DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.

Taught Curriculum (Operational)

From what is written or planned, the curriculum
1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of has to be implemented or taught. The teacher
learning experiences and intended outcomes, and the learners will put life to the written
formulated through the systematic curriculum.
reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school, for the 4. Supported Curriculum
learners’ continuous and willful growth in This is described as support materials that
personal social competence. (Daniel teachers need to make learning and teaching
Tanner,1980) meaningful. These are print materials and also
includes facilities where learning occurs
2. It is a written document that systematically outside or inside the four walled-building.
describes goals planned, objectives, content, These are the places where authentic learning
learning activities, evaluation procedures and through direct experience.
so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
5. Assessed Curriculum
3. It is a program of activities (by teachers and Taught and supported curricula have to be
pupils) designed so that pupils will attain as far evaluated to find out if the teacher has
as possible certain educational and other succeeded or not in facilitating learning. The
schooling ends or objectives. Curriculum is process is to find the progress of learning, then
considered as the total learning experience of the assessed is for learning, but if it is to find
individuals. out how much has been learned or mastered,
then it is assessment of learning.
4. Curriculum is a sequence of potential
experiences set up in the schools for the It includes both formative and summative
purpose of disciplining children and youth in evaluation of learners conducted by teachers,
group ways of thinking and acting. (Smith, schools, or external organizations. It involves all
Stanley, and Shores) the tests (teacher-made, district or
standardized) in all formats.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CURRICULUM
6. Learned Curriculum
1. Recommended Curriculum (Ideological) If the student changed behaviour, he/she has
Almost all curricula found in our schools are learned. These are measured by tools in
recommended. The three government agencies assessment, which can indicate the cognitive,
oversee and regulate Philippine Education. The affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned
recommendations come in the form of curriculum will also demonstrate higher order
memoranda or policies, standards and and critical thinking and lifelong skills.
guidelines.
●​ Basic Ed-Department of Education 7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum
●​ Higher Education-CHED This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but
●​ Vocational Education- TESDA has a great impact on the behavior of the
●​ BA ENGLISH LANGUAGE – CMO 24 s. learner. Peer influence, school environment,
2017 media, parental guidance, are some factors
●​ BA LITERATURE – CMO 21 s. 2017 that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers
should be sensitive and aware of this hidden
2. Written Curriculum (Enacted) curriculum.
This includes documents based on the
recommended curriculum. They come in the THE TEACHER AS A CURRICULARIST
form of course of study, syllabi, modules,
books or instructional guides among others. A 1.​ Knows the Curriculum
packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s As a teacher, one has to master what is in the
lesson plan. curriculum to create activities that will help the
students understand the lessons
 2.​ Writes the Curriculum the planning, management, evaluation and
A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge development of a good curriculum.
concepts, subject matter or content. These
need to be written or preserved. 5. The curriculum is a complex of details
A good curriculum provides the proper
3.​ Plans the Curriculum instruction equipment and meeting places
A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the that are often most conducive to learning. It
role of the teacher to create a daily, monthly, includes the student-teacher relationship,
yearly plan of the curriculum. guidance and counseling program, health
services, school and community projects, library
4.​ Innovates the Curriculum and laboratories, and other school related work
Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an experiences.
excellent teacher.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical
5.​ Implements the Curriculum sequence of subject matter
The curriculum that remains recommended or Learning is developmental. Classes and activities
written will never serve its purpose. Somebody should be planned. A good curriculum provides
has to implement it. This is where the role of the continuity of experiences.
teacher as an implementor comes in.
7. The curriculum complements and
6.​ Evaluates the Curriculum cooperates with other programs of the
The teacher tries to assess if the curriculum is community
fit to the students' needs or if modifications The curriculum is responsive to the needs of the
should be done. community. The school offers its courses in the
improvement and realization of ongoing
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CURRICULUM programs of the community. There is cooperative
effort between the school and the community
1. The curriculum is continuously evolving towards greater productivity.
It evolves from one period to another, to the
present. For a curriculum to be effective, it must 8. The curriculum has educational quality
have continuous monitoring and evaluation. Quality education comes through the situation of
the individual's intellectual and creative
2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the capacities for social welfare and development. It
people helps the learner to become the best that he
A good curriculum reflects the needs of the can possibly be. Further, the curriculum support
individual and the society as a whole. The system is secured to augment existing sources
curriculum is in proper shape in order to meet for its efficient and effective implementation.
the challenges of the times and make education
more responsive to the clientele it serves. We 19. The curriculum has administrative
plan the curriculum with people. flexibility
A good curriculum must be ready to
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived incorporate changes whenever necessary. The
A good curriculum is developed through the curriculum is open to revision and development
efforts of a group of individuals from different to meet the demands of globalization and the
sectors in the society who are knowledgeable digital age.
about the interests, needs and resources of the
learner and the society as a whole. It is the Hence, the purpose of the curriculum is
product of many minds and energies. encapsulated in the four capacities- to enable
each child or young person to be a successful
4. The curriculum is the result of a long-term learner, a confident individual, a responsible
effort citizen, and an effective contributor.
A good curriculum is a product of a long and
tedious process. It takes a long period of time in The attributes and capabilities can be used by
establishments as a guide to check whether the
curriculum for any individual child or young Another example is a Bachelor of Secondary
person sufficiently reflects the purposes of the Education (B.S.Ed.) programme in Social Studies,
curriculum. in a Teacher Education programme.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN CURRICULUM AND A course of study therefore refers mainly to a

OTHER RELATED TERMINOLOGIES programme of learning that are offered to
students -with various course contents at the
1.​ Curriculum and Syllabus end of which they are awarded a certificate
-​ Curriculum is wider in scope than indicating the type of course of study they had
"syllabus". undergone.

A syllabus is part of a curriculum but it is not 4.​ Curriculum and Lesson Note
the curriculum. A lesson note (or note of lesson; or lesson plan)
Syllabus is the content of the school subjects is a guide for teachers to assist them in the
offered in the school, and it is a sub-set of the orderly presentation of a lesson to the
curriculum. Such subject includes Mathematics, learners in order to facilitate learning.
English Language, Biology, and so on. Teachers draw the plan for teaching a particular
lesson from the scheme of work.
A syllabus normally contains what students will
learn in the various school subjects in a year or That is, just as the scheme of work is a
for a longer period of schooling leading to breakdown of the syllabus so the lesson note is a
certification. It is a long-term plan of work for breakdown of the scheme of work into daily
students and normally prepared by the lessons, which are planned by the teacher.
classroom teachers.
In this plan, the teacher explains the step
2.​ Curriculum and Scheme of Work by-step procedure which he/she would follow
-​ The curriculum of a school is not the in presenting the lesson to the learners. It
scheme of work. usually contains the activities expected of the
students as well as the teachers during the
A scheme of work is a breakdown of the period of the lesson.
contents of what students are expected to
learn in a given period. The classroom is the implementation point of the
programme of learning. Thus, the lesson note is
The systematic arrangement of subject matter an important aspect of curriculum
and activities within a given time period, such as implementation, especially the programme of
a term or a semester. learning component of the curriculum.

Whatever the learners are expected to learn NATURE OF CURRICULUM IN SCHOOL

are broken down into instructional units
(which include activities) and are normally Ralph Tyler (1949) was among the first to
prepared by the classroom teacher. It is usually a suggest four fundamental questions which
guide in planning what is to be done per week must be answered when talking about the nature
over a term or semester and for the three terms of curriculum in schools.
or two semesters in an academic year as the 1. What educational purpose should the
case may be. school seek to attain? (Objectives);
2. What educational experiences can be
3.​ Curriculum and Course of Study provided to attain these purposes? (ie.
A course of study is an educational the activities, the subject-matter, etc);
programme leading to the award of a 3. How can these educational
certificate at the end of the programme for a experiences be organized effectively to
particular set of learners. achieve these purposes? (e.g.
Teacher-centered or child-centered
For example, a Teacher Certificate in Education learning);
(TCE) is a course of study.
 4. How can we determine whether or not ●​ Learnability – the complexity of the
the expected objectives have been content should be within the range of
achieved? (i.e. using tests,performance experiences of the learners
observations, and other forms of ●​ Feasibility – If the subject content can
evaluation). be learned within the time allowed,
resources, etc.
APPROACHES TO THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM ●​ Interest – one of the driving forces for
students to learn. Contents should be
Three Ways of Approaching the Curriculum meaningful.
●​ Curriculum as a Content or Body of
Knowledge Guide in the Selection of the Content in the
●​ Curriculum as a Process Curriculum
●​ Curriculum as a Product 1.​ Commonly used in the daily life
2.​ Appropriate to the maturity levels and
abilities of the learners
1.​ Curriculum as a Content or Body of 3.​ Valuable in meeting the needs and
Knowledge competencies of the future career
-​ focuses on the body of knowledge to 4.​ Related to other subject fields or
be transmitted using appropriate discipline for complementation and
teaching methods integration
Example: a primary school mathematics 5.​ Important in the transfer of learning to
curriculum consists of topics on addition, other disciplines
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
BASICS: Fundamental Principles for
Content Presentation Approaches: Curriculum Contents (Hunkins and Ornstein,
-​ Topical - organizes the curriculum 2018)
around specific topics or subjects, each B – alance – content should be fairly distributed.
treated as a distinct unit of study. A – rticulation - ensures that there is a clear
-​ Conceptual - focuses on overarching connection and progression between different
concepts that tie together various levels of the curriculum, making sure that
topics. learning builds on previous knowledge and skills.
-​ Thematic - integrates different subjects S – equence - the logical order in which content
around a central theme, allowing is presented, ensuring that students build
students to make connections between knowledge and skills in a systematic and
various areas of knowledge. progressive manner.
-​ Modular - breaks the curriculum into I – ntegration - involves connecting different
self-contained units or modules, each subjects and disciplines within the curriculum,
focusing on a specific set of skills or allowing students to see the relationships
knowledge. between different areas of knowledge.
C – ontinuity - the reinforcement and extension
Criteria for Selecting Content (Scheffer, 1970 of learning over time, ensuring that key concepts
in Bilbao, et al 2015) and skills are revisited and deepened as
●​ Significance – if content becomes the students progress through the curriculum.
means of developing cognitive, S – cope - the breadth and depth of content
affective, or psychomotor skills of the covered in the curriculum, ensuring that all
learner. necessary topics are included and covered
●​ Validity – the authenticity of the subject adequately.
matter forms its validity. Knowledge
becomes obsolete with the fast Curriculum as a PROCESS
changing times. -​ emphasizes how learning takes place,
●​ Utility – usefulness of the content in the focusing on the methods and
curriculum is relative to the learners who experiences students engage with
are going to use these. during their education.
 -​ interaction among teachers, students,
and content PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
1.​ PERENNIALISM
examples of processes: -​ focus of education should be the ideas
- Problem-based that have lasted over centuries; rooted
- Hands On, Minds On in the following schools of thought:
- Cooperative Learning idealism, realism
- Online Learning -​ the teacher is an authority figure who
- Blended Curriculum imparts knowledge and guidance, using
- Case-based , etc. methods like lectures and Socratic
discussions.
Guiding Principles for the Curriculum as a
Process 2.​ ESSENTIALISM
-​ Curriculum processes in the form of -​ students should learn the essential,
teaching methods or strategies are foundational knowledge and skills of the
meant to achieve the end. culture; the curriculum emphasizes basic
-​ There is no single best process or subjects like reading, writing, arithmetic,
method. Its effectiveness will depend on history, and science.
the DLO, learners, materials, and -​ Teachers impart knowledge through
teachers. direct instruction, such as lectures, and
-​ Curriculum process should stimulate the expect students to absorb and
learners’ desire to develop the cognitive, memorize the material.
affective, and psychomotor domains in
each individual. 3.​ PROGRESSIVISM
-​ In the choice of methods, learning and -​ a key founder, Dewey advocated for a
teaching styles should be considered. shift from an authoritarian school
-​ Every method or process should result in environment to one that was more
learning outcomes which can be stimulating, focusing on student
described as cognitive, affective, and curiosity and activity
psychomotor. -​ students learn best through active
-​ Flexibility in the use of the process or engagement, practical activities, and
methods should be considered. An projects that provide real-world
effective process will always result in experience
learning outcomes.
-​ Both the teachers and learners are the 4.​ PRAGMATISM
two important processes in the -​ emphasizes experience, action, and
implementation of the curriculum. practical results over abstract
theorizing. It influenced progressive
Curriculum as a PRODUCT education by stressing learning by doing
-​ outcome-oriented, focusing on the end
results of education, such as the skills, 5.​ EXISTENTIALISM
competencies, and knowledge students -​ Individuals are not born with a fixed
are expected to have after completing a purpose but create their own essence
course or program. through their choices and actions.
-​ often involves setting clear objectives -​ Students are free to make choices and
and measuring success against these are held responsible for the
goals. consequences of those choices.
-​ expressed in the form of outcomes
which are referred to as the achieved 6.​ RECONSTRUCTIONISM
learning outcomes. -​ the primary purpose of education is to
-​ focus on behavioral changes and reform society and create a better, more
learning outcomes. democratic world.
 -​ Curricula are designed to address ●​ Encouraged student-centered
real-world issues such as hunger, learning—learners choose, plan, and do
violence, and social injustice. projects.

7.​ IDEALISM Contribution: Promoted experiential learning

-​ Idealists believe that the physical world and student participation.
is less real than the world of ideas. True
knowledge is found within the mind, not 4.​ Harold Rugg (1886–1960)
through the senses alone. ●​ Advocated for social issues to be
-​ Students should strive to uncover included in the curriculum.
universal truths and attain wisdom ●​ Believed schools should help solve social
through contemplation and intellectual problems.
effort. ●​ Created textbooks that integrated
history, social sciences, and civic
8.​ REALISM education.
-​ Knowledge is derived from experience
and observation of the physical world, Contribution: Curriculum must build social
making sensory-based learning responsibility.
essential.
-​ To help students understand the 5.​ Hollis Caswell (1901–1989)
material world, the physical universe, ●​ Believed curriculum should be a
and societal institutions through cooperative enterprise (teachers,
scientific inquiry. students, community).
●​ Emphasized democratic principles in
HISTORICAL FOUNDATION curriculum design.
●​ Focused on learning experiences, not
1.​ Franklin Bobbit (1876–1956) just subjects.
●​ Known as the “Father of the Curriculum.”
●​ Believed curriculum should prepare Contribution: Curriculum should be flexible,
students for adult life. democratic, and experience-based.
●​ Focused on efficiency and objectives
(influenced by scientific management). 6.​ Ralph Tyler (1902–1994)
●​ Saw curriculum as a series of activities ●​ Known for the Tyler Rationale (basic
that adults need in real life. framework in curriculum development).
Four Key Questions:
Contribution: Curriculum must be practical, 1.​ What educational purposes should the
activity-based, and goal-oriented. school seek to attain?
2.​ What experiences can be provided to
2.​ Werret Charters (1875–1952) attain these purposes?
●​ Stressed that curriculum should be 3.​ How can these experiences be
based on objectives and activities. organized effectively?
●​ Believed learning should connect to 4.​ How can we determine if these purposes
real-life experiences. are being attained?
●​ Focused on the teacher's role in guiding
activities. Contribution: Curriculum should have clear
objectives, learning experiences, organization,
Contribution: Curriculum should match student and evaluation.
needs and life situations.
7.​ Hilda Taba (1902–1967)
3.​ William Kilpatrick (1871–1965) ●​ Expanded Tyler’s ideas → Taba Model
●​ Known for the Project Method. (grassroots approach).
●​ Learning happens best through ●​ Believed teachers should design
purposeful activities (projects). curriculum, not just administrators.
 ●​ Steps in her model: diagnosis of needs, 2.​ Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – B.F.
setting objectives, selecting content, Skinner
organizing content, selecting learning ●​ Learning depends on rewards
experiences, organizing learning, (reinforcements) or punishments.
evaluation. ●​ Positive reinforcement → strengthens
behavior.
Contribution: Curriculum should be ●​ Negative reinforcement/punishment →
teacher-developed, logical, and reduces behavior.
learner-centered. ●​ Example: Teacher praises student for
answering → student participates more.
8.​ Peter Oliva (1937– )
●​ Proposed the Oliva Model of Curriculum Contribution: Basis for classroom management,
Development. reward systems, and programmed instruction.
●​ Emphasized that curriculum is both
product and process. 3.​ Connectionism Theory / Laws of
●​ Believed curriculum should be broad, Learning – Edward Thorndike
flexible, and involve all stakeholders. ●​ Learning connects stimulus and
●​ Stressed the link between curriculum response through 3 laws:
and instruction. ●​ Law of Readiness – readiness to act =
better learning.
Contribution: Curriculum development should be ●​ Law of Exercise – practice strengthens
comprehensive, adaptable, and involve learning.
everyone. ●​ Law of Effect – satisfying results
strengthen behavior; unpleasant results
Summary weaken it.
1.​ Bobbit & Charters – Practical,
activity-based, objective-driven. Contribution: Influenced drill-and-practice
2.​ Kilpatrick – Student-centered, project methods, habit formation, and skills training.
method.
3.​ Rugg – Social issues, responsibility. 4.​ Robert Gagné – Conditions of
4.​ Caswell – Cooperative, democratic. Learning
5.​ Tyler – Clear framework (objectives → ●​ Identified different types of learning
experiences → organization → outcomes (verbal info, intellectual skills,
evaluation). cognitive strategies, attitudes, motor
6.​ Taba – Teacher-designed, step-by-step skills).
model. ●​ Proposed Nine Events of Instruction,
7.​ Oliva – Comprehensive, flexible, and e.g., gain attention, present content,
inclusive model. provide feedback, assess performance.
●​ Believed learning requires specific
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS — conditions for each type.
ASSOCIATION AND BEHAVIORISM
Contribution: Basis for lesson planning,
1.​ Stimulus-Response Theory (S-R instructional design, and structured teaching.
Theory) – Edward Thorndike / Early
Behaviorists 5.​ Albert Bandura’s Social Learning
●​ Learning happens when a stimulus (S) Theory
leads to a response (R). ●​ Learning happens through observation,
●​ Example: Bell rings (stimulus) → imitation, and modeling.
students go out (response). ●​ Introduced the idea of vicarious
●​ Focus: Habit formation and repetition. learning (learning from others’
experiences).
Contribution: Showed how drill, practice, and ●​ Famous experiment: Bobo doll study →
reinforcement help in learning. children imitated aggressive behavior.
 ●​ Key factors: attention, retention, Example: Pairing a weaker student with a
reproduction, motivation. stronger one.

Contribution: Stressed the role of role models, 3.​ Howard Gardner’s Multiple
social environment, and media in learning. Intelligences
Intelligence is not just IQ. There are 8 types:
Summary 1.​ Linguistic (words)
1.​ S-R Theory → learning = stimulus + 2.​ Logical-mathematical (numbers)
response. 3.​ Spatial (visual)
2.​ Skinner → reinforcement & punishment 4.​ Bodily-kinesthetic (movement)
shape behavior. 5.​ Musical (rhythm, sound)
3.​ Thorndike (Connectionism) → laws of 6.​ Interpersonal (others)
readiness, exercise, effect. 7.​ Intrapersonal (self)
4.​ Gagné → conditions & events of 8.​ Naturalist (nature)
instruction.
5.​ Bandura → learning by observation and Contribution: Curriculum should use varied
modeling. activities to reach all learners.
Example: Teaching a lesson with songs,
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING drawings, discussions, and hands-on tasks.
THEORY
4.​ Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Quotient
1.​ Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development EQ = ability to understand and manage
Theory emotions.
Learning = active process where children build
knowledge step by step. Five components:
1.​ Self-awareness
Four stages of development: 2.​ Self-regulation
1.​ Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs) – learning 3.​ Motivation
through senses and actions. 4.​ Empathy
2.​ Preoperational (2–7 yrs) – imagination, 5.​ Social skills
symbols, but still egocentric.
3.​ Concrete Operational (7–11 yrs) – Contribution: Stressed values education,
logical thinking about real objects. classroom discipline, and emotional growth.
4.​ Formal Operational (12+ yrs) – Example: Teaching students conflict
abstract and critical thinking. management and teamwork.

Contribution: Curriculum should match the 5.​ Jerome Bruner’s Constructivism &
child’s developmental stage. Spiral Curriculum
Example: Don’t teach algebra to a 5-year-old. -​ Constructivism: Learners actively
construct knowledge, not just absorb it.
2.​ Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural -​ Spiral Curriculum: Teach basic ideas
Development Theory first, then revisit and expand them at
Learning happens through social interaction and higher levels.
culture.
Encouraged discovery learning (students learn
Key ideas: by exploring).
●​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
what a learner can do with guidance. Contribution: Curriculum should be organized
●​ Scaffolding: teacher/peer support that from simple to complex, repeated with
is slowly removed as the learner increasing depth.
improves. Example: Teach fractions in Grade 3, revisit with
decimals in Grade 5, then algebra in high school.
Contribution: Encouraged group work, peer
tutoring, and teacher guidance.
 6.​ David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning 5.​ Self-actualization (reaching full
Theory potential)
Learning is effective when new knowledge is
connected to prior knowledge. Students must meet lower needs before reaching
higher learning goals.
Famous for Advance Organizers → introducing a
big idea before details. Contribution: Curriculum and teaching must
Contrast: rote learning = memorization without consider students’ holistic needs.
meaning. Example: A hungry child may struggle to focus
on math lessons.
Contribution: Teachers should help students link
new lessons with what they already know. 3.​ Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory
Example: Before teaching “photosynthesis,” ●​ Learning should be student-centered,
remind students about “plants need sunlight and not teacher-dominated.
water.” ●​ Teachers act as facilitators, not
dictators.
Summary
1.​ Piaget → stages of cognitive growth. Key elements: empathy, genuineness, and
2.​ Vygotsky → social interaction & unconditional positive regard.
scaffolding. Believed in freedom to learn—students learn
3.​ Gardner → multiple intelligences. best in a supportive, non-threatening
4.​ Goleman → emotional intelligence. environment.
5.​ Bruner → constructivism & spiral
curriculum. Contribution: Encouraged open communication,
6.​ Ausubel → meaningful learning through respect, and learner autonomy in classrooms.
prior knowledge. Example: A teacher listens to students’ opinions
and adjusts lessons to their interests.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
4.​ Paulo Freire’s Critical Pedagogy &
1.​ Gestalt Theory Dialogical Method
●​ “The whole is greater than the sum of its ●​ Criticized the “banking model of
parts.” education” (teacher deposits info,
●​ Learners understand best when they see students just receive).
the big picture rather than just isolated ●​ Advocated dialogue between teacher
facts. and students → learning as a
●​ Focuses on insight learning—sudden partnership.
“Aha!” moments when connections are ●​ Emphasized critical thinking and
made. awareness of social issues.
●​ Education should empower learners to
Contribution: Teaching should emphasize question, reflect, and act for change.
relationships and understanding, not just
memorization. Contribution: Promoted problem-posing
Example: Instead of memorizing grammar rules education, social justice, and active
separately, show how they connect in writing a participation.
full story. Example: Discussing real-life community
problems in class and letting students suggest
2.​ Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs solutions.
Human needs are arranged in a pyramid:
1.​ Physiological (food, rest) Summary
2.​ Safety (security, stability) 1.​ Gestalt → learning by seeing the whole
3.​ Love/Belonging (friendship, picture and connections.
acceptance) 2.​ Maslow → meet human needs first
4.​ Esteem (confidence, respect) before deep learning can happen.
 3.​ Rogers → student-centered, supportive ●​ Advocated problem-posing education
environment. through dialogue and reflection.
4.​ Freire → dialogue, critical thinking, and ●​ Curriculum should empower learners to
social empowerment. question inequality and promote social
justice.
SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Contribution: Inspired liberating, democratic,
1.​ School and Society – John Dewey and critical education.
(1899) Example: Discussing poverty issues in class and
●​ School is a mini-society where students letting students suggest community solutions.
learn how to live and work with others.
●​ Education should prepare students for 5.​ Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society
real-life democratic participation. (1971)
●​ Curriculum must connect learning to ●​ Criticized formal schools for being
social experiences and problem-solving. restrictive and unequal.
●​ Believed real learning can happen
Contribution: Promoted experiential learning, outside schools through life experiences.
cooperation, and democracy in schools. ●​ Proposed “learning webs” → networks
Example: Group projects that solve community where people freely share and access
problems. knowledge.

2.​ Émile Durkheim’s Idea (1858–1917) Contribution: Encouraged alternative education,

●​ Education is a tool for socialization → it self-directed learning, and community-based
teaches values, norms, and rules of learning.
society. Example: Online learning communities and
●​ School helps maintain social order and skill-sharing programs.
stability.
●​ Curriculum should pass down shared Summary
culture and moral values. 1.​ Dewey → school as a mini-society;
experiential and democratic learning.
Contribution: Emphasized the role of education 2.​ Durkheim → education = socialization &
in unity, discipline, and social cohesion. stability.
Example: Teaching history and civics to build 3.​ Toffler → curriculum must prepare for
national identity. future change & adaptability.
4.​ Freire → education should be critical,
3.​ Alvin Toffler’s Future Shock (1970) liberating, and empowering.
●​ Described the stress/confusion (“future 5.​ Illich → promote alternative,
shock”) people feel when facing rapid self-directed, community-based
social and technological change. learning.
●​ Education should prepare learners for a
fast-changing world.
●​ Curriculum must focus on adaptability,
lifelong learning, and technology skills.

Contribution: Encouraged flexible and

future-oriented curriculum.
Example: Integrating computer literacy and
critical thinking into all subjects.

4.​ Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the

Oppressed (1970)
●​ Criticized traditional “banking model” of
education (teachers deposit, students
receive).