COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Mythology and Folklore

1st Semester 2025-2026

FOLK LITERATURE AS A RELEVANT HISTORICAL ARTIFACT

FOLK LITERATURE, also called folklore or oral tradition, the lore (traditional
knowledge and beliefs) of cultures having no written language. It is transmitted
by word of mouth and consists, as does written literature, of both prose and verse
narratives, poems and songs, myths, dramas, rituals, proverbs, riddles, and the like.
Nearly all known peoples, now or in the past, have produced it.

WHAT IS FOLKLORE?
The definition of folklore is the set of cultural artifacts—such as religious
practices, stories, dances, and other art forms—preserved among a community of
people through oration. Folklore comprises all of the artful forms and expressions
that define a group's particular culture and includes tales, songs, jokes, dances, and
sayings.
A culture's elders are responsible for preserving folklore through oral
dissemination. Unlike other modes of cultural identification like magazines or books,
no formal institution regulates folklore. Folklore is a uniquely human invention
preserved by the collective consciousness of a particular culture through cultural
practices and the act of storytelling.
Within the broad spectrum of folklore exists folk literature, which seeks to
preserve the oral tradition of folkloric forms in writing. The term folk literature is often
used interchangeably with folklore; however, in general, folk literature has a narrower
focus. It refers to traditional beliefs and stories originally preserved through the act of
storytelling and subsequently recorded in writing. Folk literature can be in the form of
documented poems, proverbs, idioms, stories, songs, myths, riddles, and other artful
forms of knowledge passed down from generation to generation. In other words,
folklore that is written down becomes folk literature.
Until about 4000 BCE all literature was oral, but, beginning in the years
between 4000 and 3000 BCE, writing developed both in Egypt and in the
Mesopotamian civilization at Sumer. From that time on there are records not only of
practical matters such as law and business but increasingly of written literature. As
the area in which the habitual use of writing extended over Asia, North Africa, and
the Mediterranean lands and eventually over much of the whole world, a rapid
growth in the composition of written literature occurred, so that in certain parts of the
world, literature in writing has to a large extent become the normal form of
expression for storytellers and poets.

Nevertheless, during all the centuries in which the world has learned to use
writing, there has existed, side by side with the growing written record, a large and
important activity carried on by those actually unlettered, and those not much
accustomed to reading and writing.
Origins and development

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 Of the origins of folk literature, as of the origins of human language, there is
no way of knowing. None of the literature available today is primitive in any sense,
and only the present-day results can be observed of practices extending over many
thousands of years. Speculations therefore can only concern such human needs as
may give rise to oral literature, not to its ultimate origin.
The nature of oral traditions

Nor can any evolution in folk literature or any overall developments be spoken
of explicitly. Each group of people, no matter how small or large, has handled its folk
literature in its own way. Depending as it does upon the transmission from person to
person and being subject to the skill or the lack of skill of those who pass it on and to
the many influences, physical or social, that consciously or unconsciously affect a
tradition, what may be observed is a history of continual change. An item of folk
literature sometimes shows relative stability and sometimes undergoes drastic
transformations. If these changes are looked at from a modern Western point of
view, ethnocentric judgments can be made as to whether they are on the whole
favorable or unfavorable. But it must be remembered that the folk listening to or
participating in its oral literature have completely different standards from those of
their interpreters.

Nevertheless, two directions in this continually changing human movement

may be observed. Occasionally a talented singer or tale-teller, or perhaps a group of
them, may develop techniques that result in an improvement over the course of time
from any point of view and in the actual development of a new literary form. On the
other hand, many items of folk literature, because of historic movements
or overwhelming foreign influences or the mere lack of skillful practitioners of the
tradition, become less and less important, and occasionally die out from the oral
repertory. The details of such changes have been of great interest to all students of
folk literature.

TYPES OR GENRES OF FOLK LITERATURE

Folk literature is concerned with the preservation of oral traditions and comes
in numerous forms, all of which have formulaic patterns or predictable structures that
aid memorization. With the advent of written language, folk literature helped people
understand their relationship with their environment and other people. Predictable
themes, forms, and motifs allowed the elders of a community to distill the essence of
their culture in a handful of cultural artifacts, like folklore stories, that would guide
younger generations in their journey through life.
Some of the most ubiquitous forms of folk literature are poetic forms, narrative forms,
song forms, and proverbs.
Poetic Forms
Poetic forms are among some of the first examples of folk literature in the
historical record. Before written language, singers and narrators would recount
poems, often in metered or epic style, at the beginning of cultural ceremonies or
events. The recitation of poems during significant cultural events was important for

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two reasons: it entertained the audience and served as a form of history on which
people could base their identities.
It is hard to identify the origin of poetic forms in folk literature because of
folklore's nature. Even the most famous poetic folk literature, such as Homer's epic
hymns, are of unknown provenance. In general, historians consider The Epic of
Gilgamesh to be the first instance of poetic folk literature.
Song Forms
Songs are sets of words set to a rhythm, melody, or music that are meant to
be sung. Most closely related to metrical verse, songs utilize the quality of music's
sound to communicate an idea or feeling. Like all folklore forms, folk songs rely on
an oral tradition for preservation. Folk songs encompass many musical folk forms
such as rhymes and chants and explore universal experiences such as work, birth,
death, or mourning. Because of their musical nature, folk songs are among the most
memorable of folk literature forms. There is some scholarship that suggests folk
poetry set to music can also be considered folk songs.
Narrative Forms
Narrative forms, like tales and stories, are most closely associated with folk
literature than any other folkloric artifact. Fairy tales, folk tales, fables, tall tales,
''why'' stories, and myths are some examples of folkloric narrative forms. These often
use narrative tropes like the quest or a stranger visiting a town to explain the nature
of the world and human existence. Common themes of folkloric narrative forms
include struggles between good and evil, moral lessons, and humankind's
perseverance in the face of an impossible challenge. Some folk narrative genres,
such as fairy tales, use a magical element or supernatural component as a narrative
device to succinctly communicate the complexity of the natural world. Other folk
narrative genres like the folk tale impart humans with superhuman abilities to
heighten a moral lesson's dramatic impact.
Proverbs
Proverbs are short, expressive statements that capture a universal truth or
idea. Proverbs are commonly associated with the Judeo-Christian tradition but are
closely related to adages, maxims, and aphorisms, which are forms derived from
folklore that are used ubiquitously in cultures around the world.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOLK LITERATURE

Characteristics of folk literature include orality, dissemination through

generations, fluidity, and sociality.
Orality
All folk literature is derived from and passed down through oral traditions of
storytelling, singing, or narration before being preserved in writing. The story of ''The
Three Little Pigs,'' common in Western culture, is an example of folk literature; it
teaches an ethical lesson, follows a formulaic structure, uses non-human characters
to tell a story, and, most importantly, was preserved through oration before being
recorded in writing. By contrast, Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss is a popular
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children's story in Western culture that shares many of the same characteristics as
''The Three Little Pigs'' but is not considered folk literature because the story is not
derived.
Dissemination Through Generations
Cultural artifacts must be passed down through multiple generations to be
considered folk literature. Folk literature communicates universal truths about the
natural world and human experience; it also has the ability to communicate culturally
specific ideas unique to a particular geographic region or otherwise identified group
of people.
Fluidity
Folk literature is fluid because it relies exclusively on human faculties to
survive; it is subject to constant additions, subtractions, and alterations every time it
is shared. Since folk literature is a collective possession, audiences are as
responsible for safeguarding the integrity of folk literature as orators. Through a
careful social dance, communities add and subtract to their folk literature as it suits
the current moment—within reason. Folk literature is inextricably linked to the fickle
nature of human faculties, which means that regardless of how well folk literature is
preserved, it will inevitably change over time.
Sociality
Perhaps most importantly, folk literature is a way to connect with other human
beings. Humans are social creatures that require interaction. Folk literature is one
way that humans communicate ideas, beliefs, and traditions. Folk literature is a living
medium meant to be shared with others to develop new relationships and ways of
understanding. In general, folk literature serves as a way to bridge the differences
that arise between cultures with stories that share fundamental truths.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING FOLK LITERATURE

Folklore studies may facilitate us to discover the roots of distinctive
communities, the past, the commonality of varied cultures and of course our ethnic
identities.

It connects us to the past

Everyone has the same experiences, yet everyone responds differently to
them. Hunger and pain. Hot and cold weather. Joy and sorrow. Our reactions to
these events may vary, but all of these things are unavoidable. Folklore gives us the
wisdom to understand these moments from different points of view. It showcases
that all of our problems and successes happen in every culture and throughout
different periods of history. We are unique as individuals, but we are all connected
through these moral truths.
A unique perception
We often associate folklore with stories or sayings we’ve heard as children.
Perhaps from a relative, a book a teacher read to the class, or perhaps through the

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many weather lore sayings shared by the Farmer’s Almanac. While a lot of these
tales are easy enough for children to understand, the same story can resonate with
us in different ways throughout our lives, offering different meanings at different ages
and levels of development.
For example, the folklore surrounding the concept of the “fairy ring,” where
mushrooms grow in a circular pattern. There are different tales surrounding this bit of
folklore because it’s been interpreted differently over the centuries. Some say it’s
good fortune to find a fairy ring; others say it’s a sign of evil in an area. If a child
heard this tale, he might believe in the magic of fairies. If a teenager hears it, she
might get interested in botany due to the curiosity of it, while an adult might hear this
tale and find magic in their lives again.

Folklore Sayings Ring True

It’s also worth mentioning that the power of observation is an element that
makes folklore thrive. For example, an ancient mariner initially might have noticed
that when clouds look like scales of a fish, precipitation is on its way but will be gone
quickly, hence the folklore saying:
If mariners spotted this cloud pattern, they began to notice they could expect
rain, but it wouldn’t last long (“never long wet”). Over time word of this observation
spread. The result is a folklore rhyme we are familiar with, one that’s easy to
remember. A rhyme helps it travel better without getting misinterpreted.
Science now tells us that when puffy cirrocumulus and altocumulus clouds
appear in the sky, they usually accompany high pressure, which indicates rain is
coming, but the weather system will be moving along quickly.
Folklore, tales, and sayings have been around long before science could
articulate it further, so listening to the tales told from family member to family
member might prove valuable, even in today’s world, if you take the time to listen.

REASONS TO STUDY FOLKLORE:

1. Because It’s Everywhere:

People sometimes think that folklore is either something from the past or
something outdated and irrelevant. This actually couldn’t be further from the
truth! Folklore is alive all around us – we engage with it every day, whether we
acknowledge it as such or not. Have a lucky baseball hat? That’s folklore.
Knock on wood? That’s folklore too. Have a weekly D&D night? Folklore.
Want a fairy-tale wedding? No, you don’t, and you’d know that if you studied
folklore!
2. Because You Help Create It and Share It:
Since we all engage with folklore every day, we are the ones who shape it.
Yes, you. And us! And that guy over there! Have you ever told someone a
scary story (think: Moth Man, or Slenderman, or even just something weird

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 that happened to you when you walked by that creepy old house on the
corner?) This is sharing folklore with your community, and we all do it all the
time.
3. Because It Inspires Empathy:
Listening to other people’s stories and sharing your own is one of the best
ways to broaden your horizons. Folklore is a huge part of what makes culture
– studying it can help you understand why people do the things they do, from
your own family to the traditions of a completely different country.
4. Because It’s Always Changing (And Staying the Same):
When you were little, maybe you went to your grandparents’ house every year
to celebrate Thanksgiving/ Christmas/ Passover. Maybe some years after
that, your parents started hosting the holiday, and maybe they replicated their
parents’ dishes, or maybe they adapted the recipes and decor or changed
almost everything about the holiday. Maybe you now host the holiday and
have brought back elements from your grandparents’ traditions while
inventing new ones yourself. Folklore is the dance between continuity and
innovation, staying the same and changing.
5. Because It Can Feed Your Creative Soul:
Folklore is constantly inspiring artists and musicians, writers and makers.
Some of your favorite books, TV shows, movies, clothes, and songs are likely
rooted in folklore. The new American Gods TV series is based on a novel by
Neil Gaiman that drew heavily on folk narrative (in fact, Richard Dorson, one
of the most influential American folklorists of the past century, is quoted in the
book’s epigraph.) And if you’ve ever dressed like a character from a fairy tale,
written a poem inspired by a ghostly encounter, or made your grandmother’s
traditional lasagna recipe, you are using folklore to fuel your creativity.
6. Because It Can Connect You to Others:
Folklore is social glue. It is the stories, habits, and activities that bind people
together. Think about your church group, your classmates, your family, your
coworkers, or even your duck bowling league (?) – in each of those groups,
you have little rituals, special stories you tell, and inside jokes. All of these
things are what makes a group of people stick together, what connects you.
7. Because Stories Are Addictive (And Powerful!):
Human’s love stories – we are wired for them. Folk narratives are some of the
most popular and sticky stories that you will ever hear. They’re how we make
sense of our lives and our world. They’re also surprisingly powerful – for
example, think about how much the fairy tales you heard as a child shaped
your thinking about good and evil or the importance of beauty. Think about
how those ideas are still reinforced over and over again in all the media that
we consume. Savvy advertisers know this and appropriate fairy tales in their
campaigns all the time.
8. Because It Helps Shape the Past… and the Future:
Studying folklore is like studying the history that doesn’t make it into history
books. It is personal, communal, and can show so much about where we
came from on an individual and familial level. It also helps create national
narratives that explain the past on a grander scale. Looking back to this
unofficial past can help us more readily understand our present and see into
our future.

THEORIES RELATED TO FOLK LITERATURE

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Ancient theories

1. Rationalism
According to this theory, myths represent an early form of logical thinking:
they all, have a logical base. For example, the myth of Pegasus, the flying
horse can best be explained by imagining the reaction of the first Greek to
1. Rationalism
According to this theory, myths represent an early form of logical thinking:
they all, have a logical base. For example, the myth of Pegasus, the flying
horse can best be explained by imagining the reaction of the first Greek to
1. Rationalism According to this theory, myths represent an early form of logical
thinking: they all, have a logical base. For example, the myth of Pegasus, the
flying horse can best be explained by imagining the reaction of the first Greek
to see a horse. Compared to other animals they know; the horse must have
seemed to fly as it gallops fast and leap over high obstacles.
2. . Etymological Theory This theory states that all myths derive from and can be
traced back to certain words in the language. Sources of most mythological
characters havetheir origins from the languages of the world. Hades, for
example, originally meant “unseen” but came eventually to be the name for
the god of the dead.
3. 3. Allegorical theory In the allegorical explanation, all myths contain hidden
meanings which the narrative deliberately conceals or encodes. Example:
story of King Midas and his golden touch Allegorists offered this simple
reason why stories were used in the first place rather than a simple statement
of the ideas they represented: they interested people who might not listen to
emotionless concepts but who could be attracted by imaginative narratives.
4. Euhemerism Euhemerus, a Greek who lived from 325-275 BC, maintained
that all myths arise from historical events which were merely exaggerated.

Modern Theories
1. Naturalism
In this hypothesis, all myths are thought to arise from an attempt to explain
natural phenomena. People who believe in this theory narrow the source of
Modern Theories

1. Naturalism In this hypothesis, all myths are thought to arise from an attempt to
explain natural phenomena. People who believe in this theory narrow the
source of myths by tracing their origins from the worship of the sun or the
moon.
2. 2. Ritualism According to this theory, all myths are invented to accompany
and explain religious ritual; they describe the significant events which have
resulted in a particular ceremony.
3. Diffusionism The diffusionists maintain that all myths arose from a few major
cultural centers and spread throughout the world.
4. Evolutionism Myth making occurs at a certain stage in the evolution of the
human mind. Myths, are therefore, an essential part of all developing societies
and the similarities from one culture to the next can be explained by the

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 relatively limited number of experiences open to such communities when
myths arise.
5. Freudianism When Sigmund Freud, the founder of modern psychology,
interpreted the dreams of his patients, he found great similarities between
them and the ancient myths. Freud believes that certain infantile are
repressed, i.e. they are eliminated from the conscious mind but continues to
exist within the individual in some other form. Sometimes these feelings
emerge into consciousness under various disguises, one of which is the myth.
6. Jungian archetypes Carl Jung was a prominent psychologist who, while he
accepted Freud’s theory about the origin of myths, did not believe that it went
far in explaining the striking similarities between the motifs found in ancient
stories and those of his patients. He postulated that each of us possesses a
“collective unconscious” which we inherit genetically. It contains very general
ideas, themes, or motifs which are passed along from one generation to
another and are retained as part of our human inheritance.
7. Structuralism This theory is a fairly recent development and is closely allied
with the research of linguists. According to this theory, all human behaviour,
the way we eat, dress, speak, is patterned into codes which have the
characteristics of language. To understand the real meaning of myth,
therefore, we must analyze it linguistically.
8. Historical-critical theory This theory maintains that there are a multitude of
factors which influence the origin and development of myths and that no
single explanation will suffice. We must examine each story individually to see
how it began and evolved.