Definition of sentences– A set of words that is complete in itself,

typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a statement,

question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and
sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.

Types of sentences

There are five types of sentences which are as follows:-

1. Imperative sentences
2. Assertive or declarative sentences
3. Exclamatory sentences
4. Interrogative sentences
5. Optative sentences

1. Imperative Sentences

These kinds of sentences are used to instruct or to order someone about

something, or to prohibit someone from doing something. It can be
referred to as giving a command to someone or somebody. Imperative
sentences always end with a full stop or exclamatory mark.

1. Please prepare a cup of tea for the guest.

2. Bring her a glass of water.
3. Don’t touch the paint.
4. Please allow us together to go in a party.
5. I am craving for a chocolate cake.
6. Stop discussing this topic.
7. Bring me a glass of water.
8. You should study hard for your exam or unless you will fail.
9. Submit your file tomorrow morning.
10. Please ask him to give me colour pencils.

2. Assertive or Declarative Sentences

These kinds of sentences declare something or state some facts. An
assertive sentence generally ends with a full stop.

Examples:-
1. I like pizza.
2. Sumit lives in Mumbai with his parents.
3. Priyanka studies in class 8.
4. We have a Christmas holiday tomorrow.
5. They are throwing a party at their place tonight.
6. Maya can help you in making your project.
7. You should complete your homework on time.

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 8. The dress is beautiful but so expensive.
9. There is a basket of fruits kept on a table.
10. She went to the party with us.

3. Exclamatory Sentence
Exclamatory sentences are sentences that express sudden
strong suggestions, emotions, or feelings. It always ends with an
exclamation mark.
Examples:-
1. What a pleasant surprise!
2. This story is very interesting!
3. How beautiful the necklace is!
4. How cold the water is!
5. What a lovely day!
6. This is so expensive!
7. How expensive the dress is!
8. How brilliant a student he is!
9. What a beautiful scenery this is!
10. How late the train will be!

4. Interrogative Sentence
It is a type of sentence that asks questions or investigates. The sentences
usually start with why, how, when, and where. The sentence always ends
with a question mark.
Examples:-
1. Have you completed the work which was assigned to you?
2. Why are you late?
3. When is your class?
4. How are you?
5. When did you return from Canada?
6. What plans had you made for vacations?
7. Who’s books are kept on the table?
8. Are you going for shopping today?
9. When will you submit your practical file?
10. Did you wash the fruit before eating?

5. Optative Sentences
When in a sentence wish or prayer is expressed for someone known or
unknown, as well as good luck then the sentence is known as Optative
sentence. These types of sentences generally start with ‘may’ or ‘wish’.

Examples:-
1. May you get a good job.
2. May you live long.
3. Wish you a happy married life.
4. I wish I could drive the car.

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 5. May your brother reach the heights if success.
6. May you meet someone to ruin yourself.
7. May god listen to your wish.
8. May god bless him with a baby boy.
9. May his soul rest in peace.
10. Wish them a better future together.

Transformation of Sentences
The sentences which can be transferred from one kind to another is called
the transformation of sentences.

Example:-
 He is dancing. (Declarative sentences)
 Is he dancing? (Interrogative sentences)
As you see in the above example ‘He is dancing’ has been transformed
into an interrogative sentence ‘Is he dancing’?

Let us study more examples of the transformation of sentences where

a Declarative sentence is transformed into an Interrogative or
exclamatory sentence.
1. He came to meet them. (Declarative sentences)
Did he come to meet them? (Interrogative sentences)
2. She is very beautiful. (Declarative sentences)
How beautiful she is! (Exclamatory sentence)
3. She is eating mangoes. (Declarative sentences)
Is she eating mangoes? (Interrogative sentences)
4. She sings well. (Declarative sentences)
Does she sing well? (Interrogative sentences)
5. She had finished her work. (Declarative sentences)
Does she finish her work? (Interrogative sentences)

Exercise: 1
Identify the types of sentences in each of the following.
1. The sun was shining brightly.
2. Where had you kept my almirah keys?
3. You should complete your work and then go for playing.
4. What a fantastic job!
5. Pay attention to your exam.
6. Which is your favourite hobby?
7. Let’s have a get together tomorrow.
8. How expensive the ring is!
9. Please allow them to enter the stadium.
10. Have you gone to attend a function yesterday?
11. Would you like to have chocolates or pastries?
12. Don’t speak lie to others.
13. Ask him to pass me the pencil.
14. Did you complete your today’s task?

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 15. You should stop discussing now!
16. There is an old woman sitting under a tree.
17. Let me know what is going on here.
18. It’s nice to meet you!
19. Riya speaks both French and German.
20. When will you come to meet my parents?
Answers
1. Declarative sentences
2. Interrogative sentences
3. Imperative sentences
4. Exclamatory sentences
5. Imperative sentences
6. Interrogative sentences
7. Declarative sentences
8. Exclamatory sentences
9. Imperative sentences
10. Declarative sentences
11. Interrogative sentences
12. Imperative sentences
13. Imperative sentences
14. Interrogative sentences
15. Exclamatory sentences
16. Declarative sentences
17. Interrogative sentences
18. Exclamatory sentences
19. Declarative sentences
20. Interrogative sentences

Exercise: 2
Change the following sentences into Interrogative sentences.
1. The children are playing in the park.
2. The boy is sitting on the table.
3. Raj is going to Surat tomorrow.
4. She is so sensitive towards her family.
5. Hemant loves his pet dog.
6. They are fighting for watching TV.
7. It was raining heavily last night.
8. He is going to the market.
9. She ate all the chocolates.
10. They are eating dinner together.
Answers
1. Are the children playing in the park?
2. Is the boy sitting on the table?
3. Where is Raj going tomorrow?
4. Isn’t she sensitive towards her family?

4
 5. Does Hemant love his pet dog?
6. Are they fighting to watch TV?
7. Does it rain heavily last night?
8. Will he go to the market?
9. Does she eat all chocolates?
10. Are they eating dinner together?

Exercise: 3
Rearrange the words to make a complete sentence.
1. attacked / the / fox / the /deer
2. book / in / keep / the / shelf /the
3. obey / should / you / parents /your
4. gave / bouquet / his /teacher / he / a / to
5. repaired / the / mechanic / car / the
6. children / going / for / the/ picnic / are
7. him / fighting / why / ? / are / you / with
8. court / the / judgement / will / evening / by / give / this
9. do / not / flowers / please / pluck
10. loves / the / riding / man / horse / a
Answers
1. The fox attacked a deer.
2. Keep the book in the shelf.
3. You should obey your parents.
4. He gave a bouquet to his teacher.
5. The mechanic repaired the car.
6. The children are going for the picnic.
7. Why are you fighting with him?
8. The court will give judgement by this evening.
9. Please do not pluck flowers.
10. The man loves riding a horse.

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Parts of Speech Definition

In the English language, every word is called a part of speech. The role a word plays in a
sentence denotes what part of speech it belongs to.

8 Parts of Speech Definitions and Examples:

1. Nouns:

Nouns are words that are used to name people, places, animals, ideas and things. Nouns
can be classified into two main categories: Common nouns and Proper nouns. Common
nouns are generic like pen, car, stick, etc., and proper nouns are more specific like
Charles, The White House, the Sun, etc.

Examples of nouns used in sentences:

 She bought a pair of shoes. (thing)

 I have a pet. (animal)
 Is this your book? (object)
 Many people have a fear of darkness. (ideas/abstract nouns)
 He is my brother. (person)
 This is my school. (place)

2. Pronouns:

Pronouns are words that are used to substitute a noun in a sentence. There are
different types of pronouns. Some of them are reflexive pronouns, possessive
pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. I, he, she, it, them, his, yours,
anyone, nobody, who, etc., are some of the pronouns.

Examples of pronouns used in sentences:

 I reached home at six in the evening. (1st person singular

pronoun)
 Did someone see a red bag on the counter? (Indefinite pronoun)
 Is this the boy who won the first prize? (Relative pronoun)
 That is my mom. (Possessive pronoun)

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  I hurt myself yesterday when we were playing cricket. (Reflexive
pronoun)

3. Verbs :
Verbs are words that denote an action that is being performed by the noun or
the subject in a sentence. They are also called action words. Some examples of
verbs are read, sit, run, pick, garnish, come, pitch, etc.

Examples of verbs used in sentences:

 She plays cricket every day.

 Darshana and Arul are going to the movies.
 My friends visited me last week.
 Did you have your breakfast?
 My name is Meenakshi Kishore.
4. Adverbs:
Adverbs are words that are used to provide more information about verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs used in a sentence. There are five main types of
adverbs namely, adverbs of manner, adverbs of degree, adverbs of
frequency, adverbs of time and adverbs of place. Some examples of adverbs are
today, quickly, randomly, early, 10 a.m. etc.

Examples of adverbs used in sentences:

 Did you come here to buy an umbrella? (Adverb of place)

 I did not go to school yesterday as I was sick. (Adverb of time)
 Savio reads the newspaper every day. (Adverb of frequency)
 Can you please come quickly? (Adverb of manner)
 Tony was so sleepy that he could hardly keep his eyes open during
the meeting. (Adverb of degree)
5. Adjectives:
Adjectives are words that are used to describe or provide more information
about the noun or the subject in a sentence. Some examples of adjectives include
good, ugly, quick, beautiful, late, etc.

Examples of adjectives used in sentences:

 The place we visited yesterday was serene.

 Did you see how big that dog was?
 The weather is pleasant today.

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  The red dress you wore on your birthday was lovely.
 My brother had only one chapati for breakfast.

6. Prepositions:
Prepositions are words that are used to link one part of the sentence to
another. Prepositions show the position of the object or subject in a sentence.
Some examples of prepositions are in, out, besides, in front of, below, opposite,
etc.

Examples of prepositions used in sentences:

 The teacher asked the students to draw lines on the paper so that
they could write in straight lines.
 The child hid his birthday presents under his bed.
 Mom asked me to go to the store near my school.
 The thieves jumped over the wall and escaped before we could
reach home.
7. Conjunctions:
Conjunctions are the parts of speech that are used to connect two different
parts of a sentence, phrases and clauses. Some examples of conjunctions are and,
or, for, yet, although, because, not only, etc.

Examples of conjunctions used in sentences:

 Meera and Jasmine had come to my birthday party.

 Jane did not go to work as she was sick.
 Unless you work hard, you cannot score good marks.
 I have not finished my project, yet I went out with my friends.
8. Interjections:
Interjections are words that are used to convey strong emotions or feelings.
Some examples of interjections are oh, wow, alas, yippee, etc. It is always
followed by an exclamation mark.

Examples of interjections used in sentences:

 Wow! What a wonderful work of art.

 Alas! That is really sad.
 Yippee! We won the match.

Sentence Examples for the 8 Parts of Speech

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 1. Noun – Tom lives in New York.
2. Pronoun – Did she find the book she was looking for?
3. Verb – I reached home.
4. Adverb – The tea is too hot.
5. Adjective – The movie was amazing.
6. Preposition – The candle was kept under the table.
7. Conjunction – I was at home all day, but I am feeling very tired.
8. Interjection – Oh! I forgot to turn off the stove.

A Small Exercise to Check Understanding of Parts of Speech

Let us find out if you have understood the different parts of speech and their functions.
Try identifying which part of speech the highlighted words belong to.

1. My brother came home late.

2. I am a good girl.
3. This is the book I was looking for.
4. Whoa! This is amazing.
5. The climate in Kodaikanal is very pleasant.
6. Can you please pick up Dan and me on your way home?
Answers:

1. My – Pronoun, Home – Noun, Late – Adverb

2. Am – Verb, Good – Adjective
3. I – Pronoun, Was looking – Verb
4. Whoa – Interjection, Amazing – Adjective
5. Climate – Noun, In – Preposition, Kodaikanal – Noun, Very –
Adverb
6. And – Conjunction, On – Preposition, Your – Pronoun

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Simple, Compound and
Complex Sentences
 Clauses
• A main (independent) clause contains a
subject and predicate and can stand alone
Ex. Houston plays baseball.
• A subordinate (dependent) clause
contains a subject and predicate but is not
a complete thought; it begins with a
subordinating conjunction
Ex. Because we won the game
 What is a sentence?
• A sentence must contain both a subject
and a verb and express a complete
thought.

• A subject is who or what is doing the

action.

• The verb is the action. The verb is also

called the predicate.
 Subjects & Predicates
• Subject- one subject doing the action
Ex. Susie called her friend on the phone.
• Compound subject- more than one subject
Ex. Susie and Joan jumped rope at recess.
• Predicate- one action
Ex. Josh swam laps in the pool.
• Compound predicate- two or more actions
Ex. Josh rode his bike and skated this
Weekend.
Simple Sentences
• A simple sentence is a basic sentence
that expresses a complete thought. It
contains:
1. A subject
2. A verb
3. A complete thought
Ex. The train was late.
Mary and Maggie took the bus.
 Compound Sentences
• A compound sentence contains two main
clauses joined by a comma and a
coordinating conjunction or a semi-colon.
• Compound sentences connect two simple
sentences, but they often do not show a
clear relationship between the two parts.
Ex. I waited for the bus, but it was late.
Independent clause
Independent clause
 Complex Sentences
• A complex sentence contains a main
clause and one or more dependent
clauses.
• If the dependent clause comes before the
independent clause, add a comma after
the dependent clause. If the main clause
comes first, no comma is needed between
the two.
• Complex sentences can show a more
specific relationship between the parts of
the sentence than a compound sentence.
 Complex Sentence Examples
• Independent clause first:
We won the game because we worked
together as a team.

• Dependent clause first:

Although I broke my arm, I still cheered for
my team from the sidelines.
Compound Sentences
• A compound sentence contains two
independent clauses and atleast one
dependent clause.
• This is the most sophisticated type of
sentence you can use.
Ex.
Though Jack prefers watching comedy films,
he rented the latest spy thriller, and he
enjoyed it very much.
 Identify the type of sentence
1. Our coach will host a pizza party when
we win our first game.
2. Olivia and Caroline went to the movies.
3. James grilled burgers, and Patrick made
a salad.
4. Since I made the honor roll, my parents
let me have a friend spend the night.
5. Before Alice called me, she called her
mom, and her mom asked her to babysit
her brother.
 1

Diction Definition

Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing determined by the choice of words by a
speaker or a writer.

Diction or choice of words separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of
factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to
the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or
readers understand easily. Besides, proper diction or proper choice of words is important to get
the message across. On the contrary, the wrong choice of words can easily divert listeners or
readers which results in misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed.

Function of Diction

In literature, writers choose words to create and convey a typical mood, tone and atmosphere to
their readers. A writer’s choice of words and his selection of graphic words not only affects the
reader’s attitude but also conveys the writer’s feelings toward the literary work. Moreover,
poetry is known for its unique diction that separates it from prose. Usually, a poetic diction is
marked by the use of figures of speech, rhyming words etc.
 2

Six Types of Diction/Language

Here are the six types of language that authors use to achieve their goal when writing. The right
language can help the reader connect with the piece and author.

1. Formal Diction- Formal Diction is when an author or a speaker uses formal diction his/her
primary purpose is to convey the information. He uses simple and understandable language so
that an average listener or reader is able to comprehend him. Such diction is used in meetings
and other official communications.

2. Informal Diction- Informal Diction is used in case of informal/friendly communications.

When we have a conversation with our friends, colleagues or siblings, we use in formal diction.
Similarly white writing letters to our friends or relatives, we use informal diction.

3. Figurative Language- Figurative Language is the ornamental language; such language is

used when we know that the focus of our audience will be on the content as well as on the
language. Such language is used while delivering motivational speeches, or while writing
essays or stories.

4. Literal Language- Literal Language is the language has the same explicit and implicit
meaning. In other words when the speaker or the author means what he says, there is no hidden
or implicit meaning or the words used, the language is said to be literal.

5. Concrete Diction- Concrete Diction is language tangible to our five senses.

Concrete diction consists of specific words that describe physical qualities or conditions which
form a concrete image of the things talked about in the mind of the listener or the reader.

6. Abstract Diction- Abstract diction refers to language that denotes ideas, emotions,
conditions, or concepts that are intangible. It is a kind of conceptual and philosophical language
the meaning of which can be felt by heart but there is no mental image that can be formed as in
case of the concrete diction. E.g. Words like beauty, pain or patriotism etc.
 3

How to Improve Diction/ How to use Effective Diction

Effective diction is the choice of words that best communicate your purpose to
your audience. Your diction must be tailored to fit the specific context of your
sentences and paragraphs and of your paper as a whole. Your choices of effective
diction depend on your subject, audience, and purpose.

A. Enhance the vocabulary –(USE A DICTIONARY):

No writer should work without a dictionary. Unabridged dictionaries, like the
Oxford English Dictionary, usually found in the reference rooms of libraries,
contain vast numbers of words and lengthy, thorough definitions. They are
useful when you need to find highly detailed information like full word histories
or to find the definition of an arcane word.

B.Keep yourself updated with the Changes and Variations in Language:

Language is constantly evolving, and as a result standards of usage are also
constantly changing. New words are introduced, old words assume new
meanings, and some words are discarded. As a writer, you must be aware of
such changes and keep your diction current. A newly coined word such as
houseperson may at the present time be questionable usage, but another fairly
recent word such as chairperson may generally be acceptable. You need to
remain sensitive to such subtleties and make your word choices on the basis of
what currently seems to be acceptable.

C. Be aware of the the Writing/Speaking Situation—Formal or Informal:

Writers vary their diction and sentence structure to suit the writing context. A
letter to the editor of the local newspaper in support of its position on a local
issue, for example, AIDS education in the schools, would differ in many ways
from a letter to a friend on the same subject. The difference is one of level of formality
within Standard English. Formal usage—which typically uses an extensive
vocabulary including learned words, no slang, few contractions, and long,
often complex sentences—may be appropriate for some topics and in some circumstances.
Informal usage—generally characterized by the use of popular and
colloquial words and some slang and contractions and short, simple sentences,
often including fragments—may be appropriate for other topics and other circumstances.
Whether a writer chooses a formal or informal style, or something
in between, depends not on “correctness,” for a broad range of styles is acceptable;
rather, it depends on what is appropriate to the specific writing situation.
 4

D. Consider Denotation and Connotation:

When you choose words, consider their denotations (the meaning in the dictionary)
and their connotations (the meaning derived from context). Look at
these two sentences:
Nell Gwynn, a famous actress during the English Restoration, became the
mistress of King Charles II.
Nell Gwynn, a notorious actress during the English Restoration, became the
mistress of King Charles II.
Both of the words in bold type indicate that Nell Gwynn was well known;
the denotations are similar. Famous and notorious have different connotations,
however. Famous implies “celebrated,” “renowned”; notorious implies “infamous,”
“widely but unfavorably known.”

E. Distinguishing Between Often-Confused Words:

Some words are easily mistaken for each other because of similarities in
spelling or pronunciation. When such confusion occurs, ideas become jumbled
or unclear. Commonly confused words include advice and advise; cite, sight, and site;
council and counsel; farther and further; loose and lose; and principal and principle.
Others are listed in “A Glossary of Contemporary Usage”

F. Avoid Trite Language:

Trite language is diction that is commonplace and unimaginative and consequently
ineffective. Once-original expressions like white as snow, in the final
analysis, and rough and ready have been used so often, in so many contexts, that
they no longer offer new insight. Avoid using clichés and instead strive to
communicate your meaning in your own language.
In an ideal world boxers who are over the hill would retire before they were
past their prime.

G. Avoiding Jargon:
Jargon, the specialized or technical language of a particular group, is sometimes
appropriate when you are writing only to members of the group, but it
is inappropriate when you are writing for a general audience. Keep your audience
clearly in mind, and use specific but common words instead.
By improving the quality and clarity of horizontal transmittal correspondence,
companies can become more cost efficient.
 5

Some important terms:

Slang
Refers to a group of recently coined words often used in informal
situations.

Colloquial Expressions
Non standard, usually regional expressions these are the ways of using
language appropriate to informal or conversational speech and writing.
(e.g.Y'all)

Jargon
These are the words and expressions characteristic of a particular trade,
profession and pursuit.

Dialect
A nonstandard subgroup of a language with its own vocabulary and
grammar features.

Concrete Diction
Specific words that describe physical qualities or conditions.

Abstract Diction
Refers to language that denotes ideas, emotions,
conditions, or concepts that are intangible.

Connotation
The implicit rather than explicit meaning of a word; consists
of the suggestions, associations, and emotional overtones attached to a
word.

Denotation
The exact, literal definition of a word independent of any
emotional association or secondary meaning.
Page 37

CHAPTER 14
ARTICLES
103. The words a or an and the are called Articles. They come before nouns.

104. There are two Articles a (or an) and the.

105. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the
person or thing spoken of; as, A doctor; that is, any doctor.

106, The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some particular
person or thing; as,

He saw the doctor, meaning

Singular countable nouns, eg
some particular doctor. The inde finite article is used before
A book, art orange, a
gur
The definite article is uscd before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and
uncountable nouns, c.g, The book, the books, the milk

4 r An
107. The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with
a vowel sound an is used as
An as, an enemy, an ink-pad, an orange. an umbrella, an hour, an honest man. An heir.

It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial
consonant h is not pronounced,

108. Before a word beginning with a consonant sound a is used as,

a hole, also a university..
Aboy,areindeer,a woman, ayard. a horse.
European, ewe, unicorn, userul
a a a article.
a union, a

because these words (university, union, etc.) begin with a consonant sound, that of yu.
Similanly We suy.

A one-rupee note, such a one, a one-cyed man.

because one begins with the consonant sound of w.

109. Some native speakers use an before words beginning with h if the first syllable is not
stressed
An hotel (More common: a hotel)
an historical novel (More common: a historical novel)
Use of the Definite Article
10. The
Definite Article the is used-
is,
()When we talk about a
particular person or thing. or one already refered to (that
when it is clear from the context which one already referred to (that is, when it is clear
from the constant which one we mean); as,
Page 38

The book you want is out

of (Which book? The one you want.)
print.
Let's go to the park. (the park in this town)
The girl cried, (the girl the girl already talked about)
-

(2) When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class; as,

The cow is a uscful animal.
Or we
maysay, "Cows are useful animals."
The horse is a noble unimal.
The cat loves comfort.

he rose is the sweetest of all flowers.

The banyan is a kind of fig tree.
Do not say. "a kind of a fig tree". This is a common error.]

he wo nouns man and woman can be used in a general sense without cither article.
Man is the only animal that uses fire.
Woman is man's mate.

But in present-day English a man and a woman (or men and women) arc more usual.
A woman is more sensitive than a man,

3) Before and
some proper names, viz., the kindsSeaof place-names:
theseblack
aoccans seas, e.g. the Pacific,
rivers, eg the Cianga, the Nile
C) Canals, C.g. the Suez Canal
aeserts, Sahara
a C.g. the
(e) of 1slands, e.g. the West Indies
groups
mountan-ranges, Cg. the Himalayas, the Alps
8) a very tew names of countries, which include words like republic and kingdom (e.g.
the Irish Republic, the United Kingdom) also: the Ukraine, the Netherlands (and its scat
of government the Hague)
(4) Before the names of certain books; as,
The Vedas, the Puranas, the liad, the Ramayana.

But we say
Homer's lliad, Valmiki's Ramayana.

5) Before names of things unique of their kind; as.

The sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.

Note-Sometimes the is placed before aCommon noun

to gve it the meaning of an
Abstract noun; as, At last the wamor(the warlike or martial spint) in him was thoroughly

aroused.
(6) efore a Proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining adjectival

clause;
as,
The great Caesar: the immortal Shakespeare.
The Mr. Roy whom you met last night is my uncle.

(7) With Superlatives; as.

The darkest cloud has a silver lining
This is the best book
of elementary chemistry.
(8) With ordinals; as,
He was the fhrst man to
arrive
Page 5

(9) Before musical instruments; as,

He can play the flute.

(10) Before an adjective when the noun is understood; as,

he poor re nlways with us.

(11) Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of a Super lative; as,
The Verb is the word (= the chief word) in a
sentence
(12) As an Adverb with Comparatives, as,
the memier.
ne more
Fby how much more, by so much the memer)
The more they get, the more they want.

Use of the Indefinite Article

111. The Indefinite Article is used-

n itsinches
)Twelve originalmake
numerical
a foot
sense
of one; as,
Not a
word
was said.
A word to the wise is suticient.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

(2) In the vague sense of a certain, as,

A Kishore Kumar (- a certain person named Kishore Kumar)

IS Suspectcd by the police.

One evening a beggar came to my door.

(3) In the sense of any, to single out an individual as the representative of a clasS; as,
A
A
pupil should obey his teacher.
cow is a usefiul
animal
as,
4)lo make a common noun of a proper noun,
A Daniel comes to Judgement(A Damel a very wise man)

Omission of the Article

112. The Article is
omitted
(1) Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns) used in a
general sense; as,
Sugar is bad for your tecth.
Gold is a precious
metal.
Wisdom is the gift of heaven.
Honesty is the best policy.
Virtue is its own reward.
Note:- Uncountable nouns take the when used in a particular sense (especially when
qualified
by an
adjective or adjectival sugar onorca tabie)
phrase
the
T s ne
ean't foruct the kindness with which he treated me.
used in a general sense; as,
2)Before plural countable nouns

Ke cnoco
Computers areused in
many offices.
Page440

Note that such nouns take the when used with a particular meaning, as,
Where the children?
arc
eour children)
(3) Before most
most proper
proper nouns (except those referred to earlier), namely, names of people
ents cOuntries, cities, cg. Europe. Pakistan,
Dames of individual
nam
etc ind
ains (e.g. Mount Everest), idul islands, Iakes,
hills, etc.
(4) Before names of meals (used in a general sensc),
time do you have lunch
sense}; as,
Beneral

What
Dinner 18 ready

Note: We use awhen there is an adjective before breakfast, lunch, dinner, ete. We use the
1telunch today.
The dinner we had at the Tourist Hotel was very nice

(5) Before languages; as

eare sdying English.
They speak Paunjabi at home
6) Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison, when these places are

VISited or used tor ther primary purpose, as,

T learmt French at school.
We go to
church on Sumdays.
He stays in bed till nine every moming
My uncle is still in bospital.

Note- The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or
object rather than to the nomal activity that goes on there; as,

The school is very near my home.

I met him at the church
The bed is broken.
to my
to the hospital uncle
went see

(7) Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse,
meaning 'our cook, our nurse, as,

Father has eturmed.

Aunt wants you to see her.

Cook has given notice.
(8) Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, ie., a position that is nomally
held at one time by onc person only, as,

He was elected chairman of the Board.

Mr. Banerji became Principal of the College in 1995.

9) In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object; as,

to catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to cast anchor, to send word, to bring word, to

gve ear, to lay siege, to set sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to leave home, to strike root, to
offence
i work forms S.CHANDA & COMPANY LTD.
 TENSES
Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1) Present Tense

(2) Past Tense
(3) Future Tense

They are further divided into:

(1) Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work
done on daily basis.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object
Example – She writes a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – She does not write a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she write a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

=+ Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2) Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the time
of speaking.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object
Example – she is writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – She is not writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a letter?

(3) Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has
just finished.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object
Example- She has written a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

Example – She has not written a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

Example- Has she written a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(4) Present Perfect Continuous– This tense shows the action which started in
the past and is still continuing.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object
Example – She has been writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object
Example – Has she not been writing a letter?
 Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy
gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Past (before
now)

Simple Past Past Past Perfect

Past Perfect
Continuous Continuous

Simple Past

Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of
time. Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.

Used for past habits.

Eg. I played football when I was a child.

Rule: Subject + V2

Eg She wrote a letter

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + V2 + Object + (.)
She wrote a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)
She didn’t.write a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)
Did she write a letter?
 4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)
Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

e.g. I was driving a car.

Rule: was/were + ing

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)
She was writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)
She was not writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)
Was she writing a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)
Was she not writing a letter?

Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a
long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the
action that took place earlier.

e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)
She had written a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + had + not + Object + (.)
She had not written a letter.
 3. Interrogative Sentences-
Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)
Had she written a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)
Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued
up to some time in past.

e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)
She had been writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)
She had not been writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)
Had she not been writing a letter?
FUTURE TENSE

Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of
speaking or writing is called as future tense.

For e.g- She will write a letter.

Tense

Past (before Future (After

Present (now)
now) now)

Future Future Perfect

Simple Future Future Perfect
Continuous Continuous

Simple Future
This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after
saying or in future

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)

In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping verb ‘Will’
is used with all others. When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or
emphasize something, use of 'will/shall' is reversed. ‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’
and 'shall' is used with others.
In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and
normally ‘Will’ is used with all.

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)
She will write a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)
She will not write a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
Will she write a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
Will she not write a letter?

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.

e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.
In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to
be continued till sometime in future.

We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or
around a time in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will be writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will not be writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)
 Will she be writing a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)
Will she not be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be

completed by a certain time in future.

We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time
in the future.

e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)
She will have written a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)
She will not have written a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)
Will she have written a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)
Will she not have written a letter?
Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will
continue for some time in future.

If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous tense.

Without continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense.
Continued time reference only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and
Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be
in progress before another time or event in the future.

e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.

It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.

e.g. They will be staying for a week’s

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in
progress before another time or event in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will have been writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+ (.)
She will not have been writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she have been writing a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she not have been writing a letter?
Common grammar exceptions

Almost every grammar rule in English has some exceptions to it. In this lesson, we will take a
look at these grammar exceptions that often frustrate ESL students.

Use of auxiliary verbs in the simple present and simple past tense

You have already learned that the simple present tense is used to talk about general truths
and habits. Read the sentences given below.

My sister lives in New York. (Affirmative)

My sister does not live in New York. (Negative)
Does my sister live in New York? (Interrogative)
I agree with you. (Affirmative)
I do not agree with you. (Negative)
Do I agree with you? (Interrogative)
As you can see, affirmative sentences in the simple present tense do not have an auxiliary
verb.

However, this rule has an exception. And this exception adds extra emphasis to the
sentence.

I do agree with you. (More emphatic than I agree with you.) This sentence means that I really
agree with you.
She does want to come with us. (= She really wants to come with us.)
He does want to quit smoking. (= He really wants to quit smoking.) (NOT He does wants to
quit smoking.)
She does want to go on a vacation.
I do respect him.
Note that after do and its forms, the infinitive is used without the marker –s.

Exception 2

Simple present tense to talk about future

© www.englishgrammar.org
Common grammar exceptions

The simple present tense can be used to talk about scheduled future events. Common verbs
that can be used with the simple present tense in this way are: arrive, depart, leave, start,
begin, open, end etc.

The school reopens on Monday.

The train arrives at 4.30.

© www.englishgrammar.org
 Tutoring and Testing Center

PREPOSITIONS

“The plane flew above the cloud, behind the cloud, around the cloud, below
the cloud, beneath the cloud, beside the cloud, beyond the cloud, into the
cloud, near the cloud, outside the cloud, over the cloud, past the cloud,
through the cloud, toward the cloud, under the cloud, and finally dived
underneath the cloud.”

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between two things. In the example above,
the prepositions show the relationships between a plane and a cloud. Below is a list of most
common prepositions:
about beside inside to
above besides like toward
across between near under
after beyond of underneath
against by off until
along despite on up
among down out with
around during outside within
at except over without
before for past
behind from since
below in through
beneath into throughout

Some prepositions consist of more than one word. Here is a list of the most common multiword
prepositions:

along with in place of

because of in spite of
Due to instead of
except for on account of
in addition to out of
in case of up to
in front of with the exception of
 Prepositions for Time, Place,
and Introducing Objects
Time
On is used with days.

I will see you on Monday.

The week begins on Sunday.

At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day.

My plane leaves at noon.

The movie starts at 6 p.m.

In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons.

He likes to read in the afternoon.

The days are long in August.
The book was published in 1999.
The flowers will bloom in spring.

Since, for, by, from—to, from—until, during, (with)in – expresses extended time.

She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)
I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
The movie showed from August to/until October. (Beginning in August, ending in October.)
I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place

In – describes the point itself.

There is a wasp in the room.

Inside – expresses something contained.

Put the present inside the box.

On – talks about the surface.

I left your keys on the table.

At – talks about a general vicinity.

She was waiting at the corner.

 Over, above – when the object is higher than a point.

He threw the ball over the roof.

Hang that picture above the couch.

Under, underneath, beneath, below – when the object is lower than a point.

The rabbit burrowed under the ground.

The child hid underneath the blanket.
We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
The valley is below sea-level.

Near, by, next to, between, among, opposite – when the object is close to a point.

She lives near the school.

There is an ice cream shop by the store.
An oak tree grows next to my house
The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
I found my pen lying among the books.
The bathroom is opposite the kitchen.

Introduce objects of verbs

At – with verbs glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, and stare

She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
You didn't laugh at his joke.
I'm looking at the computer monitor.
We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
That pretty girl smiled at you.
Stop staring at me.

Of – with verbs approve, consist, and smell

I don't approve of his speech.

My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
He came home smelling of alcohol.

Of/About –with verbs dream and think

I dream of finishing college in four years.

Can you think of a number between one and ten?
I am thinking about this problem.

For – with verbs call, hope, look, wait, watch, and wish

Did someone call for a taxi?

He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
I'm looking for my keys.
We'll wait for her here.
You go buy the tickets, and I'll watch for the train.
If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

Frequently Misused Prepositions

Prepositions may sometimes be confused because of slang and the general informality of talk.
Here are some frequently misused prepositions.

beside, besides. Beside means next to, whereas besides means in addition.

The comb is beside the brush.

Besides planning the trip, she is also getting the tickets.

between, among. Generally, between is used when two items are involved;
with three or more, among is preferred.

Between you and me, he is among friends.

due to. Due to should not be used as a preposition meaning because of.

Because of (not due to) his speeding, we were all ticketed.

inside of. The of is always unnecessary.

Stay inside the house.

The man stayed outside (not outside of) the post office.

Based on the information from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslprep4.html.

 Preposition Chart

Preposition How It’s Used Example

Showing Time

At exact times at ​
3pm

meal times at ​
dinner

parts of the day at ​

sundown

age at ​
age 21

By a limit in time by ​
sundown

in the sense of ​
at the latest by ​
the due date

In seasons in​
the summer

months in ​
November

years in​
1992

durations in ​
the same year

after a certain period of time in ​

an hour

On days of the week on ​

Wednesday

parts of the day where the on ​

Friday night
day is named

dates on ​
December 4th

Ago a certain time in the past 2 years ​

ago

After a point in time that follows after​ ​fter ​

the game; a the
another point in time surgery

Before a point in time that precedes before ​leaving; ​

before
another point in time before​
breakfast; ​ 2004

During something that during​ ​uring

the night; d
happened/will happen in a war
specific period of time

For over a certain period in the for​

​
2 years

CWAC: Center for Writing Across the Curriculum Summer 2015

 Preposition Chart

past

Past telling the time ​ast​

ten p six (6:10)

Since from a certain period of time since​​ since ​

1980; ​ the
accident

Throughout something that throughout ​

the year;
happened/will happen throughout ​
the ordeal
continuously in a specific
period of time

To telling time o​
ten t​ six (5:50)

from an earlier time to a to ​

1pm ​ 3pm
later time

Until up to a certain point in time until t​ until ​

he end; ​ sunrise

how long something is going

to last

Up (to) from an earlier point to a ​ow

up (to) n
later point

Showing Place

At an object’s settled position or at ​ ​t t​

the airport; a he
position after it has moved ceremony

meeting place or location at​ at​

home; ​ the desk

point of direction ​t​

turning a the intersection

a target ​t
throwing the snowball a
Lucy

By close to by ​
the school

alongside of by ​
the window

In in an enclosed space in​ n​

the garage; i​ ​
an envelope

in a geographic location in​ n​

San Diego; i​ Texas

in a print medium in​ in​

a book; ​ a magazine

CWAC: Center for Writing Across the Curriculum Summer 2015

 Preposition Chart

On for a certain side on ​

the left

for a river/lake ​n ​
London lies o the Thames

for a floor in a house on ​

the floor

for public transport on ​

a bus

for television, radio on ​ ​n ​

the air; o TV

About around or outside of about ​

town

at but not exactly on about ​

five feet tall

related to about ​
my father’s business

Above suspended higher than above ​

the door
something else

superior to above ​
me in rank

After pursuit after ​

chasing ​ the robbers

a point further from an ​fter ​

the corner a the big
earlier point house

Against leaning on against ​

the door

opposite to or facing against ​

the wall

Along tracing the length of, without along ​ ​long

the hallway; a
emphasis on the ends the river

Among in the company of (three or among ​

friends
more)
among ​
the masses
in a crowd
among ​
other things
the end of a long list

Around location of something ​round​

drive a the block

explaining a period of time around​

3 o’clock

Before in the front in terms of space before​ ​efore

the emperor; b
God

CWAC: Center for Writing Across the Curriculum Summer 2015

 Preposition Chart

Behind on the back side of a point in behind​ behind​

the car; ​ her
space smile

Below something lower than or below​ ​elow

the stairs; b
underneath something else expectations

From in the sense of ​

where from flower ​
a​ from the garden

Into enter a room/building into​

​
go​ ​
the kitchen/house

Onto movement to the top of ​nto​

jump o the table
something

Over covered by something else over​

put a jacket ​ your shirt

“more than” over​

​
16 years of age

“getting to the other side” over ​

walk ​ the bridge

overcoming an obstacle over​

climb ​ the wall

Through something with limits on hrough​

drive t​ the tunnel
top, bottom and the sides

Towards movement in the direction of towards​

go 5 steps ​ ​
the house
something (but not directly
to it)

Other Important
Prepositions

About for topics, meaning ​

what ​bout​
we were talking a ​
you
about

At ​ge
For a at ​
she learned Russian ​ 45

By who made it by ​
a book ​ Mark Twain

rise or fall of something by​

prices have risen ​ ​
10
percent
travelling (other than
walking or horseriding) by​
​ by ​
car, ​ bus

From who gave it from​

a present ​ ​ane
J

In entering a car/taxi n​
get i​ the car

Of who/what did it belong to ​f​

a page o the book

CWAC: Center for Writing Across the Curriculum Summer 2015

 Preposition Chart

what does it show the picture ​ ​place

of a

Off leaving a public transport ​ff ​

get o the train
vehicle

On walking or riding on on​

​ ​n​
foot,​
o horseback
horseback
​n​
get o ​
the bus
entering a public transport
vehicle

Out of leaving a car/taxi ​ut​

get o ​
of the taxi

For more information on using prepositions, see the following resources:

Beason, Larry and Mark Lester. ​A Commonsense Guide to Grammar and Usage​ , 6th ed.
Understanding and Using English Grammar​
Azar, Betty S. and Stacy A. Hagen. ​ , 4th ed.
Johnston, Ted and Joe Old. ​ English Beyond the Basics​
, 2nd ed.

CWAC: Center for Writing Across the Curriculum Summer 2015

 www.perfect-english-grammar.com
Verbs that need prepositions 1 (exercise 2):

Put in the correct preposition:

1. It’s so noisy – I can’t concentrate _____ my homework.

2. Don’t worry – I’ll pay _____ the tickets.
3. The car belongs _____ my father, so I don’t think we can use it.
4. I borrowed a pen _____ my classmate.
5. I’ve been waiting _____ the bus for more than twenty minutes!
6. Julie: “What time shall we eat dinner?”
Gill: “It depends _____ John – we’ll eat when he gets home”.
7. When we arrived _____ the cinema, the film had already started.
8. Please explain this problem _____ us.
9. She was listening _____ the radio when the doorbell rang.
10. John worries _____ his exam results all the time.
11. My flatmate listens _____ a lot of jazz.
12. David paid _____ the drinks.
13. Who does that house belong _____?
14. Don’t worry _____ Gemma, she’ll be fine.
15. She borrowed a jumper _____ Julie.
16. Please be quiet – I need to concentrate _____ this book.
17. I want to go to the beach tomorrow but it depends _____ the weather.
18. Who are you waiting _____?
19. When will we arrive _____ Beijing?
20. The policeman explained _____ the children why they should never run
across a road.

© 2008 www.perfect-english-grammar.com
May be freely copied for personal or classroom use.
Answers:

1. on
2. for
3. to
4. from
5. for
6. on
7. at
8. to
9. to
10. about
11. to
12. for
13. to
14. about
15. from
16. on
17. on
18. for
19. in
20. to

© 2008 www.perfect-english-grammar.com
May be freely copied for personal or classroom use.
 1

What Are Modal Verbs?

Modal verbs are helping verbs that are used along with main verbs to represent the ability, possibility
and probability of a subject to do an action and emphasise the necessity of an action.

Modal Auxiliaries
Modal auxiliaries are a type of helping verb that are used only with a main verb to help express
its mood.

The following is the basic formula for using a modal auxiliary:

Subject + modal auxiliary + main verb

James may call

There are ten main modal auxiliaries in English.

Modal
Use Modal Auxiliary + Main Verb
Auxiliary
I can lift this forty-pound box. (ability)
can Expresses an ability or possibility We can embrace green sources of energy.
(possibility)
I could beat you at chess when we were
kids. (past ability)
Expresses an ability in the past; a present
could We could bake a pie! (present possibility)
possibility; a past or future permission
Could we pick some flowers from the
garden? (future permission)
I may attend the concert. (uncertain
future action)
Expresses uncertain future action;
may You may begin the exam. (permission)
permission; ask a yes-no question
May I attend the concert? (yes-no
questions)
I might attend the concert (uncertain
might Expresses uncertain future action
future action—same as may)
I shall go to the opera. (intended future
shall Expresses intended future action
action)
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Modal
Use Modal Auxiliary + Main Verb
Auxiliary

I should mail my RSVP. (obligation, same

Expresses obligation; ask if an obligation as ought to)
should
exists Should I call my mother? (asking if an
obligation exists)
I will get an A in this class. (intended
future action)
Expresses intended future action; ask a
will
favor; ask for information Will you buy me some chocolate? (favor)
Will you be finished soon? (information)
I would like the steak, please.
(preference)
Would you like to have breakfast in bed?
States a preference; request a choice (request a choice politely)
would politely; explain an action; introduce
habitual past actions I would go with you if I didn’t have to
babysit tonight. (explain an action)
He would write to me every week when
we were dating. (habitual past action)
must Expresses obligation We must be on time for class.
I ought to mail my RSVP. (obligation,
ought to Expresses obligation
same as may)

Use the following format to form a yes-no question with a modal auxiliary:

Modal auxiliary + subject + main verb

Should I drive?

Be aware of these four common errors when using modal auxiliaries:

1. Using an infinitive instead of a base verb after a modal

Incorrect: I can to move this heavy table.
Correct: I can move this heavy table.
2. Using a gerund instead of an infinitive or a base verb after a modal
Incorrect: I could moving to the United States.
Correct: I could move to the United States.
3. Using two modals in a row
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Incorrect: I should must renew my passport.

Correct: I must renew my passport.
Correct: I should renew my passport.
4. Leaving out a modal
Incorrect: I renew my passport.
Correct: I must renew my passport.
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Examples of Modal Verbs

Let us look at some examples of modal verbs used as auxiliary verbs and their functions.

Modal Function
Verb

Can Used to denote the ability of the subject to perform an action or to request
permission to perform an action

Could Used to denote the ability of the subject to perform an action or an offer made by the
subject to perform an action

May Used to denote the probability of an action taking place or to request permission to
perform an action

Might Used to denote the probability of an action taking place or to make suggestions

Will Used to denote the surety of an action taking place or the assurance of the subject to
perform a particular action

Would Used to show politeness when requesting or asking if an action can be done by the
subject.

Shall Used to denote the surety of an action taking place or the assurance of the subject to
perform a particular action

Should Used to denote the necessity of an action to be done by the subject

Must Used to denote the strong obligation or necessity for the subject to do or not do an
action

Ought to Used to denote the obligation of the subject to perform a particular action

How to Use Modal Verbs in Sentences: Given below are a few examples of how modal verbs can be

used to indicate the possibility or probability of an action taking place.

 It might rain in the evening.

 I think they will reach Coimbatore by 8 pm.
 Can you pick up my brother from school on your way home tomorrow?
 I could make some time to help you with your assignments.
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 Your friends may come to visit you next week.

 It would not be possible for you to complete all of it by tomorrow evening.
Here are some examples of modal verbs being used to show the necessity and obligation of the subject
to perform a particular set of actions.

 All students of this institution ought to abide by the rules and instructions provided.
 All employees should follow the dress code strictly.
 You must get yourself checked before the situation becomes worse.
 Your sister will have to apply for a leave request if she wants to take a month’s leave.
Modal verbs can be used to make offers, suggestions and requests. Check out the examples given
below for know-how.

 It would be better if you did it the other way.

 I could help you if you want.
 Shall I bring you some water to drink?
 Could you please pass me the science record?
 Will you please take care of my son for an hour? I have some grocery shopping to be done.

Test Your Knowledge of Modal Verbs

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate modal verb in the following sentences:

1. ________ you be able to bring your camera when you come?

2. Priya __________ apologise for the confusion that was caused yesterday because of her carelessness.

3. You _______ finish this first and then start with the other one.

4. ________ I make some tea for you?

5. I ______ make sure to keep everything ready by the time they reach the railway station.

6. You _______ see to it that the students are standing according to their roll numbers.

7. ______ I come in?

8. She _______ find it interesting as she likes reading adventure stories.

9. Do you have any idea how much all of this _______ cost?

10. ______ you please help me find my keys?

Ready to find out if you used the right modal verbs? Let us check.
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1. Would you be able to bring your camera when you come?

2. Priya should/ought to apologise for the confusion that was caused yesterday because of her
carelessness.

3. You could finish this first and then start with the other one.

4. Shall I make some tea for you?

5. I will make sure to keep everything ready by the time they reach the railway station.

6. You must see to it that the students are standing according to their roll numbers.

7. Can/Shall/May I come in?

8. She might find it interesting as she likes reading adventure stories.

9. Do you have any idea how much all of this would cost?

10. Can/Would/Could/Will you please help me find my keys?

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Paragraph writing

Paragraph writing has been a part of the writing process in every student’s life. Not only for any
examination but also in our personal lives, we will need to write about different topics. Paragraph
writing is a simple process, and yet it needs special attention as you have to be short, precise and to
the point.

What Is Paragraph Writing?

As we all know, a paragraph is a group of sentences that are connected and make absolute sense.
While writing a long essay or letter, we break them into paragraphs for better understanding and to
make a well-structured writing piece. Paragraph writing on any topic is not only about expressing
your thoughts on the given topic, but it is also about framing ideas about the topic and making it
convenient for the readers to follow it. In English paragraph writing, it is essential to focus on the
writing style, i.e., the flow and connection between the sentences.

Therefore, a paragraph must be written in simple language in order to avoid any interruption while
reading. In order to write a paragraph on any topic, you can refer to the samples given below and
write a paragraph without any hindrance.

Parts of a paragraph

Like other forms of writing, paragraphs follow a standard three-part structure with a beginning,
middle, and end. These parts are the topic sentence, development and support, and conclusion. In
order to determine how to write a paragraph, you will have to find a good topic and collect enough
information regarding the topic. Once you find the supporting details, you can start framing the
sentences, connect the sentences following a sequence, and find a perfect concluding sentence. To
understand it better, we have provided a few paragraph writing examples for your reference

1. Topic Sentence: It is the first sentence which is an introduction to the given topic. It gives the
main idea of what the paragraph would be about. Topic sentences are also known as
“paragraph leaders,” as they introduce the main idea that the paragraph is about. They
shouldn’t reveal too much on their own, but rather prepare the reader for the rest of the
paragraph by stating clearly what topic will be discussed.
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2. The development and support sentences: The development and support sentences act as
the body of the paragraph. Development sentences elaborate and explain the idea with details
too specific for the topic sentence, while support sentences provide evidence, opinions, or
other statements that back up or confirm the paragraph’s main idea. These are the details that
can be collected from various sources. It comprises information related to the topic that gives
strong support to the main topic.

3. The conclusion: The conclusion wraps up the idea, sometimes summarizing what’s been
presented or transitioning to the next paragraph. The content of the conclusion depends on the
type of paragraph, and it’s often acceptable to end a paragraph with a final piece of support
that concludes the thought instead of a summary. It is the last sentence that ends the paragraph
and restates the whole idea of the paragraph. It is basically the concluding sentence that gives
the basic idea of the whole topic.
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Types of Paragraph Writing

It is essential to know the types of paragraph writing before you write about any given topic.
Therefore, check the below information to understand the various types of paragraph writing.

Majorly, there are four types of paragraph writing, i.e., descriptive, expository, persuasive and
narrative.

1. Descriptive paragraph: This kind of writing basically describes the topic and appeals to the
five senses.

A descriptive paragraph uses sensory details to describe someone or something. Sensory details
are descriptions that appeal to the reader’s physical senses: sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell. A
well-written descriptive paragraph allows the reader to form a picture in his or her mind as he or
she reads. Writers should include vivid adjectives and action verbs to help the reader with this
process.

Descriptive paragraphs are structured like other paragraph types.

1. A descriptive paragraph should begin with an opening sentence that includes the topic of the
paragraph.
2. The body sentences should be filled with sensory details that describe the topic.
3. The closing sentence should restate the topic and provide a sense of closure.

Example descriptive paragraph:

A view of the Farmers markets

Farmers markets are a wonderland of bright colours and sweet smells. Wandering from booth to
booth, the intoxicating aroma of ruby-red strawberries and fresh-cut cucumbers fills your nose. Rows
and rows of farm-made cheeses and artisan breads, begging to go home with you. You gaze at jars of
golden honey, pickled cucumbers and fruit preserves of every kind and colour. Friendly farmers tempt
you with samples of sun-ripened tomatoes in shades of red, orange, and even purple. As you leave the
farmers market with heavy bags and a full heart, you smile and make a promise to yourself to return
again the next weekend and the next and the next.
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2. Expository: These kinds of writing are a definition of something. These paragraphs require a
lot of research.

Expository Paragraph

An expository paragraph’s primary purpose is to provide information and or explanation of

something. The name “expository” suggests that a topic is “exposed” through the writing. In an
expository paragraph, the writer would want to be sure to provide details and explanations that
allow the reader to better understand the topic.

Like most types of paragraphs, the structure of the expository paragraph consists of three main
parts: the opening sentence, body sentences, and a closing sentence.

1. The opening sentence introduces the topic.

2. The body sentences (also called detail sentences) provide specific details and explanations
about the topic.
3. The closing sentence brings the topic to a conclusion by restating the topic and giving the
reader a sense of having reached a stopping point.

Example of an expository paragraph:

Growing trend of eating locally grown food

In recent years a new food trend has been growing in popularity — eating locally grown and raised
food. Concerned citizens trying to reduce their carbon footprints have grown increasingly more
aware of how far food must be shipped. Rather than shipping their fruits and vegetables across the
country, farmers can sell directly to consumers at local farmers markets or to local grocery stores
within a 50 mile radius. By selling their goods to local consumers, farmers can reduce the amount of
fossil fuels burned during shipping. Consumers who seek out locally grown food often report that the
food is of higher quality than food shipped hundreds or thousands of miles. Without extensive
shipping times, local food spends less time in transit and can conceivably make it from the farm to
the consumer’s table in a matter of several hours or a few days. With less time to degrade during the
shipping process, locally grown foods are often fresher and tastier than foods that spend days or
weeks in transit. With these benefits, the trend of eating locally is likely to continue.
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3. Persuasive: These kinds of writing aim to make the audience admit a writer’s point of view.
These are mostly used by the teachers to provide a strong argument.

Persuasive Paragraph

The purpose of a persuasive paragraph is to convince an audience to agree with the writer’s point
of view. In order to be successful, the writer must choose a topic and take a position or state an
opinion. The writer must support the position with relevant facts and examples. In order to be
effective, the writer should consider the audience when making choices about what kind of
evidence to include in the paragraph.

The structure of a persuasive paragraph is similar to other types of paragraphs.

1. A persuasive paragraph should begin with an opening sentence that states the topic and the
writer’s position while capturing the audience’s attention.
2. The body of the paragraph should contain a series of facts and examples that support the
writer’s position.
3. The closing sentence should restate the writer’s position and usually includes a call to action
that directs the reader to a certain course of action.

Example of a persuasive paragraph:

Locally grown food is beneficial

People should choose to buy locally grown food whenever it is available. Locally grown food is better
for the environment. By reducing shipping distances, fossil fuels can be conserved and carbon
emissions can be diminished. In addition, locally grown food is superior in both nutrition and taste.
Because locally grown foods can be distributed sooner after harvest, vitamin content and freshness
are maximized. Produce that is shipped great distances often spends more time in storage and
transit, which causes it to decrease in nutritional value and sometimes to become overripe or spoiled.
The right choice is clear — buy locally grown food whenever possible!
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4. Narrative: These kinds of writing are basically a narration of a story or a situation that
includes a sequence.

Narrative Paragraph

A narrative paragraph tells about an event. The term personal narrative means that the writer is
writing about an event that happened in his or her personal life experience. Narratives should
have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Most narratives are told in chronological order and use
transitions (like “next” or “then”) to help the audience understand the flow of time. Narratives
utilize descriptive writing and contain sensory details (imagery). Narrative writing is the basis of
both fiction and non-fiction stories.

The structure of a narrative paragraph may vary depending on the writer’s purpose.

1. When following the traditional model, the opening sentence should introduce the subject of
the paragraph, which is usually the main action of the story.
2. The body should include details about what happened. These details are usually conveyed in
chronological order and separated with transition words that help the audience understand
the sequence of events.
3. The closing sentence should restate the topic or subject and bring the action to a close.

In a work of fiction or when approaching the writing from a non-traditional style, sometimes
writers deviate from the traditional paragraph structure as a matter of creative license.

Example of a narrative paragraph:

A visit to local farmers market

Last Saturday, I visited a local farmers market. I didn’t know what to expect, but having been urged
by a friend to try to eat more locally, I decided to give it a try. As I entered the farmers market, my
nose was immediately greeted by the inviting scent of fresh strawberries. I wandered from booth to
booth admiring the piles of brightly coloured fruits and vegetables. As I examined yellow and green
varieties of squash, cucumbers of all sizes, and tomatoes of all shapes and colours, I had a hard time
deciding what to buy. Sensing my dilemma, a kind farmer offered me a sample of watermelon with a
wink, “Picked fresh today,” he said with a smile. As I bit into the fruit, the sweet juice cooled my
parched throat. Later, as I left the market with two bags full of delicious produce; I vowed to eat
locally whenever possible.