains considerable colloidal and fine suspended matter, and
it is mainly these constituents which are removed in clarification; some soluble constituents are
also removed. The process, as far as suspended matter is concerned, is closely analogous to the
treatment of water supplies; the fine suspensions are coagulated giving particles which will settle
at a reasonable rate, and the juice is then pumped to settling vessels to allow the coagulated
matter to settle. In raw sugar manufacture the main reagent used is slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide). The combined effect of the lime and heating is to form a flocculent precipitate which
entrains much of the very fine suspended matter and on settling leaves a clear juice. The
sediment or mud must then be treated to recover the considerable proportion of sugar which it
contains.
Three main types of process may be distinguished:
(1) Defecation, sometimes called lime defecation, where lime is the only material added (except
for minor additives).
(2) Sulphitation, where in addition to lime, sulphur dioxide gas is added to the juice giving a
precipitate of calcium sulphite.
(3) Carbonatation (or carbonation) in which carbon dioxide gas is also added giving a precipitate
of calcium carbonate.
Sulphitation and carbonatation are used (with few and minor exceptions) only for production of
direct consumption white sugar.
 Lime Defecation
Whatever the process employed; clarification consists of 2 separate operations:
(1) Clarification proper, with coagulation of impurities.

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(2) Subsidation or settling of the coagulated impurities from the liquid.
The efficiency of the 2nd or subsidiary step depends on effective operation of the 1st or
coagulation step to give a suitable precipitate which will settle satisfactorily.
 Importance of clarification
Effective clarification is vital to proper operation of subsequent stations of the factory, especially
sugar boiling, centrifuging and the quality and yield of the finished sugar. Any suspended matter
carried over with the juice is likely to cause inclusions in the sugar crystal, with consequent high
ash content and difficulty in filtration of the raw sugar, gums and proteins and similar
compounds, if not removed, cause a marked increase in viscosity with consequent slow boiling
and higher loss in molasses. Poor clarification is often associated with such difficulties in the
boiling house, though such difficulties may not be the result of poor clarification. It may well
mean that abnormal impurities are present which cause difficulties in both clarification and sugar
boiling.
o Evaporation and boiling
The clarified juice from the subsiders contains about 15-20% of solids, depending on the
concentration of the original juice in the cane. This has to be concentrated eventually to raw
sugar and molasses, i.e., the water has to be removed almost entirely. This evaporation duty is
divided into two portions: (1) the "evaporation" so called, which concentrates the juice to a
heavy syrup, taking care to stop short of saturation, (2) the "sugar boiling", in which
concentration is carried further so that crystals form and are grown under controlled conditions to
the desired size; the sugar boiling process is carried out in stages, the final products being raw
sugar and final molasses.
The first step ("evaporation") is carried out in multiple effect evaporators of conventional design.
The second ("sugar boiling") involves boiling a viscous liquid, containing crystals in suspension;
and evaporators of a special design, known as vacuum pans, are used in single effect. From the
fuel economy point of view, it is advantageous to carry the multiple effect evaporation as far as
possible without reaching saturation; hence a concentration of approximately 70° brix is
generally sought in the syrup leaving the evaporators.
o Crystallization
The term "crystallization" or "crystallization-in-motion" is a comparatively recent development;
the earlier practice was to discharge the contents of the vacuum pan, either as massecuite or as a
concentrated molasses without crystals, into large open storage tanks, where it was left to itself
to cool and crystallize. This resulted in a small and irregular grain. Crystallization-in-motion was
first described in Germany in 1884. Since that date the use of crystallizers provided with stirring
equipment has gradually become general; such development was slow, since Meade in 1929
described crystallization-in-motion as, even then, rather a new development. The advantage of
stirring in a crystallizer is that massecuite is kept in continual motion so that the sugar crystals
move freely in the mother liquor and continually come in contact with supersaturated molasses.
The sucrose in the molasses can thus crystallize on the existing crystals rather than forming new

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nuclei; hence the stirring action ensures a more even degree of super saturation as well as more
uniform temperature.
Crystallization is maintained in the crystallizer by the decreased solubility of sucrose at lower
temperatures; thus, crystallization is achieved by cooling, as distinct from concentration by
evaporation under substantially isothermal conditions in the vacuum pan. Use of crystallizers is
essential with low grade massecuites on account of the very low crystallization rate at low
purities.
The original emphasis was on allowing time for further crystallization; however, it is the
reduction in temperature rather than the time which is important, and crystallizers with water
cooling have become general in recent years, in order to achieve the required temperature
reduction in a shorter time than is possible by natural air cooling.
o Centrifugal Separation
Until the middle of the 19th century, separation of syrup from crystal sugar was effected only by
gravity, generally in conical moulds giving the "sugarloaf". Batch operation has been general,
with many attempts at designing a satisfactory continuous machine. The machine is variously
termed a centrifugal drier, basket centrifuge, or simply centrifugal, often abbreviated to "fugai".
The operation of separating the molasses with these machines is known as purging, centrifuging,
centrifugalling or fugalling. The machine consists essentially of a cylindrical basket designed
toreceive the massecuite, and pierced with numerous holes, to allow the molasses to escape; the
basket is lined with a screen of perforated or slotted sheet metal (copper or stainless steel). The
fine perforations of the screen retain the sugar crystals while allowing the molasses to pass
through;backing screens allow free flow of the molasses between the inner screen and the wall of
the basket.The rate of separation of mother liquor from crystals will vary enormously depending
on the characteristics of the massecuite, notably viscosity of the mother liquor and size and
regularity of the crystals
o Drying and storage of raw sugar
Generally speaking, the moisture content of the sugar leaving the centrifugals is too high for
convenient handling and storage. The main consideration is to reduce the moisture content of the
sugar to a value low enough to prevent growth of microorganisms which would cause
deterioration and loss of sugar on storage. The moisture content permissible for keeping qualities
depends on the polarisation (a measure of the amount of impurities) of the sugar, as expressed by
the safety factor or dilution indicator. Since polarisation of the raw sugar is controlled to a value
dictated by the system of payment for raw sugar, the desirable moisture content and
consequently the system of drying will vary in different countries.

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 Figure 3. Raw sugar processing flow chart
 Refining of raw sugar
Generally, the refineries are located in the major centres of population, which in the cane sugar
industry are usually at a considerable distance from the cane growing areas, thousands of miles
in many cases where sugar is exported to another country. The refining process consists
essentially of redissolving the raw sugar, with subsequent purification by clarification and
recrystallization, generally with an additional step for removal of color. The flow chart of the
refining processes, shows that the refining process is similar in essentials to the latter part of the
raw sugar process.

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  Refining Process
The refining process in the sugar industry is defined as purification of raw sugar by remelting,
purifying, and crystallization. Raw (nonrefined) sugar consists of sucrose crystals covered with a
thin layer of syrup. Raw cane sugar contains 1 to 4% nonsugars (purity of raw sugar is 96 to
99%). The refining process removes nonsugars and color from raw sugar.
The refining process may be divided into the following steps:
o Affination
o Clarification
o Decolorizing
o Crystallization
o Drying and Finishing
The flow chart in Figure below shows the essentials of the process. Affination and clarification
are the steps most concerned with quality of raw sugar.
o Affination
Affination consists of removing the adhering film of molasses from the surface of the raw sugar
crystal. The raw sugar is mingled with heavy syrup of about 75° brix and is then separated in
centrifugal and washed with hot water after the syrup has been spun off. The affination syrup
from the centrifugal is then treated separately since it contains most of the impurities from the
raw sugar; the washed or affined crystals are then "melted" or dissolved in hot water to give a
syrup of approximately 65° brix which then passes on to the clarification process.
o Clarification
Two forms of clarification are used in modern refineries. The first could be called chemical
treatment, as it employs materials which form a precipitate in the syrup; the second uses inert
filter aids which give a mechanical removal of suspended matter, after addition of lime sufficient
only to regulate the pH of the syrup to the desired value.
 Carbonation
Probably the method most widely used is carbonatation, or precipitation of calcium carbonate in
the liquor by addition of milk of lime and carbon dioxide gas. Milk of lime and washed flue
gases from the boilers are added simultaneously at liquor temperatures ranging from 60 to 80 °C.
This is regulated to give a pH approaching 10, and then a second gassing in a second vessel
brings the pH down to 8.4-9.0. Washed flue gases are generally used as the source of carbon
dioxide, the large excess of inert gases serving to give violent agitation and effective mixing.
Following the carbonatation step, the liquor is filtered, using filters of leaf type.
 Phosphoric acid and lime
One of the oldest clarification processes used in the refinery was addition of lime and phosphoric
acid to give a precipitate of tricalcium phosphate. This gave excellent clarification and color
removal, but the flocculent phosphate precipitate was difficult to filter, hence filters working

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under a small gravity head of liquor were the only types practicable. These have long been
discarded, generally in favor of the carbonatation process. In recent years however pressure
filtration using highly porous filter aids has been used to a limited extent.
o Decolorizing
The liquor leaving the clarifier should be brilliantly clear but still contains most of the color of
the affined sugar. The color is removed in the great majority of refineries by the action of bone
char, prepared by heating bones in the absence of air followed by grinding to a suitable granular
condition. Bone char contains carbon in a very active form, on a porous base of calcium
phosphate. It removes color and much of the ash content very effectively, and can be regenerated
by heating and reused many times.
Some synthetic materials as well as vegetable carbons are used to a limited extent in the
decolorizing process, but bone char, the original decolorizing material, is still the one most used.
After the char treatment, the liquor is practically colorless and passes on to the vacuum pans for
the crystallization process.
o Crystallization and finishing
The process of crystallization of refined sugar, with separation of the mother liquor and
subsequent drying of the sugar, is essentially similar to that in the raw sugar factory. Since the
initial liquor coming to the vacuum pans is of very high purity, several crops of crystal can be
obtained from it before the syrup separated is appreciably off-color. It then passes to the recovery
pans, in which 3 or 4 further crops of sugar are recovered, the final boiling giving a final
molasses similar to that in the raw factory.

15
Figure 4. Sugar refining flow chart

16
  Grading of sugar
All sugar is made by first extracting sugar juice from sugar beet or sugar cane plants and from
there, many types of sugar can be produced. Through slight adjustments in the process of
cleaning, crystallizing and drying the sugar and varying the level of molasses, different sugar
varieties are possible. Sugar is known for its high quality, hygiene and good taste which can be
classified in a number of ways including crystal size (granulated, powdered, or superfine) and
color (white or brown). Sugars of various crystal sizes provide unique functional characteristics
that make the sugar suitable for different foods and beverages. Sugar color is primarily
determined by the amount of molasses remaining on or added to the crystals, giving pleasurable
flavors and altering moisture. Heating sugar also changes the color and flavor. Some types of
sugar are used only by the food industry and are not available in the supermarket. An
International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis (ICUMSA) was established
in 1897 to create international standards for sugar quality classification.
The rating system is based on the color of sugar, which is regarded as being an effective measure
of how refined and free from impurities it is. Three major grades of white refined sugar are
available comprises of:
 ICUMSA-45
 ICUMSA-100
 ICUMSA-150

 ICUMSA-45
ICUMSA-45 Sugar is a most highly refined form of sugar. ICUMSA-45 sugar has a sparkling
white color, and is the type most often sold direct to consumers. It is suitable for human
consumption and use in a wide range of food applications. It is perpetually in high demand as it
is the safest form of sugar, due to the fact that the refining process by which it is created removes
the bacteria and contaminants often present in raw sugars.
 ICUMSA 100
ICUMSA 100 Sugar is manufactured by using a crystallization process without any chemical
refining. ICUMSA-100 Sugar is well known for its great crystalline shape and purity.
 ICUMSA-150
ICUMSA-150 white cane sugar is widely used because it contains less chemical. It is more easily
available, ICUMSA-150 white cane sugar is often used in large scale baking, drinks making and
the production of other food stuffs.

 Microbiology of sugar
The micro flora of sugar cane, depends on the type of the cane, and is composed of many
different kinds of microorganisms. Some of the factors that influence growth of microorganisms
in sugarcane includes: physical damage on cane, time lag between harvesting and milling,
damage duration in the harvested cane. Among the microorganisms, the ones most often

17
enumerated include: bacteria; Bacillus spp., Flavobacterium spp., Pseudomonas spp.,
Xanthomonas spp., Lactobacillus spp., and Enterobacteriaceae spp.; yeasts; Saccharomyces spp.,
Torula spp. and Pichia spp.; and fungi; Penicillium spp., Actinomyces spp. and Streptomyces
spp. The composition of the population of microorganisms is closely linked to the sugar content
and pH (5.0-5.6) of sugarcane. It is an ideal medium for the growth of various microbes, because
of the content of organic and inorganic salts, proteins and other nutrients.
In the manufacture of beet sugar, cleaned beets are sliced and sugar is removed by a diffusion
process at 60 - 85°C. Sources of contamination are flume water and diffusion battery waters.
Thermophiles may grow up to 70°C in diffusion battery waters.
Raw juice from sugarcane may be contaminated with micro organisms during processing. The
contamination mainly occurs from the adhering soil particles to the sugarcane. Much
contamination may come from debris or fine particles on the sides or joints of troughs at the
plant.
According the study conducted on fourteen samples of raw and refine sugars it revealed that raw
cane sugar samples were characterized by varying degrees of microbiological contamination.
Among the examined microorganisms, the largest share was recorded for mesophilic bacteria
and thermophilic bacteria. In addition, the samples were characterized by varying degrees of
contamination with osmotolerant yeasts and moulds. The contamination of raw cane sugar with
osmotolerant yeasts of the genus Zygosaccharomyces, Candida and Pichia are strongly
connected with water activity. The content of mesophilic bacteria in all the analyzed raw sugar
samples was above 200 cfu/10 g, that is, it exceeded the standard for granulated sugar. In 85% of
the samples it was even above 500 cfu/10 g,
The contamination of refined white sugar with thermophilic spore-forming bacteria was very
small; they were found only in four samples at the level below 5 cfu/10 g of white cane sugar.
Extraction and clarification of the juice may kill yeasts and vegetative cells of bacteria.
Sedimentation, filtration, evaporation, crystallization, centrifugation reduces number of
microorganisms.
The storage and transport of raw sugar are usually performed without any containers, which
leads to the danger of microbiological re-contamination. In order to produce white sugar for
consumption the imported raw sugar undergoes the refining process, which should result in
obtaining sugar characterized not only by desired physical and chemical parameters, but also by
high level of microbiological purity.
Pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are not capable of surviving sugar refining process temperatures.
Therefore, these organisms can be introduced into granulated sugar only after production if good
manufacturing and warehousing practices are not employed. In a study to determine the survival
of pathogenic bacteria revealed that the duration of survival of pathogens evaluated was
dependent on innoculum concentration, in other words, the higher the concentration, the longer
the survival and vice versa. E. coli was found to give the lowest duration of survival while S.

18
typhimurium gave the longest survival. However, S. aureus gave varying results in two different
sets of studies with differing series of concentrations.
 Microbiological requirements for raw and white cane sugar
The legislation of the European Union lacks microbiological criteria for raw cane sugar. This is
probably due to the fact that it is treated as an intermediate product that undergoes a refining
process to obtain the final product, i.e. refined white sugar.
One of the standards for the evaluation of “unrefined” brown sugar are Brazilian requirements,
which accept the content of mesophilic bacteria up to 500 cfu/10 g. The content of yeasts and
moulds is also limited to the level of 500 cfu/10 g. Additionally, brown sugar cannot contain
more than 50 cfu/10 g of thermophilic bacteria.
The microbiological evaluation of white sugar obtained both by refining raw cane sugar and by
beet processing is commonly based on the requirements of the standards developed by the U.S.
National Soft Drink Association (NSDA). According to these recommendations, the number of
mesophilic bacteria should not exceed 200 cfu/10 g of granulated sugar and the number of yeasts
and moulds contained in 10 g of sugar should not exceed 10 cfu.
 Preventive Measures

o Reduction in kill to mill time

On an average, Indian sugar mills lose about 10 to 15 kg of sugar per tonne of cane crushed.
Time between harvesting and milling of cane should be as minimum as possible and should
never exceed 24 hours.
o Crush good quality disease free cane.

o Cleanliness of cane and the mills

Cleanliness leads to reasonably low level of microbial infection and should be encouraged from
practical point of view. Avoid any stagnation of juice anywhere.
o Avoid construction of non accessible cleaning areas.
Washing of mills and use of effective disinfectants, enzymes etc.
o Filtrate
Loss caused by thermophilic bacteria at filtrate is more in any of the boiling house product.
Addition of bacteriocide at the level of 1 ppm may be beneficial at this point.
o Screens
Screens at mills, pan floor provides most favorable area for microbial growth, cleaning of
screens with hot water is a must.

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 o Evaporators
Though a microbial activity at this station is less significant but delay in evaporation will lead to
the activity of thermopiles.
o Pan Station
Movement water should be passed through strainers. Washing of pan supply tanks at least once
in15 days
o Centrifugal, hopper, packing area & storage area

 Leakage, drippings & condensation should be avoided

 Area surrounding to centrifugal should be clean and dry.
 Any leakages of pump & joints should be arrested immediately.
 Bird nets at all ventilations should be used to avoid entry of birds.
 Rat traps should be used to reduce the rats from storage area

 Uses of sugar in the confectionary industry

o Sugar as food

Sugar receives blame for many health problems, however without sugar, human body would
cease to function properly. Many sources differentiate sugar into natural and added. Natural
sugar is the sugar occurring in unprocessed and valuable foods, like fruits, vegetables, milk and
some grains. Sucrose is formed in many fruits (e.g., about 7% in bananas and 5% in oranges).
Sucrose is formed by the photosynthetic process. The primary product of photosynthesis is
monosaccharides. Then, two monosaccharides combine with the help of an enzyme.

Sucrose is the main source of sugar in most of human diets and it serves as primary source of
energy for the human body providing on average 4 calories per gram. Human body cannot
absorb the disaccharide, or two-sugar molecule it must first break the chemical link connecting
the two sugars through a process called hydrolysis, this break down take place whether the
sucrose is natural or added during processing. Sucrose digestion start when the sugar reaches the
small intestine. Water is required to break the glyosidic bond to separate the glucose and fructose
molecules, one molecule of water is needed for each molecule of sucrose. Since the process is
slow, the enzyme sucrase in the small intestine assists with the breakdown of sucrose into
fructose and glucose. This allows the body to absorb them, transport them to the liver for
processing and distribute them throughout the body. The hormone insulin then facilitates the
uptake of glucose into cells, where it is metabolized into energy for immediate use.

o Sugar as ingredient

Generally, the most notable function of sugar in food is its sweet taste. the industrially
manufacture sugar in its market-quality form is white and crystalline with a pleasantly sweet
taste. Sweetness improves the palatability of food. It is used in the kitchen, as an ingredient in

20
sugar-added food products (e.g., soft drinks and confectioneries), and in production of nonfood
products (e.g., detergents and ethanol).

Although, sugar can be used as ingredient in almost all food products, its properties are not
entirely suitable for production of certain food products. For example, in some food products
(like in fruit gums) liquid sugar may re-crystallize after the products are produced if the
concentration of sugar syrup used in these products is high (more than 75%).

Sugar as an ingredient plays an important and unique role in contributing to the flavor profile by
interacting with other ingredients to enhance or diminish certain flavors. The addition of sugar
enhances flavors by increasing the aroma of the flavor. Sugar provides bulk which impacts the
mouthfeel and texture of many food products. Sugar plays an important role in the texture of
bakery products. It tenderizes bakery products by competing with starch molecules and proteins
for liquid components in the dough, which prevents overdevelopment of gluten and slows down
galvanization. Sugar influences the spread of dough and surface cracking in cookies. In the
manufacturing of ice cream and other frozen desserts, the level of sugar can affect the ice and
crystal crystallization size, this is due to sugar’s ability to attract and hold water diminishes the
water available for crystallization during freezing and as a result, the freezing point for these
frozen desserts drops, thus allowing colder temperatures to be used during processing.

o Sugar as a preservative

Preservatives are substances added to food stuff to avoid or delay spoilage. In addition, they are
also added to prevent or delay changes in flavour, colourand texture, maintain freshness, and
delay rancidity. People like sugar for its sweetness. But the sweetness is only one of the
functionalities of sugar. Sugar is also used as a preservative to improves the shelf life of food
products. The hygroscopic nature of sugar plays a crucial role in reducing water activity in the
foods. Sugar prevents spoilage of jams, jellies, and preserves after the jar has been opened. Its
ability to attract water dehydrates microorganisms, so they cannot multiply and thereby spoil the
food. Sugar also acts as a humectants in baked foods, which prevents drying out and staleness,
thus extending the shelf-life of these products.

Protection of foods from microbial spoilage using sugar is often referred to sugar curing. Curing
may utilize solid form of sugar or solutions. Examples of foods preserved with sugar include:
sugar-cured ham, jams and jellies etc.
There are several ways in which sugar inhibit microbial growth. The most notable is simple
osmosis, sugar, whether in solid or aqueous form, attempts to reach equilibrium with the salt or
sugar content of the food product with which it is in contact. This has the effect of drawing
available water from within the food to the outside and inserting sugar molecules into the food
interior. The result is a reduction of the so-called product water activity (aw), a measure of
unbound, free water molecules in the food that is necessary for microbial survival and growth.
The aW of most fresh foods is 0.99 whereas the aw necessary to inhibit growth of most bacteria
is roughly 0.91.

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Sugar also preserves the color of frozen fruits and jellies. In the freezing of fruit, sugar prevents
enzymatic browning discoloration of the fruit by protecting the surfaces of the fruit from contact
with air. sugar inhibits the fruit from absorbing water, so that the color of jellies will not fade.

 Sugar and the non-nutritive sweeterners

The word sugar comes from the Indian sarkara. The chemical name of sugar is sucrose in
English and saccharose in some European languages. Sugar is the generic name for sweet-
tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. According to the Institute of
Responsible Nutrition, there are 56 different names that describe this sweet product. However,
Sucrose (C12H22O11) is the common sugar consumed by people, added to a cup tea or used for
baking. All types of sugar, together with sucrose and glucose, belong to a carbohydrate. A key
carbohydrate consists of sugar, starch and cellulose. Simple classification of carbohydrates is
given below:

 Figure 6: Simple classification of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides, is simple sugars, and it is the tiniest sugar molecules. They do not hydrolyze
into a simpler compound in a human’s body. This group includes glucose (which is also called
dextrose), fructose and galactose. Glucose is a primary product of photosynthesis in plants, and
dextrose appears in some fruits and vegetables. Fructose can be naturally found in fruits and
vegetables, and galactose, as a part of lactose, in milk and dairy products.
Disaccharides, are simply two monosaccharide units joined together. These are hydrolyzed,
simplifying broken down into simple sugars as a result of digestion. The common disaccharides
include sucrose, maltose and lactose (Figure 7).

22
 Figure 7: Composition of some disaccharides

 Chemical structure of sugar (Sucrose)

Sucrose is a disaccharide, made from glucose and fructose rings, each with six carbon atoms.
The sucrose molecule (C12H22O11) consists of 12 carbon atoms (C), 22 hydrogen (H), and 11
oxygen atoms (O). In percentages, the molecule contains 51.5% oxygen, 42.0% carbon, and
6.5% hydrogen. The molecular mass (weight) of sucrose is 342.3 g.

Figure 8: structure of three simple sugars

The quantity of hydroxyl groups (OH) in molecules of sugars contributes to their sweetness.
However, not all sugars are sweet in taste. In general, sugars with at least two hydroxyl groups
(OH) in their molecules are sweet.

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  Non- Nutritive Sweeteners
The increased abundance of processed foods among the diets of industrialized nations has led to
the overconsumption of non-essential nutrients, such as added or free sugars. Consequently,
overconsumption of added sugar and has become a global concern. To address this concern
regarding the consumption of common sweeteners and their known adverse health effects, food
and beverage products now often use non-nutritive sweeteners as replacements for sugar.
Non-nutritive sweeteners were first introduced as early as 1878 as replacements for standard
table sugar are perceived as a safe, particularly in overweight and obese individuals with the goal
of limiting caloric intake as well as improving weight management. The non-nutritive sweeteners
have no or virtually no energy content and they can be consumed without concern about their
effect on blood glucose. They have been determined to be safe when consumed within the daily
intake levels established by the relevant authorities.
Non-nutritive sweeteners (also known as noncaloric sweeteners, artificial sweeteners, very low-
calorie sweeteners, and intense sweeteners) are sweetening agents that have a higher sweetening
intensity and may be derived from plants or herbs. Some artificial sweeteners are not
metabolized by the body, meaning that they pass through the digestive tract, essentially
unchanged. The use of NNS has increased significantly in recent decades. They are broadly
incorporated into foods, especially those representing a growing share of the beverage market.
Despite differences in chemical composition, the consensus of safety and regulatory approvals
for NNS has led dietary recommendations and health organizations to encourage their use and
the suggested beneficial outcomes primarily as sugar substitutes with little to no caloric cost. The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), in addition to several international food safety
organizations, have assessed numerous NNS as safe for human consumption with no causal
relationship between cancer or other health-related issues if consumed within the Acceptable
Daily Intake (ADI). The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) has previously reviewed the
techniques and evidence as favorable for use in adults with Type 1 and 2 Diabetes, if amounts of
consumed NNS do not exceed that of the FDA proposed ADI. In addition, the AND supports the
use of NNS as a strategy for various diet/health concerns including the limiting of carbohydrate
and energy intake as well as blood glucose and/or weight management.
 Types of Non-nutritive sweeteners
The first non-nutritive sweetener discovered was saccharin in 1878. From 1970 to 1981,
saccharin was the only non-nutritive sweetener available in the United States. After almost 100
years of use in 1972, it was removed from the list based on findings from a Canadian study
linking the sweetener to bladder cancer in rats. Additional studies later determined that the
bladder tumors in rats were not relevant to humans, and human epidemiology studies have
shown no consistent evidence that saccharin use has increased rates of bladder cancer. In 2000,
legislation was passed repealing the warning label requirement for saccharin. Cyclamate was
also ban in 1970, due to suspicions over carcinogenicity, shocked the artificial sweetener market.
In contrast, the carcinogenic concerns have not been replicated in human epidemiological
studies.

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 Table 1. Some permitted non-nutritive sweeteners and their ADI
S/N Sweeteners Intensity ADI (mg/Kg/Day)
1 Cyclomate 30 times 11
2 Aspatame 200 times 40
3 Acesulfame potassium 200 times 9
4 Sucralose 600 times 9
5 Saccarine 700 times 5
6 Neotame 7,000 to 13,000 times 2
7 Advantame 20,000 times 32
8 Stevia 200-400 times 4
9 Monk fruit extract 110-250 times Not specify

 Effects of sweeteners on host physiology

Non-nutritive sweeteners carry the advantage over typical sweeteners due to their presumed
zero-to-negligible caloric load, as well as producing no direct glycemic effect. Despite their
extensive usage, the supposed benefits have yet to be established, specifically with reducing
body weight. The effects of NNS consumption in relation to body weight management have been
largely divided over the main findings and randomized controlled trials in humans are limited.
Several observational studies have reported weight gain, conflicting reports of weight loss, or
negligible effects on weight. A key drawback to many of these studies is determining
directionality of the interactions as well as accurate estimates of NNS intake, as these
observational studies do not demonstrate causality. If NNS are used as a substitute to higher
calorie alternatives they do have the potential to aid in weight management, though there is no
influence of NNS on the hormone incretin in relation to blood glucose, appetite, or weight gain.
It was observed that aspartame breakfast induced a rise in glucose and insulin levels similar to
the sucrose meal suggesting that NNS consumption might be deleterious for the diabetics. An
11–12 years follow-up study in the UK showed that consuming 2 or more servings of NNS-
containing diet soft drinks increased the risk of coronary heart disease and chronic kidney
disease in comparison with consuming <1 serving per month. As a result of these varying results
the effects of NNS on body weight management, the American Heart Association and American
Diabetes Association have both concluded there to be insufficient information to say whether
using NNS has the desired impact to reduce body weight.

 Traditional confectionaries and sweeterners

 Baba Dudu
Baba Dudu is a traditional Nigerian candy that holds a special place in the hearts of many who
grew up in West Africa especially in the 1980s and 1990s. It’s a coconut-flavored hard candy,
usually dark brown with a shiny finish, and it’s known for its rich taste and unique appearance.

25
  Origin of Baba Dudu
Exact origins of Baba dudu are not well documented, but it is believed to have been created by
local confectioners in Nigeria. The name Baba Dudu literally means “black daddy” in Yoruba
(with Baba meaning father and Dudu meaning black), most likely referring to the candy’s dark
color. Baba Dudu is usually knoted together to look like candy necklace. The sweet usually has
a quite shiny outer coat. Baba Dudu is also called “Sweet Alagbon, Charbin Mallam
It was often sold by local vendors in traffic, at school gates, markets, or small kiosks usually wrapped
in nylon or sometimes without any wrapping at all.
 Ingredients and Flavor
o Grated coconut
o Sugar
o Water
o Sometimes ginger or vanilla is added for extra flavor.

Baba Dudu is a hard dark brown nutty coconut candy. It’s made by boiling coconut milk down
with sugar till it darkens and then shaped into round or oval balls. Baba Dudu loosely translated
as “black old man”, a name this candy got for its distinctive very dark brown colour.”.

 Procedure

o Add coconut milk or cream, into a clean pot and set on medium heat.
o Add sugar and leave to cook, stirring occasionally.
o As the milk and sugar cook it thickens and will go from milky, to clear, then opaque, and
caramel brown, to dark brown.
o Be careful not to burn it if not it will have a bitter taste.
o Turn the heat off
o Leave the sticky brown sweet to cool down till you can handle it.
o Scoop small bits into your palms and roll them into balls.

Baba Dudu candy

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Indigenous sugar (Mazarkwaila)

Indigenous sugar (mazarkwaila) is a common sugar product in the northern part of Nigeria where
it is used as a traditional sweetener. Traditionally, mazarkwaila is used to sweeten drinks, bake
breads and pastries, and make candies sauces.

Mazarkwaila is made from sugar cane; cane stalks are cut and squeezed for their juice, which is
then boiled until it thickens to form molasses. The process of making mazarkwaila traditionally
is by using horse-driven crushers, motor cycle, diesel crushers and manual juice extraction which
is not so common. The level of farmers participation in traditional sugar processing varies
between the male and female, most of the work done is dominated by the male farmers because it
is labour intensive, men who processed it use either horse, motor cycle (boxer), diesel-powered
crushers and electric motor while the women who processed sugar do it manually. Sugarcane is
the raw material used for manufacturing in Nigeria which accounts for the indigenous sugar
processing and begins the moment the sugar cane is harvested. Two types of sugarcane are
grown in Nigeria; industrial and soft (chewing) cane. The industrial cane is the hard or tough
type generally processed into sugar by the sugar estates. The soft cane is mainly chewed raw for
its sweet juice. Some of it is also processed into different crude sugar products. Local farmers
grow soft cane all over Nigeria.

Mazarkwaila processing

Indigenous sugar is processed from different villages and the processes involved in the
production from sugar cane are similar for both villages. The common cane used in some
localities such as Makarfi, Anchau and Soba (Kaduna State) is farin Rake (Whitecane) or
lamarudiya called in Hausa.The whole process may take up to 2 hours and the steps involved in
the production of mazarkwaila are as follows:

 Extraction
This is the first step in which one to four stalks of cane are fed at a time into the mills while it is
running either in diesel engine; boxer motorcycle or electric motor. Juice is collected from a
drainer into a large metal basin usually made from oil drums, cut into halves. The yield may be
up to 40 L of juice in 100 kg.

 Juice boiling and concentration

This step is carried out in a pair of open pans made from cutting oil drums into halves and placed
on permanent clay, furnaces or burners. Each pan having a capacity of up to 20 L and it is a unit
operation required much time which may be ranged from 30 min to 2 hours.

 Cooling
The madin-rake is collected and poured into an earthen pot and stirred gradually using a wooden
stirrer.

 Dispensing into molds

27
At this point, before the thickened syrup hardens completely, it is dispensed using a calabash
spatula, into small metal molds where the brown cake (Mazarkwala) finally cools then hardens.

Indigenous sugar (Mazarkwaila)

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