Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.

I-Parts of speech

a- Verbs
Verbs are often known as ‘doing words’. They can also show ‘having’ or ‘being’.
b- Nouns
Nouns are the names of people, places, things and ideas. There are four (04) kinds of
noun.
c- Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns.
d- Adverbs
Adverbs give us extra information about how, where or when a verb happens.
e- Pronouns
Pronouns are usually small words which stand in place of a noun, often to avoid
repeating the noun. They include words such as I, you, he, we, hers, they, it.
f- Prepositions
Prepositions come before nouns or pronouns and usually show a connection.
g- Conjunctions
Conjunctions link words, sentences or parts of a sentence together.
h- Articles
There are two kinds of article: definite and indefinite.
The definite article is ‘the’. It is used to identify a specific thing.
The indefinite article is ‘a’ and ‘an’. It is used to refer to something in general.

Pronoun chart

1
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

II- English verbs tenses

Present Simple
Use the present simple tense
For general facts:
We speak English.
For actions that happen regularly:
I take guitar lessons on Wednesday nights.
Present Continuous
Use the present continuous tense
For a continuous action in progress at the moment:
I‘m currently studying biology at university.
For future plans/arrangements:
I‘m having lunch with Mohamed tomorrow.
Present Perfect
Use the present perfect tense
With actions that happened in the past at an unspecified time:
He‘s been to Mecca several times.
We‘ve already taken the test.
With actions that began in the past and continue to the present:
I‘ve lived in this house for five years.
With actions that have never happened:
He‘s never bought a car.
Past Simple
Use the past simple tense
For events that started and finished in the past:
I worked as a research assistant from 2001 – 2003.
Past Continuous
Use the past continuous tense
For events that were in progress in the past (often when another one-time event happened):
Sorry I didn’t pick up the phone – I was taking a shower when you called.
He was sleeping on the couch when I got home.
When I saw Tina and Sam at the park earlier today, they were arguing.
Past Perfect
Use the past perfect tense
For past events that happened BEFORE other past events:
When I woke up, I saw that my husband had made breakfast.
Future Simple
There are two ways to form the future simple tense
Use the “going to” form of the future simple tense…
For plans, arrangements, and predictions:
After I graduate from college, I’m going to study for a Masters degree.
Use the “will” form of the future simple tense…

2
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

For promises, offers, predictions, and decisions made in the moment of speaking:
Promise: I‘ll call you later.
Offer: We‘ll give you a ride home.
Prediction: I have a feeling that this new singer will become very popular.
Decision made in the moment: I‘ll have the spaghetti and a side order of salad.

III- Modals
-Modals are helping verbs
- Used with the base form of the verb, modals create verbal phrases.
- Modals do not change form.
- Modals never end in “s” even in 3rd person singular
- Use “not” to make modal verbs negative.
- Don’t use double modals.
- Modals lack past tense forms, except could and would which serve as the past of can
and will.

3
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

IV-Prepositions

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between two things.

1-Time
at  times: at 8pm, at midnight, at 6:30, at night, at the weekend.

 days: on Monday, on my birthday

on  dates: on the 20th of June

 years: in 1992, in 2006

 months: in December, in June
 decades: in the sixties, in the 1790s
in
 centuries: in the 19th century
 seasons: in winter, in summer
 in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening

2- Place
If something is contained inside a box or a wide flat area, we use ‘in’:
in the newspaper in a house

in a cup in a drawer

in a bottle in a bag

in bed in a car

in London in England

in a book in a pub

in a field in the sea

in my stomach in a river
If something is on a line or a horizontal or vertical surface, we use ‘on’:
on the table on the wall
on the floor on the fridge
on my face on a plate
on the page on the sofa
on a chair on a bag
on the river on a t-shirt
on the ceiling on a bottle
on a bike on his foot
If something is at a point, (it could be a building) we use ‘at’:
at the airport at the door

4
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

at the table at the bus stop

at the cinema at at the top
at the bottom at the pub
at the traffic lights at the front
at the back at school
at university at the window

V- Reported speech

Reported Statements
When do we use reported speech? Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example "I'm
going to the cinema tonight". Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first
person said.
-We use a 'reporting verb' like 'say' or 'tell' If this verb is in the present tense, it's easy.
We just put 'she says' and then the sentence:
Direct speech: “I like ice cream”
Reported speech: She says she likes ice cream
We don't need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change the 'person'
from 'I' to 'she', for example. We also may need to change words like 'my' and 'your'.
-But, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the tenses in the
reported speech:
Direct speech: “I like ice cream”
Reported speech: She said she liked ice cream

5
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

VI-Active and Passive Voice

When a sentence is written in the active voice, the subject performs the action; in the passive
voice, the subject receives the action.
The passive voice is formed by using a form of the auxiliary verb “be” (be, am, is, are, was,
were, being, been) followed by the past participle of the main verb.
Verb tenses used in active and passive voice
• Simple Present
Use the simple present tense to make a generalization, to present a state of being, or to
indicate a habitual or repeated action.
Active Passive
base form or “-s/-es” form am/is/are + past participle
• Present Progressive
Use the present progressive to describe an ongoing activity or a temporary action.
Active Passive
am/is/are + -ing am/is/are + being + -ed/-en

• Present Perfect
Use the present perfect to describe an action occurring in the past but relevant to the
present, or extending to the present.
Active Passive
has/have + -ed/-en has/have + been + -ed/-en
• Simple Past
Use the simple past to indicate a general or habitual action occurring in the past or at a
specific time in the past.
Active Passive
base + -ed or irregular form was/were + -ed/-en
• Past Progressive
Use the past progressive to indicate an ongoing action in the past or an action continuing
through a specific past time.

6
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Active Passive
was/were + -ing was/were + being + -ed/-en
• Past Perfect
Use the past perfect to indicate an action completed prior to a particular time or before
another action in the past.
Active Passive
had + -ed/-en had + been + -ed/-en
 Simple Future
Use the future to indicate an action that is expected to take place at a future time.
Active Passive
will + base will + be + -ed/-en

VII- Conditionals
Conditional sentences are sentences discussing hypothetical situations and their
consequences.
Forms
-The zero conditional is used for common truths, stuff which is always true.
The “if” can be replaced by “when” or “whenever”.
Both verb forms are in the present.
If you heat water to 100 degrees celsius, it boils.
-The first conditional is used for conditions that are POSSIBLE or PROBABLE to come true.
The conditional verb is the present verb form and consequence verb is normally the will future
If it rains on Sunday, we will not go swimming.
-The second conditional is used for things that are not true now and also probably won’t be in
the future.
The conditional verb in the 2nd verb form and consequence verb is the “would *could, should,
might+ + infinitive”-form.
If she were [was] at work today, she would know how to deal with this client.
-The third conditional is used for talking about things that have happened (so they’re
impossible), but discuss what would be different if not.
The conditional verb is had with the 3rd verb form and consequence verb is the “would *could,
should, might+ + have + infinitive”-form.
If you had called me, I would have come.

7
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb is a special kind of verb that consists of two (or three) parts. The first
part is always a verb. The next part is a word such as across, after, away, back, down, in,
into, off, on, out, over, or up. In a phrasal verb, this second part is called a particle.
- A phrasal verb must have at least two parts: VERB + particle.
- Phrasal verbs present a huge vocabulary challenge because most phrasal verbs
are idioms. As such, the meaning of a phrasal verb as a unit is usually very
different from the meanings of the individual verb and the particle: the meaning
of come across is not equal to the meaning of come and across.
- Like other common words, a phrasal verb can have more than one meaning:
Most useful phrasal verbs
1. Add up
a- To be added together and equal the expected or correct total.
Example: “We added up the apples: there were 12”
b-To make sense : to seem to be logical or true.
Example: “Her story didn’t add up, I think she was lying, it didn’t make sense”
2. Blow up
a- To fill (something) with air or gas
Example: “Please could you blow up those balloons?”
b- To explode or to cause (something, such as a bomb) to explode.
Example: “The building was blown up by a bomb”
c- To become very angry.
Example: “When I said I couldn’t go to her party, she blew up”
3. Bring up
a- To take care of and teach (a child who is growing up).
Example: “Their grandparents brought them up because their parents were always travelling”
b- To mention (something) when talking : to start to talk about (something).
Example: “Don’t bring up the fight again, please!”
4. Call off
a- To stop doing or planning to do (something) .
Example: “Maria called off the wedding, she decided she didn’t love him”

8
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

b- To cause or tell (a person or animal) to stop attacking, chasing, etc.

Example: “Call off your dog! He’s attacking my cat”
5. Carry on
a- To continue to do what you have been doing
Example: “Sorry I interrupted, carry on talking!”
b- To behave or speak in an excited or foolish way.
Example: “The little boy was carrying on: shouting and kicking all day long”
6. Come across
a- To seem to have a particular quality or character : to make a particular impression.
Example: “Julia came across as a bit bossy”
b- To be expressed to someone.
Example: “I tried to sound happy but it came across as over-excited”
c- To meet or find (something or someone) by chance.
Example: “Luis was leaving the fruit shop and he came across Tom, what a coincidence”
7. Come up with
a– To get or think of (something that is needed or wanted).
Example: “We finally came up with a solution to the problem!”
8. Fall apart
a- To break into parts in usually a sudden and unexpected way,
Example: “My cake fell apart when I tried to cut it”
b- To become unable to live in a normal way because you are experiencing a lot of confusion or
emotional pain.
Example: “After the divorce, she fell apart”
9. Get along
a- To be or remain friendly
Example: “We’re not together anymore, but we get along great”
b- To make progress while doing something.
Example: “How are you getting along at playing the guitar?”
c- To leave a place
Example: “It was lovely to see you, but my friend has to get along, she has class”
d- To become old.
Example: “Her grandma is getting along; she’s almost 99”

9
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

10. Get away

a- To go away from a place.
Example: “I cannot wait to get away from the city”
b- To avoid being caught : to escape
Example: “The thieves managed to get away in a stolen car”
c- To not be criticised or punished for (something).
Example: “Yvonne is always lying, I can’t understand how she gets away with it”
11. Get over
a- To stop being controlled or bothered by something, such as a problem or feeling.
Example: “I got over my fear of flying”
b- To stop feeling unhappy about (something).
Example: “Finally, Kylie got over her ex friend”
c- To become healthy again after (an illness).
Example: “Have you heard? Dave has got over the flu”
12. Give up
a- To stop an activity or effort : to admit that you cannot do something and stop trying
Example: “We all gave up smoking on January 1st”
13. Go on
a- To continue.
Example: “They landed in Paris and then went on to Montpellier”
b- To go or travel to a place before another person or group that is with you.
Example: “You go on to the restaurant, I’ll come in 10 minutes”
c- To happen.
Example: “What’s going on? What’s happening?”
d- Used in speech to urge someone to do something
Example: “Go on! Try it, it’s delicious”
14. Hold on
a- To have or keep your hand, arms, etc., tightly around something.
Example: “Hold on to the railing, that way you won’t fall”
b- To succeed in keeping a position, condition, etc.
Example: “I will hold on to my job until May”

10
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

15. Look after –

a- To take care of (someone or something).
Example: “The nurse looked after the patient for months, until he was better”
16. Look forward to
a- To expect (something) with pleasure.
Example: “William is really looking forward to going on holiday”
17. Look up
a- Improve.
Example: “The economy is finally looking up”
b- To search for (something) in a reference book, on the Internet, etc.
Example: “Let’s look up his number in the yellow pages”
18. Make out –
a- To write down the required information on (something, such as a check).
Example: “Who shall I make the check out to?”
b- To hear and understand (something)
Example: “I can’t make out what you’re saying, can you speak louder?”
19. Pass out
a- To fall asleep or become unconscious.
Example: “Lisa was so tired, she got home and passed out on the sofa”
b- To give (something) to several or many people.
Example: “I passed out leaflets with information on our course”
20. Pull over
a- To move a vehicle to the side of the road and stop.
Example: “That looks like a lovely restaurant, can you pull the car over and park?”
21. Put down
a- To place (someone or something that you have been holding or carrying) on a table, on the
floor, etc.
Example: “You can put the suitcases down in the bedroom”
b- To write (something) : to record (something) in writing
Example: “He put down his memories to write a book when he was older”
c- To give (an amount of money) as a first payment when you are buying something that costs a
lot of money

11
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Example: “My husband and I are going to put down some money to buy that house in the centre
of town”
d- To kill (an animal) in a way that causes it little pain usually because it is injured or sick
Example: “Jessica had to have her rabbit put down; it was very sick”
22. Put off
a- To decide that (something) will happen at a later time : postpone.
Example: “Graham was so tired he put the shopping off until next week”
b- To cause (someone) to dislike someone or something
Example: “You’re putting me off my food, stop talking about insects!”
23. Put up with
a- To allow (someone or something unpleasant or annoying) to exist or happen.
Example: “My mother won’t put up with my sisters or I swearing”
24. Turn up
a- To be found usually unexpectedly.
Example: “Oh! My phone turned up in my bed!”
b- To arrive at a place
Example: “As always, Julian turned up late”
c- To increase the volume, temperature, etc., of something by pressing a button, moving a
switch, etc.
Example: “Please turn the music up, I love this song!”
25. Watch out
a- To be aware of something dangerous.
Example: “Watch out in the mountain, there are bears there!”

12
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Formal Letter
A formal letter is a letter to someone you don’t know.

Examples:

-Job Application letter

- Letter of complaint

- Letter to newspaper

- Letter of enquiry

Layout of a formal letter

Make sure you know the layout of a formal letter – where everything goes. This is almost the
same as a personal letter.

 Your Address
 Date
 Name and address of company/organization/ business etc
 Greeting
 Content (what you are writing about)
 Sign off
 Signature

Your address is always on the top right of the page.

Write the date below your address.

Then write the name and address of company/ business/ organization you are writing to.

Your Greeting is more formal. If you do not know the name of the person you are sending the
letter to, you could write:

Dear Sir or Madam

Dear Sir/Madam
Dear Editor or Dear Manager

If you know the full name of the person you could write:

Dear Mr Smith or Dear Ms Jones

The main part of your letter is why you are writing

Keep to the point and say why you are writing:

13
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

I am writing to complain.

Give the information you need.

Ask for the information you require.

If you are enclosing something let them know in the letter:

Please find enclosed

Your Sign off should be formal:

Yours sincerely (usually if you know the name of the person)

Yours faithfully (usually if you do not know the name of the person)

Signature: Write your first and last name.

Sample of a formal or business letter

14
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Letter of Motivation

If you want to apply for Master or PhD scholarship, you are requested to submit a letter of
motivation. The letter of motivation plays an important role during the selection process.

How do you write a successful letter of motivation?

1. Take your time and start early. Never try to write it down in one evening.
2. Read the announcement carefully. Highlight the main keywords. Your cover
letter should address these main points.
3. Do not start your letter of motivation by repeating your CV.
4. The letter of motivation should answer the following questions:
- What are your professional goals? In which sector would you like to work after
obtaining your degree?
- In which way do you intend to contribute to the social, political or technical
development of your home country once you are in a respective position?
- Why are you applying for the chosen program? Which of the courses offered in
this program are particularly useful in pursuing your professional goals? Make
sure you are well informed!
- Why do you think you are the right person for this program?
- What knowledge and skills gathered in your previous education will be useful?
- Have you already gained relevant professional experience?
- Do you have any experience as a member of an organization? (Students
association, NGO, volunteer service, etc.)
- How do you characterize your own personality? Emphasize your strong points.
- Why do you want to study in the chosen country ?
- What do you know about the higher education system and the specifics of
studying/researching in this country?
- Do you expect it to be different form studying at your home university? If so, in
which way?
5. Make sure your letter of motivation is well composed. First reflect on the
questions above. Then write an outline and then the text. Do not include the

15
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

outline or the questions in your text. Not all of the questions need to be
answered.
6. Format your Letter of Motivation
- Length about 500 words, 1 – 1 1/2 pages!
- Insert a letter head with your name, address and contacts.
- Structure: Introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion.
- Use blank lines to create paragraphs.
- Font size: 11 points.
- Recommended fonts: Times New Roman, Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, Bookman.
7. Apply an appropriate style of writing:
- Avoid all kind of platitudes, flowery phrases and flattery.
- Deal with your topics in a reflective and objective way.
- Pay attention to grammar and spelling! Mistakes will put your application into a
bad light.
- Read your letter of motivation. Ask friends or colleagues to comment on it. We
easily tend to overlook our own mistakes.

Example of motivation letter

Ghardaia, November 1st,2017

To: Admission department

University of ……….
Dear Sir/Madam:

My name is …………………………. I a m a graduate from University of Ghardaia in Algeria with

good mention.
Biochemistry (Ecology) is my study field and Algeria is my native country.
I am highly interested to carry on my Studies at your university, the degree from one of the
most prestigious, elitist and respected universities is my chance to enrich my knowledge and
professionally outgrowth. Furthermore, studying in the university of………………. Will allow me
to explore long-term experience and develop my skills in the field of Biochemistry (Ecology).
Thank you very much for considering my application.
Yours faithfully,
Mohamed Ali

16
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Curriculum Vitae (CV)

WHAT IS A CURRICULUM VITAE (CV): A CV or vita is a comprehensive biographical

statement, preferred in these specific fields:

- Academic
- Scientific
- Research
- Teaching
- Medical
- Graduate program application
- International applications

It is usually three or more pages in length and emphasizes an individual’s qualifications and
activities.
The term, Curriculum Vitae, in Latin means the course of one’s life.
A CV is a living document, which should be updated frequently.
There is no standard format for a CV, however formatting makes your CV look more
professional and easier to read.
List everything that you think could be included – both your educational and professional
history – being careful not to overlook anything. Once you feel you have covered everything,
you will decide what to include and what to exclude. Write a draft and experiment with format
and relevant information.
Depending on your reader, your CV will change somewhat. It is important to keep up-to-date
information on hand so you may adapt your CV to fit various needs. It is suggested that you
update your information at least once a year.

Form and Style

- Use 10-12 font size
- Times New Roman and Arial are standard fonts
- Use bolding, italics, all CAPS, underlining, etc.
- Use lines to separate heading/sections
- Use bulleted statements with action-oriented verbs
- ½-1-inch margins on all 4 sides are standard
- Balance white space and text
- List all information in chronological order within each section
- Use subheadings wherever necessary to make key information easier to identify
- You name should appear on each page of your CV
- Proof to ensure your CV is error free

17
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

CATEGORIES:

Contact Information
- Name
- Mailing Address
- Email Address
- Phone Number(s)

Academic Preparation
- Academic Background
- Academic Preparation
- Academic Training
- Comprehensive Areas
- Degrees
- Dissertation (study, thesis…)
- Dissertation Title
- Dissertation Topic
- Educational Back-ground
- Educational Overview
- Formal Education
- Master’s Project

Experience
- Academic Appointments
- Academic Interests
- Academic Service
- Administrative Experience
- Areas of Concentration
- Areas of Experience
- Areas of Knowledge
- Career Achievements
- Career Highlights
- Conference Participations
- Consulting Experience
- Continuing Education
- Educational Interests
- Experience Highlights
- Graduate Fieldwork
- Graduate Study
- Major University Assignments
- Specialized Training
- Teaching Experience
- Teaching Interests
- Teaching Overview
- University Involvement
- Workshop Presentations
- Postdoctoral Experience

18
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

- Professional Achievements
- Professional Activities
- Professional Associations
- Professional Background
- Professional Competencies
- Professional Development
- Professional Experience
- Professional Interests
- Professional Overview
Programs and Workshops
- Related Experiences
- Related Professional Experience
- Research Appointments (activities)
- Research Experience
- Research Interests
- Research Overview
Presentations/Publications
- Abstracts
- Articles
- Books
- Chapters
- Editorial Appointments (activities)
- Editorial Boards
- Presentations and Publications
- Professional Papers
- Scholarly Works
- Research Awards
- Funded Projects
- Grants and Contracts
- Patents
- Exhibits/Exhibitions
- Arrangements/Scores
- Performances
Scholarships
- Academic Awards
- Honors
- Professional Recognition
- College Activities
Associations/Memberships
- Affiliations
- Professional Memberships
- Professional Organizations
- Professional Certifications
- Special Training
International
- Study Abroad
- International Projects
- Language Competencies

19
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

Note Taking Techniques

Many times note taking is one of the most difficult things for a student to do effectively. It can
be difficult for students to know what to write down, what important or pertinent information
is, or how to structure their notes so they are easy to study from in the future.

Why do we take notes?

• To summarize.
• To highlight important information.
• Most importantly, to review and study from later.
What should be included?
• Pertinent information – What subject/chapter are you covering in class that day?
• Ideas - Write down ideas that you come up with during discussion in class, from points read
in the text, or even ideas for an upcoming paper or essay exam.
• Verbal clues – These may include clues from the professor about future exams, or future
implications of the material on concepts you will study later.
• Points to study later - Included can be ideas/concepts you need more review to grasp or
points the professor indicated will be covered on the exam.
• Know the source (lecturer, author, etc.) - Knowing the lecturer can help pinpoint important
information or highly testable material. Even if they simply repeat material from the texts,
always be prepared to take notes and listen.
General tips and tricks:
• Develop a personal form of abbreviations to allow you to take notes more quickly and allow
you to include more information effectively.
• Skip lines to allow you to fill in more information later.
• Always date material to know what material each test covers.
• Leave marginal room for notes when reviewing or from reading text.
• Re-write notes right after lecture for better retention.
• Paraphrase! – It is easier to study from your own ideas than your lecturers’!
• Use labels, categories, and separate chapters/concepts to organize your notes.
• Keep notes clear. Doodling is distracting when you go back to study and is an indication of
daydreaming during class.
• Use separate notebooks for each class.
• Underline or star key points.
• Know the type of test you will be taking, if you are going to be tested on the material. This will
allow you to tailor your notes to fit this style.
• Diagram relationships between information. This can be especially useful in subjects such as
history.
• If your lecturer repeatedly speaks on a topic, it is likely that you will have to know it in the
future.
Use your notes for review and study later:
The main reason we take notes is to aid our studying later. Use them appropriately. Review
your notes frequently; this can be extremely useful even in short sittings. It is best to begin this

20
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

process within 24 hours of first taking the notes. By doing so, retention is greatly increased.
The more you use your notes, the more familiar the material will become and the more
information you will retain for future use.

How to Read a Scientific Article

Reading a scientific article is a complex task. The worst way to approach this task is to treat it
like the reading of a textbook, reading from title to literature cited, digesting every word along
the way without any reflection or criticism.
Rather, you should begin by skimming the article to identify its structure and features. As you
read, look for the author’s main points. Generate questions before, during, and after reading.
Draw inferences based on your own experiences and knowledge. And to really improve
understanding and recall, take notes as you read. These strategies are detailed in the following
points:
1. Skim the article and identify its structure.
Most journals use a conventional IMRD structure: An abstract followed by Introduction,
Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each of these sections normally contains easily
recognized conventional features, and if you read with an anticipation of these features,
you will read an article more quickly and comprehend more.
Features of Abstracts
Abstracts usually contain four kinds of information:
• purpose or rationale of study (why they did it)
• methodology (how they did it)
• results (what they found)
• conclusion (what it means)
Most scientists read the abstract first. Others—especially experts in the field—skip right
from the title to the visuals because the visuals, in many cases, tell the reader what kinds
of experiments were done and what results were obtained. You should begin
reading a paper by reading the abstract carefully and noting the four kinds of information
outlined above. Then move first to the visuals and then to the rest of the paper.
Features of Introductions
Introductions serve two purposes: creating readers’ interest in the subject and providing them
with enough information to understand the article. Generally, introductions accomplish this by
leading readers from broad information (what is known about the topic) to more specific
information (what is not known) to a focal point (what question the authors asked and
answered). Thus, authors describe previous work that led to current understanding of the
topic (the broad) and then situate their work (the specific) within the field.
Features of Methods
The Methods section tells the reader what experiments were done to answer the question
stated in the Introduction. Methods are often difficult to read, especially for graduate students,
because of technical language and a level of detail sufficient for another trained scientist to

21
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

repeat the experiments. However, you can more fully understand the design of the experiments
and evaluate their validity by reading the Methods section carefully.

Features of Results and Discussion

The Results section contains results—statements of what was found, and reference to the data
shown in visuals (figures and tables). Normally, authors do not include information that would
need to be referenced, such as comparison to others’ results. Instead, that material is placed in
the Discussion—placing the work in context of the broader field.
The Discussion also functions to provide a clear answer to the question posed in the
introduction and to explain how the results support that conclusion.
2. Distinguish main points.
Because articles contain so much information, it may be difficult to distinguish the main
points of an article from the subordinate points. Fortunately, there are many indicators of
the author’s main points:
Document level
• Title
• Abstract
• Keywords
• visuals (especially figure and table titles)
• first sentence or the last 1-2 sentences of the introduction
Paragraph level: words or phrases to look for
• surprising
• unexpected
• in contrast with previous work
• we hypothesize that
• we propose
• the data suggest
3. Generate questions and be aware of your understanding
Before and during your reading, ask yourself these questions:
• Who are these authors? What journal is this?
• Have I taken the time to understand all the terminology?
• Have I gone back to read an article or review that would help me understand this
work better?
• Is there someone I can talk to about confusing parts of this article?
After reading, ask yourself these questions:
• What specific problem does this research address? Why is it important?
• Is the method used a good one? The best one?
• What are the specific findings? Am I able to summarize them in one or two sentences?
• Are the findings supported by persuasive evidence?
• Is there an alternative interpretation of the data that the author did not address?
• How do these results relate to the work I’m interested in? To other work I’ve read
about?
• What are some of the specific applications of the ideas presented here? What are

22
Université de Ghardaïa Communication (M1) Mr. DJELLID.Y

some further experiments that would answer remaining questions?

4. Draw inferences.
As you read, rely on your prior knowledge and world experience, as well as the background
provided in the article, to draw inferences from the topic. Research has shown that readers
who actively draw inferences are better able to understand and recall information.

23