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8 INTRODUCTION TO
9 GLOBAL MILITARY HISTORY
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2 ‘Excellent. It integrates the land, air and maritime aspects of conflict and strikes
3 a reasonable balance between the context and the events of the history of war
4 and conflict.’
5 Stanley Carpenter, Professor of Strategy and Policy,
6 US Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island
7
‘An excellent stimulus to thought and to further study . . . very good on the
8
theoretical underpinning of military history, the distinction between wars and
9 battles and the necessity of examining strategy in the political context.’
2011 Dan Todman, Lecturer in Modern History,
1 Queen Mary, University of London
2
3 This lucid account of military developments around the modern world begins
4 with the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars and
5 continues chronologically to the latest conflicts in the 2000s. It combines global
6 coverage with thought-provoking analysis, dealing not only with the military
7 aspects of conflict but also with the social, cultural, political and economic aspects
8 and consequences of such conflict. By placing the familiar or known alongside the
9 largely unknown, it forces the reader to reassess the standard grand narrative of
30 military history that rests on assumptions of Western cultural and technological
1 superiority. It will be essential reading for students in universities worldwide,
whether studying modern military history, modern world history, history and inter-
2
national relations or war and society.
3
4 Specially designed to be user-friendly, Introduction to Global Military History offers:
5 • Chapter introductions and conclusions to assist study and revision
6 • ‘Voices of war’ sourced extracts from the field of war
7 • Case studies in each chapter to support the narrative and provoke discussion
8 • Vivid engravings, plans, paintings and photos to bring the conflicts alive
9 • A 12-page colour map section plus 21 other integrated maps
40 • Annotated references from the latest publications in the field
1 Jeremy Black is Professor of History at the University of Exeter. He is a leading
2 military historian whose books include Rethinking Military History (Routledge,
3 2004), World War Two: A Military History (Routledge, 2003), European Warfare,
4 1494–1660 (Routledge, 2002), European Warfare, 1660–1815 (Routledge, 1994)
5 and Why Wars Happen (1998). He is editor of the Routledge Warfare and History
6111 series and has lectured extensively in North America, Europe and Australasia.
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INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL
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MILITARY HISTORY
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2 1775 to the present day
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2011 Jeremy Black
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2011 First published 2005 by Routledge
1 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
2 Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
3 by Routledge
4 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
5 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
6 © 2005 Jeremy Black
7
8 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.
9 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
30 collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
1 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
2 or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
3 means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or
in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
4
the publishers.
5
6 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
7
8 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Black, Jeremy.
9 Introduction to global military history: 1775 to the present day/Jeremy Black.
40 p. cm.
1 Includes bibliographical references and index.
2 1. Military history, Modern. I. Title.
3 D295.B53 2005
909.8–dc22 2005008577
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5 ISBN 0–415–35394–7 (hbk)
6111 ISBN 0–415–35395–5 (pbk)
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7 CONTENTS
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2 List of illustrations xi
311 Acknowledgements xv
4 List of abbreviations xvi
5 Introduction xvii
6
7
1 The World of War in the Late Eighteenth Century 1
8
9 Introduction 1
2011 The American War of Independence, 1775–83 3
1 Before the French Revolution 18
2 The French Revolutionary Wars, 1792–99 20
3 The rise of Napoleon 23
4 Asian conflicts 23
5 Naval power 26
6 Conclusions 30
7
8 2 Empires Rise and Fall, 1800–30 31
9
Introduction 31
30
The rise of Britain 33
1
War in the Americas 37
2
Napoleon 40
3
Europe after Napoleon 45
4
Developments elsewhere 45
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Conclusions 50
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3 Moulding States, 1830–80 51
8
9 Introduction 51
40 The aims of conflict 52
1 The impact of technology 53
2 The Taiping rebellion 54
3 The American Civil War, 1861–65 56
4 The Wars of German Unification 63
5 Latin America 65
6111 Conclusions 67
vii
CONTENTS
viii
CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
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7 ILLUSTRATIONS
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31 P LATES
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5 1.1 The Siege of Gibraltar, 1782 by George Carter 2
6 1.2 Destruction of the American Fleet at Penobscot Bay by Dominic Serres 5
7 1.3 The Death of Colonel Moorhouse at Bangalore, 21 March 1791 by
8 Robert Home 15
9 1.4 The storming of Seringapatam, 4 May 1799 24
2011 1.5 Indian demon attacking fort, 1791 25
1 1.6 The Agamemnon engages four French frigates and a corvette by
2 Nicholas Pocock 27
3 1.7 The Battle of Camperdown by Philip de Loutherberg 28
4 2.1 Double-headed shot for cutting through rigging 35
5 2.2 Capture of the Chesapeake, 1 June 1813 35
6 2.3 The squadron under the command of Sir J. T. Duckworth forcing the narrow
7 channel of the Dardanelles 36
8 2.4 Combat du Grand Port, 1810 37
9 2.5 Defence of Hougoumont, 1815 by Denis Dighton 44
30 2.6 Ras al-Khaimah from the S.W. and the situation of the troops by R. Temple 46
1 2.7 Turks learning French manual exercise, 1797 47
2 3.1 Bringing Up the Guns, by Gilbert Gaul 61
3 3.2 Execution of Maximillian, emperor of Mexico, 1867 66
4 4.1 An attack during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95 84
5 5.1 A Night Bombardment by Paul Nash 95
6 6.1 Red Army troops during the Russian Civil War remove a portrait of the
7 deposed Tsar Nicholas II 104
8 7.1 Iwo Jima Landing by Harry Reeks 144
9 7.2 Let’s Give Him Enough and On Time, poster by Norman Rockwell 149
40 8.1 Sinking of the General Belgrano, 2 May 1982 170
1 9.1 Adjusting Rockets by Ivor Hele 177
2 9.2 Shell-shocked US marine during the Tet offensive, 1968 186
3 10.1 Ramadan prayers: an Iraqi soldier prays towards Mecca, June 1984 225
4 11.1 Mass grave near Srebrenica, 1996 245
5 12.1 War damage in Karte Char district of Kabul, 2001 251
6111 13.1 Children Playing War Games, Barcelona 1936 272
xi
ILLUSTRATIONS
1111 M APS
2
3 Colour section between pp. 172 and 173
4 1 China during the Manchu Dynasty, 1644–1912
5 2 The world in 1830
6 3 The world in 1878
7 4 World War One, 1914–18
8 5 Decolonization, 1945–68
9 6 The world in 1950
10 7 The Western Front, 1914–18
1
2 1.1 The American War of Independence, 1775–83 4
3 1.2 Plan of the position of Burgoyne’s army at Saratoga, 1777 11
4 1.3 American map of the Battle of Yorktown, 1781 14
5 1.4 Siege of Gibraltar, 1781 16
6 1.5 Plan of the citadel at Martinique 29
7 2.1 British expansion in India, 1805–58 32
8 2.2 British victories in home waters, 1794–1805 34
9 2.3 Battle of Austerlitz, 2 December 1805 41
2011 3.1 The Taiping rebellion, 1850–64 55
1 3.2 The American Civil War, principal campaigns 58–9
2 4.1 The Russo-Japanese War, 1904–5 87
3 6.1 The British Empire in 1920 112
4 6.2 The Spanish Civil War, 1936–39 119
5 7.1 The Pacific campaign, 1941–45 128–9
6 7.2 The defeat of Germany, 1942–45 133
7 8.1 The Falklands War, 1982 171
8 9.1 The Korean War, 1950–53 179
9 9.2 The Vietnam War, 1959–75 182
30 9.3 The Cold War and arms supplies, 1984–88 195
1 10.1 The Middle East crisis, 31 May to 5 June 1967 220
2 11.1 The Gulf War, 1991 238
3
4
5 B OXES
6
7 1.1 War between the USA and Native Americans 17
8 1.2 The voice of war: the French Revolutionary Wars 21
9 1.3 French Revolutionary tactics 22
40 2.1 Battle of Assaye, 23 September 1803 33
1 2.2 Decisive American victories, 1811–14 39
2 2.3 The voice of war: the Battle of Leipzig 42
3 2.4 Battle of Waterloo, 18 June 1815 43
4 3.1 The voice of war: the American Civil War 62
5 3.2 Clausewitz, Jomini and military thought 67–8
6111 4.1 The voice of war: Imperial enthusiasm, 1879 71
xii
ILLUSTRATIONS
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7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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311 I have benefited greatly from the advice of seven anonymous readers, from the
4 comments of Paul Mackenzie and Rick Schneid on individual chapters, and from
5 the advice of Armstrong Starkey on the battle of Tippecanoe. I would like to thank
6 Moira Taylor for being a most helpful editor and Alan Fidler for his valuable assis-
7 tance at the copy-editing stage. The opportunity to develop some of these ideas
8 presented by the invitations to speak at the 2004 History Institute for Teachers
9 held in Philadelphia by the Foreign Policy Research Institute, the Australian
2011 Defence Force Academy, the Australian Land Warfare Centre, the universities of
1 New South Wales, Ohio and Tasmania, Adelphi, High Point, William Paterson,
2 Rutgers and Roger Williams universities, the 2004 program on the American War
3 of Independence of the University of Virginia’s Division of Continuing Education,
4 the 2004 Summer School of the University of Oxford’s Department for
5 Continuing Education, a conference on the History of War in Global Perspective
6 held at the Mershon Center of Ohio State University in 2004, and at the Centre
7 de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona was most welcome. I would like to thank
8 Roger Burt for giving me the opportunity to practice black-powder shooting. It
9 is a great pleasure to dedicate this book to Oliver Colville, a good friend.
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7 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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3 AWM Canberra, Australian War Memorial
4 NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
5 RAF Royal Air Force (British)
6 RMA Revolution in Military Affairs
7 UN United Nations
8 USA United States of America
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7 INTRODUCTION
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311 The guiding principles of this book are that it be global and a textbook. The first
4 demands a range of comprehension, the second a degree of explication. These, in
5 combination, pose a considerable challenge. At the same time, the book is a major
6 opportunity as no such work has yet been produced in the twenty-first century;
7 there is therefore the opportunity to introduce readers to new developments. The
8 latter include not only the extent to which confrontation and conflict after 1990
9 no longer revolved around the Cold War between the USA and the Soviet Union
2011 that had dominated international relations from 1945 until 1990, but also the
1 extent to which the asymmetrical warfare seen in the 1990s and 2000s, for example
2 in Somalia, Afghanistan and Iraq, creates a need to re-examine earlier struggles in
3 order to probe the precursors of this type of warfare.
4 This is the major intellectual thrust of the book. It moves away from the idea
5 that there is a clear hierarchy of importance in military history and an obvious pat-
6 tern of development, focused on conflict between the great powers, and instead looks
7 at the importance of conflict between these powers and others, and also amongst
8 the latter. Arguments are drawn out across national and chronological boundaries.
9 As a result, there will be more discussion of Asian developments than might
30 have been expected in a book of this type written twenty years ago. This is also
1 appropriate because, throughout the entire period covered in this book, the bulk
2 of the world’s population lived in East and South Asia, with China and, secondly,
3 India being particularly populous. As a consequence, it is necessary to devote atten-
4 tion to their military history, not least by moving aside from the notion that they
5 were somehow passive victims of the inexorable rise of Western military domi-
6 nance. Instead, the nature of the latter looks more tentative, contingent and short
7 term than might have seemed the case in the past. If Anglo-French forces occu-
8 pied China’s capital, Beijing, in 1860, they still lacked the capability to control
9 large sections of China. In India, British rule depended in large part on the co-
40 operation of important sections of native society, and also rested on the use of
1 Indian troops.
2 Asian military history is not therefore treated as a mere adjunct of that of the
3 West, or indeed as it is often done for the period down to the 1920s as an aspect of
4 the impact of the West on the non-West. Instead, there is an attempt to treat Asian
5 developments as integral to those of the period. In part, this entails noting parallels.
6111 In Chapter 3, where nineteenth-century state-building and the opposition to it are
xvii
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