UNIT - II

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

 Mould board plough

A mouldboard plough is a traditional and widely used farming implement

designed for primary tillage, meaning it is used to turn over the upper layer of soil.
This process buries crop residues, weeds, and organic matter, while also loosening the
soil to prepare it for planting.

Key Parts of a Mouldboard Plough:

1. Ploughshare: The cutting blade at the bottom of the plough that slices through the
soil.
2. Mouldboard: The curved surface that lifts and turns over the soil after it has been
cut by the ploughshare.
3. Frog: The part that connects the share, mouldboard, and other parts of the plough.
4. Landside: This part of the plough helps stabilize it and bear the sideways thrust.
5. Heel: The rear part of the landside that controls the depth of the furrow.

Functions of a Mouldboard Plough:

- Soil Inversion: The mouldboard plough turns over soil to a depth, burying organic
matter like weeds, crop residues, and pests.
- Aeration: It improves soil aeration, allowing water and nutrients to reach plant roots
more effectively.
- Weed Control: By burying weeds, it helps reduce weed growth in the next crop
cycle.
- Seedbed Preparation: After turning over the soil, it breaks up clods and helps
prepare the land for seeding.

Types of Mouldboard Ploughs:

- One-way plough: Only turns the soil in one direction (typically right).
- Reversible plough: Can flip the mouldboard to turn the soil in either direction, which
is useful for reducing soil erosion on slopes.

How it Works:

- Soil Cutting: The share cuts into the soil as the plough is dragged by animals or a
tractor.
- Soil Turning: The mouldboard lifts the cut slice of soil and turns it over, burying
weeds and crop residues.
- Furrow Creation: As the soil is turned, a furrow (trench) is left behind, which is the
path for the next pass of the plough.

Benefits:

- Weed Control: Buries weeds and organic matter, reducing the need for chemical
herbicides.
- Soil Aeration: Loosens and aerates the soil, improving water infiltration and root
growth.
- Pest Control: Burying crop residues can help reduce pests and diseases in the soil.

Drawbacks:
- Soil Erosion: Continuous use can lead to soil erosion, especially on slopes.
- Hardpan Formation: Repeated ploughing at the same depth can lead to the formation
of a compacted soil layer called a hardpan.

Mouldboard ploughs are particularly useful in heavy soils, such as clay, where
breaking and turning the soil is crucial for crop growth.

Fig:- Mould board plough

Mould board plough attachments

A mouldboard plough can be equipped with various attachments to enhance its

functionality and adapt it to different soil conditions, crops, and farming needs. These
attachments help improve ploughing efficiency, soil preparation, and reduce wear on
the plough itself.

Common Attachments for a Mouldboard Plough:

1. Coulter
- Function: A coulter is a vertical blade or disc mounted in front of the mouldboard
or share. Its main function is to cut the soil vertically before the share and mouldboard
lift and turn it over.
- Benefit: The coulter helps create a clean furrow slice, reduces drag, and improves
the plough's ability to cut through crop residues, roots, or tough soil.

2. Jointer
- Function: A jointer is a small, secondary mouldboard attached to the main
mouldboard. It cuts and turns over the surface soil and crop residues, helping bury
them more effectively.
- Benefit: It helps bury trash or organic matter deeper in the furrow, reducing the
risk of residues clogging the plough. This is especially useful in fields with a lot of
stubble or plant remains.

3. Land Wheel (Furrow Wheel)

- Function: A land wheel is a small wheel attached to the side of the plough. It helps
guide the plough along the furrow and maintains consistent depth and stability.
- Benefit: It helps stabilize the plough and maintain even soil depth while working
on uneven or soft ground.

4. Depth Wheel
- Function: A depth wheel is mounted at the rear of the plough and ensures that the
plough operates at a consistent depth. It can be adjusted to vary the depth as needed.
- Benefit: Ensures consistent ploughing depth, which is critical for uniform seedbed
preparation and maintaining soil structure.

5. Skimmer (Trash Board)

- Function: Skimmers, also known as trash boards, are smaller, curved metal plates
mounted above the share and mouldboard. Their function is to handle surface trash,
such as crop residues, by lifting and turning it over before the main body of the soil is
turned.
- Benefit: Helps in situations where there is a lot of crop residue or weeds, allowing
better burial of trash and preventing clogging of the plough.

6. Gauge Wheel
- Function: This attachment is used to control the depth of the plough more
precisely by allowing for adjustments during work. The gauge wheel works with the
depth wheel to ensure that the plough remains at the correct working depth.
- Benefit: Essential for accurate depth control, particularly on uneven or hard terrain.

7. Reversible (Roll-over) Mechanism

- Function: A reversible or roll-over mechanism is attached to reversible
mouldboard ploughs. It allows the operator to flip the mouldboard over after each
pass, so the soil can be turned in the opposite direction during the next pass.
 - Benefit: This eliminates the need to plough back on the same furrow or make a
turn at the headland, saving time and effort, and leaving the soil consistently turned
over.

8. Subsoiler Attachment
- Function: A subsoiler attachment can be added to the mouldboard plough to break
up hardpan layers below the surface soil. It consists of a shank or blade that penetrates
deeper than the regular working depth of the plough.
- Benefit: Improves water infiltration and root penetration by loosening compacted
soil layers.

9. Disc Coulter
- Function: A disc coulter is a round, sharp-edged blade mounted in front of the
share to cut the soil horizontally before the mouldboard lifts and turns it.
- Benefit: It reduces soil resistance, making it easier for the plough to cut through
hard soil, and it helps avoid clogging in fields with a lot of plant material or roots.

10. Furrow Press Attachment

- Function: A furrow press attachment helps compress or roll the soil after
ploughing, improving soil-to-seed contact and creating a more even surface.
- Benefit: Ideal for seedbed preparation, as it helps reduce soil moisture loss and
creates an optimal environment for planting.

Summary of Benefits:-

- Improved soil penetration and cutting: Coulters and disc coulters assist in cutting
through tough soils and residues.
- Better residue management: Skimmers and jointers help bury plant material and
prevent clogging.
- Accurate depth control: Depth and gauge wheels ensure uniform ploughing depth for
consistent seedbed preparation.
- Increased efficiency: Reversible mechanisms and subsoiler attachments save time
and enhance soil aeration and water retention.

Each attachment enhances the performance of the mouldboard plough, making it more
adaptable to various soil types and field conditions.
Mould board shapes and types

The mouldboard is the part of the plough responsible for turning over the soil, and its
shape is critical to how the soil is moved and the overall ploughing efficiency.
Mouldboards come in various shapes and types, each designed for specific soil types,
ploughing depths, and desired field finishes.

Common Shapes of Mouldboards:

1. General-Purpose (Cylindrical) Mouldboard

- Shape: Curved with a semi-cylindrical shape.
- Function: Designed to turn the soil gently without pulverizing it.
- Use: Suitable for normal ploughing where moderate soil inversion is required.
- Advantages: It can work in a wide range of soil conditions and is ideal for light to
medium soils. It leaves the soil partially inverted and loosened.

2. Scotch (Vertical) Mouldboard

- Shape: Almost vertical with a steep angle, resembling a flat or slightly curved
board.
- Function: Turns the soil over more completely than cylindrical types, leaving a
steep furrow wall.
- Use: Common in stony or shallow soils where full soil inversion is needed.
- Advantages: Good for burying surface residues, but it may require more power. It
is less effective in deep soils because of its limited soil displacement.

3. Stubble Mouldboard
- Shape: Broad with a long curvature that gently turns the soil.
- Function: Gently inverts the soil while leaving a wide furrow.
- Use: Best suited for working on previously cultivated land (stubble fields).
- Advantages: Less aggressive soil inversion, allowing some organic matter to
remain on the surface. Ideal for light to medium soils with shallow ploughing needs.

4. Slatted Mouldboard
- Shape: Composed of multiple slats instead of a solid plate.
- Function: Reduces soil resistance by allowing soil to pass between the slats as it is
turned over.
- Use: Ideal for sticky or wet soils where a solid mouldboard would clog.
- Advantages: Reduces friction and drag in heavy or wet soils, making it easier to
plough. Also lighter and requires less power.

5. Cylindroid Mouldboard
- Shape: A combination of cylindrical and helical shapes.
- Function: Cuts and lifts soil like a cylindrical mouldboard but turns it more
completely due to the helicoidal twist.
- Use: Used in deep ploughing to ensure complete soil inversion.
- Advantages: Offers complete soil inversion and is effective in heavy soils. It
leaves a finely crumbled and well-turned furrow.

6. Helical Mouldboard
- Shape: Spiral or helicoidal shape, resembling a twisted surface.
 - Function: Designed for gradual lifting and twisting of the soil, ensuring thorough
inversion.
- Use: Best suited for deep ploughing and heavy, sticky soils.
- Advantages: Excellent for turning soil completely and burying weeds and residues.
Provides a clean and uniform furrow, which is beneficial in preparing seedbeds.

7. Universal Mouldboard
- Shape: A hybrid between cylindrical and helical designs.
- Function: Provides a balance between soil turning and soil breakup.
- Use: Suitable for general-purpose ploughing in most soil conditions.
- Advantages: Offers versatility in different soils and conditions, making it ideal for
farms with varying soil types.

Types of Mouldboards Based on Usage and Function:

1. Full (Solid) Mouldboard

- Structure: A solid metal plate without any breaks or slats.
- Use: Suitable for dry, light to medium soils that don’t stick much to the surface.
- Advantages: Ideal for smooth soil inversion and good for fields with fewer
obstacles like stones or roots.

2. Slatted Mouldboard
- Structure: Composed of individual slats instead of a continuous plate.
- Use: Designed for heavy, sticky, or wet soils where soil tends to cling to the
plough.
- Advantages: Less soil adhesion, which reduces drag and helps in heavy or wet soil
conditions. It also reduces the plough's weight, requiring less power to pull.

Factors Affecting the Choice of Mouldboard Shape:

1. Soil Type:
- Light/Loose Soils: Stubble mouldboards and general-purpose mouldboards work
well, as less force is needed to turn over the soil.
- Heavy/Sticky Soils: Helical or slatted mouldboards are better since they reduce
clogging and require less force to invert the soil.

2. Ploughing Depth:
- Shallow Ploughing: Cylindrical or stubble mouldboards are suitable for less
aggressive soil inversion.
- Deep Ploughing: Helical or cylindroid mouldboards are ideal for thoroughly
turning the soil and burying residues at deeper levels.

3. Residue Management:
- Weed Control/Burial of Crop Residues: A vertical or helical mouldboard is
preferred, as they fully invert the soil, covering surface materials.
- Conservation Ploughing: Slatted or stubble mouldboards are more appropriate,
leaving some organic material on the surface for erosion control and moisture
retention.
 Fig:- Types of mould board plough

 Disc plough
A disc plough is an agricultural tool designed for soil preparation, particularly for
cutting, lifting, and turning over the soil. Unlike the mouldboard plough, which uses a
curved blade, the disc plough employs concave, rotating discs to penetrate the soil and
create furrows. It is especially useful in tough soil conditions where conventional
ploughs might struggle, such as sticky, hard, rocky, or heavily weeded soils.

Key Components of a Disc Plough:

1. Disc Blades: Large, concave steel discs (typically 50–70 cm in diameter) that rotate
as the plough is pulled. The concave shape helps lift and turn the soil.
2. Disc Beam: The framework that holds the discs and provides the structure for
mounting the plough to the tractor or animal.
3. Scrapers: Metal plates placed close to each disc to prevent soil from sticking to the
discs, ensuring smooth operation.
4. Standards: Vertical shafts that connect the disc to the frame, allowing for depth
adjustments.
5. Furrow Wheel: A supporting wheel that helps guide the plough and maintain
stability.

How a Disc Plough Works:

- As the plough is pulled through the field, the discs rotate and cut through the soil,
lifting and turning it over, creating a furrow.
- The concave shape of the discs makes them efficient at breaking through hard soils
or soils with obstacles, as they roll and lift rather than pushing through soil as
mouldboard ploughs do.
- The angle of the discs (called the disc tilt or disc angle) determines the
aggressiveness of the cut, with steeper angles allowing deeper penetration.

Types of Disc Ploughs:

1. Single Disc Plough:

- Composed of a single large disc.
- Used for shallow ploughing or for small areas.
- Often used in gardens or for initial soil breaking in smaller farming operations.

2. Double Disc Plough:

- Has two discs mounted on a single frame.
- Suitable for medium-depth ploughing.
- More efficient than the single disc plough for larger fields.

3. Multi-Disc Plough:
- Contains several discs (usually 3–6 discs) mounted on the frame.
- Used for large-scale farming, especially in tough conditions where deeper
ploughing is necessary.
- The number of discs can be adjusted to meet specific needs (more discs for deeper,
broader ploughing).

Advantages of a Disc Plough:

1. Effective in Tough Soils: Disc ploughs perform well in soils that are hard, dry,
sticky, or rocky, where a mouldboard plough may struggle to penetrate.
2. Less Clogging: The rotating discs help prevent clogging by rolling over obstacles
such as roots, stones, and heavy crop residues, unlike mouldboard ploughs that may
get stuck.
3. Versatility: They can be used for both primary and secondary tillage, and are
effective in a variety of soil conditions, including wet or swampy areas.
4. Reduced Power Requirements: The rolling action of the discs reduces friction and
requires less power compared to traditional ploughs, especially in tough soils.
5. Soil Conservation: Because the disc plough leaves the soil more broken up, it
provides better resistance to erosion compared to mouldboard ploughs, which turn the
soil completely over, leaving it more exposed.

Disadvantages of a Disc Plough:

1. Less Soil Inversion: Disc ploughs do not turn the soil over as completely as
mouldboard ploughs, which can leave more plant residues on the surface. This may
not be ideal for burying weeds or residues.
2. Shallower Ploughing: In general, disc ploughs may not plough as deeply as
mouldboard ploughs, making them less effective for deep tilling or for crops that
require deep soil preparation.
3. More Soil Pulverization: The disc plough may break the soil into finer particles,
which, in some cases, could lead to increased erosion or loss of soil structure in sandy
soils.
4. Difficulty in Furrow Maintenance: The furrows created by disc ploughs are less
defined than those made by mouldboard ploughs, which may be an issue when
precision is needed.

Applications of a Disc Plough:

- Primary Tillage: Breaking up virgin land or soil that hasn’t been ploughed for a long
time.
- Dry and Hard Soils: Where traditional ploughs struggle, disc ploughs can penetrate
and break up the compacted soil.
- Heavy Residue Fields: For fields with a lot of crop residue, roots, or weed growth,
disc ploughs are effective at cutting through and incorporating these materials into the
soil.
- Land Clearing: In areas with tree stumps, rocks, or other debris, the rolling action of
the disc plough allows it to pass over obstructions without significant damage.

Fig:- Disc plough

Force representation on disc

The force representation of a disc plough involves understanding how various forces
act on the discs as they cut, lift, and turn the soil. Since the disc plough uses circular
discs to perform its tillage, the forces are distributed across the rotating surfaces of the
discs, which interact with the soil in a unique way compared to a mouldboard plough.

Main Forces Acting on a Disc Plough:

1. Horizontal Draft Force (Fₕ)

- This is the pulling force required to move the plough through the soil. It acts along
the direction of travel and is usually provided by a tractor or animals.
- Magnitude: The draft force depends on factors such as the soil type, moisture
content, depth of ploughing, disc diameter, and speed of operation.
- Influence: Higher speeds, deeper penetration, and tough soil increase the
horizontal draft force.

2. Vertical Soil Resistance (Fᵥ)

- This force is the resistance the soil exerts vertically on the disc as it penetrates into
the ground.
- It works against the vertical component of the force applied by the tractor (or
another pulling source), essentially trying to prevent the disc from entering deeper
into the soil.
- Factors: Compact, dry, or hard soils will exert more vertical resistance, making it
harder for the plough to penetrate.

3. Lateral Soil Resistance (Fₗ)

- As the disc rotates and cuts through the soil, the soil exerts a lateral (sideways)
force that acts against the cutting edge of the disc.
 - This force tries to push the disc sideways, especially when the discs are angled to
throw the soil to one side.
- Angle Effect: The lateral resistance increases as the disc's tilt (or angle of attack)
increases.

4. Soil Weight (W)

- The soil that is being lifted and turned over by the disc also exerts a weight force
on the disc.
- This force depends on the amount of soil being displaced and the soil density.
- Impact: The heavier the soil (clay or wet soil), the more force is required to lift and
turn it over.

5. Frictional Force (Fᶠ)

- Friction occurs between the soil and the surface of the disc as the disc rotates
through the soil.
- This force acts to slow down the disc’s rotation and increases the overall draft
force required to pull the plough.
- Factors: The texture and moisture of the soil, as well as the surface condition of
the discs (e.g., rusty or smooth), can affect the frictional force.

6. Normal Reaction Force (Rₙ)

- This force is the reaction from the soil exerted perpendicularly on the surface of
the disc. It helps balance out the forces applied by the tractor and keeps the plough in
the ground.
- Function: It acts as a balancing force that supports the disc as it cuts through the
soil.

Diagram Explanation:

In a simplified force diagram of a single disc from a disc plough, the following forces
can be represented:

- Draft Force (Fₕ): Acting horizontally in the direction of travel, applied by the tractor
pulling the disc plough.
- Vertical Resistance (Fᵥ): Acting upward from the soil, opposing the vertical
penetration of the disc into the soil.
- Lateral Resistance (Fₗ): Acting perpendicular to the direction of travel, pushing the
disc sideways due to soil resistance.
- Weight of the Soil (W): Acting downward on the disc as it lifts and turns the soil.
- Frictional Force (Fᶠ): Acting along the surface of the disc, opposing the rotation and
motion through the soil.
- Normal Reaction Force (Rₙ): Acting perpendicular to the disc’s surface, pushing the
disc upward and balancing the penetration force.

Force Balance and Optimization:

The forces must be balanced to optimize the performance of the disc plough:
- Minimizing Friction: By adjusting the tilt and sharpness of the disc, farmers can
reduce friction and improve efficiency.
- Correct Disc Angle: Adjusting the disc angle (both vertical and horizontal) can help
reduce lateral soil resistance while maintaining enough soil inversion.
- Proper Speed and Depth: Operating the disc plough at the appropriate speed and
depth helps balance the draft force and soil resistance, ensuring efficient ploughing
without excessive strain on the tractor.

Types of disc ploughs

Disc ploughs come in different types to cater to various soil conditions, farming scales,
and specific ploughing needs. The key differences between these types relate to the
number of discs, their configuration, and the applications for which they are best
suited.

Types of Disc Ploughs:

1. Single Disc Plough

- Structure: Contains a single concave disc.
- Use: Designed for light-duty work, such as breaking small patches of land or
gardens, and for shallow ploughing.
- Advantages: Easy to maneuver in small fields or tight spaces; requires less power
to operate.
- Application: Suitable for small-scale farming, gardening, or for initial soil
breaking.

2. Double Disc Plough

- Structure: Composed of two concave discs mounted on a single frame.
- Use: Provides better soil penetration than a single disc plough and can work on
medium-sized fields.
- Advantages: Can plough deeper and handle tougher soil conditions than a single
disc plough, while still being relatively easy to handle.
- Application: Medium-sized farms and soil that requires more than just shallow
tilling.

3. Triple or Multi-Disc Plough

- Structure: Contains three or more discs mounted on a single frame (typically 3–6
discs).
- Use: Designed for large-scale farming operations or for ploughing large areas of
land quickly.
- Advantages: Can cover a large area in less time, works well in difficult soil
conditions, and allows for deeper ploughing.
- Application: Ideal for large commercial farms and for fields with hard or rocky
soils where deep ploughing is needed.

4. Offset Disc Plough

- Structure: The discs are arranged in two gangs (sets), each offset from the other,
creating an "X" or "V" configuration. These discs can be mounted on a single beam or
separate beams.
- Use: Efficient for cutting and turning heavy soils, including hard or compacted
soils. It is commonly used to break up and turn soil before planting.
 - Advantages: The offset arrangement helps reduce the amount of soil left uncut
between the discs, providing better soil coverage and improving ploughing efficiency.
It is also more stable than a conventional disc plough.
- Application: Used in large-scale operations, where heavy soils need deep tillage
and thorough turning, such as in fields with heavy stubble or crop residues.

5. Reversible Disc Plough

- Structure: Equipped with a mechanism that allows the discs to be reversed to
plough in the opposite direction without having to turn the tractor around.
- Use: Helps avoid gaps between furrows and allows ploughing back and forth along
a field in alternating directions.
- Advantages: Saves time and fuel by eliminating the need to return to the start of a
row before ploughing again, creating a more efficient ploughing process.
- Application: Suitable for large fields and commercial farming, where time and fuel
efficiency are important.

6. Hydraulic Reversible Disc Plough

- Structure: Similar to the reversible disc plough, but with hydraulic controls for
flipping the discs.
- Use: Allows easy operation and flipping of the discs using hydraulic power,
reducing manual effort and improving efficiency.
- Advantages: The hydraulic mechanism makes the process faster and easier,
allowing for quicker changes between ploughing directions.
- Application: Ideal for modern, mechanized farms where labor efficiency and quick
adjustments are important.

7. Mounted Disc Plough

- Structure: Attached directly to the tractor via a three-point hitch system. The
number of discs can vary depending on the size.
- Use: Provides better control, as the plough is lifted and lowered by the tractor's
hydraulic system.
- Advantages: Offers more precise control over the depth of ploughing and allows
easy transport when not in use. It is also highly adaptable and can be quickly mounted
or dismounted.
- Application: Widely used in medium to large-scale farms and in varied soil
conditions due to its versatility and ease of use.

8. Trailed Disc Plough

- Structure: Pulled by a tractor, with its own set of wheels for transport and
stabilization.
- Use: Suitable for large-scale operations, especially where tractors do not have a
powerful hydraulic lift system.
- Advantages: Provides better stability on uneven or rough terrain due to its wheels,
which help balance the plough. It can also be pulled by smaller tractors that lack
hydraulic lift capacity.
- Application: Large farms, especially where rough terrain or uneven ground would
make a mounted plough difficult to manage.
 Subsoiler plough

A subsoiler plough is a deep tillage tool used in agriculture to break up and loosen
soil at depths below the level of traditional ploughs, usually to improve water
infiltration, root penetration, and soil aeration. Unlike regular ploughs that work
primarily in the topsoil (up to 20 cm), a subsoiler works much deeper, typically
reaching depths of 30 to 60 cm or more.

Key Components of a Subsoiler Plough:

1. Shank: The vertical or slightly inclined metal arm that penetrates the soil. The
number of shanks can vary depending on the size of the subsoiler.
2. Share or Point: The tip of the shank that cuts into the soil. This part bears the most
wear and is often replaceable.
3. Frame: The structure that holds the shanks and attaches to the tractor.
4. Depth Wheels (Optional): Wheels that help control the depth of the subsoiler.
5. Ripper: Sometimes used interchangeably with the share, but refers to the part of the
shank that breaks and lifts the soil.

Functions of a Subsoiler Plough:

- Breaking Hardpan: The main function of a subsoiler is to break through the hardpan,
a compacted layer of soil that forms just beneath the surface due to continuous
shallow ploughing or heavy machinery. This layer can inhibit water movement and
root growth.
- Improving Drainage: By breaking the hardpan, the subsoiler allows water to drain
deeper into the soil, reducing waterlogging and promoting better soil moisture
retention in drier conditions.
- Increasing Root Penetration: With the soil loosened to deeper levels, plant roots can
grow deeper, accessing nutrients and moisture that may not be available near the
surface.
- Enhancing Soil Aeration: Subsoiling improves soil structure by creating channels for
air, helping soil microbes thrive and enhancing nutrient availability.

Types of Subsoilers:

1. Standard Subsoiler:
- Structure: Usually features 1 to 5 shanks, depending on the size.
- Use: For general-purpose deep tilling and breaking of hardpan.
- Application: Suitable for most soil types and moderate compaction problems.

2. Paraplow (Parabolic Subsoiler):

- Structure: Features curved or parabolic shanks.
- Use: Designed to lift and shatter the soil while minimizing surface disturbance.
- Advantages: Causes less soil disruption at the surface compared to traditional
subsoilers while still breaking the hardpan.
- Application: Used in fields where reducing surface disruption is important, such as
no-till or reduced-till farming systems.

3. Chisel Subsoiler:
 - Structure: Features straight or slightly inclined shanks that go deeper into the soil.
- Use: Effective for deeper soil penetration and works well in very hard or
compacted soils.
- Application: Used in fields with severe compaction, often in heavy soils like clay.

4. Deep-Tine Subsoiler:
- Structure: Equipped with long, narrow shanks or tines.
- Use: Penetrates deeply into the soil without causing much surface disturbance.
- Advantages: Ideal for loosening deep layers of soil while maintaining surface
structure, particularly useful for high-traffic areas like pastures or playing fields.
- Application: Typically used in landscaping, turf maintenance, and fields with
compacted sub-layers but delicate surface requirements.

5. Subsoiler with Cracker Roller:

- Structure: Features one or more shanks combined with a roller that breaks up and
levels the soil after subsoiling.
- Use: Deep tillage with additional surface finishing, which helps break clods and
level the ground.
- Advantages: Provides a more finished seedbed after deep tillage.
- Application: Suitable for fields where minimal follow-up tillage is preferred.

Benefits of Using a Subsoiler Plough:

1. Enhanced Water Infiltration: By breaking up the compacted soil layers, the

subsoiler improves water percolation, reducing surface runoff and erosion.
2. Better Root Growth: Deeper and less compacted soils enable crops to develop
stronger and more extensive root systems, leading to improved access to nutrients and
moisture.
3. Soil Aeration: Looser soil allows for better air circulation, promoting healthier soil
organisms and reducing compaction.
4. Increased Yield: Fields that have been subsoiled typically experience higher crop
yields, as plants can access more nutrients and moisture.
5. Reduction in Erosion: By improving soil structure and water infiltration, subsoiling
helps reduce water runoff and soil erosion on sloping fields.
6. Long-Term Soil Health: Periodic subsoiling helps maintain healthy soil structure,
making the land more productive over time.

Applications of Subsoiler Plough:

- Agricultural Fields: Subsoiling is commonly used in fields with compacted soil

layers, especially where crops like corn, soybeans, and wheat are grown.
- Pastures: Used to break compacted soil in grazing areas, allowing for better water
absorption and root growth.
- Orchards and Vineyards: Subsoilers are used between rows of trees or vines to
loosen soil for improved water retention and root growth.
- Turf Management: In sports fields, parks, and golf courses, subsoiling can relieve
soil compaction caused by heavy foot traffic and machinery.
 Fig:- Subsoiler plough

 Rotary plough

Fig:- Rotary tiller

A rotary plough (or rotary tiller) is a type of tillage implement used in agriculture that
employs rotating blades or tines to break up and turn the soil, providing deep tillage in
one pass. It is a more dynamic tool than traditional ploughs like mouldboard or disc
ploughs, as it pulverizes the soil while mixing it. Rotary ploughs are typically PTO-
driven (powered by the tractor's Power Take-Off) and are commonly used in both
primary and secondary tillage.

Key Components of a Rotary Plough:

1. Rotor/Blade Shaft: The central rotating shaft, to which multiple blades or tines are
attached. It spins as the plough is driven, causing the blades to cut and lift the soil.
2. Blades/Tines: Curved metal blades mounted on the rotor that cut, lift, and turn the
soil. These blades vary in size and shape, depending on the model and the soil type
they are designed to work in.
3. Side Shields: Metal plates located on the sides of the rotary plough that help
contain and guide the soil during operation, preventing excessive scatter.
4. Depth Control: Mechanisms like skids or wheels are used to control how deep the
blades penetrate into the soil.
5. Frame: The main structure that holds the rotor, blades, and other components, and
attaches to the tractor via a three-point hitch.

Functions of a Rotary Plough:

- Soil Pulverization: The rotary plough breaks up large clods of soil into fine particles,
making it ideal for creating a smooth seedbed.
- Mixing: As it turns the soil, it mixes organic matter (such as crop residues or manure)
into the soil more thoroughly than other ploughs.
- Weed Control: The rotating blades cut and bury weeds, reducing weed growth in the
next cropping cycle.
- Soil Aeration: The action of the blades aerates the soil, promoting better water
infiltration and root growth.

Types of Rotary Ploughs:

1. Rotary Tiller (Rotavator):

- Structure: A horizontal shaft with multiple curved tines attached, which rotate and
work the soil as the machine moves forward.
- Use: Primarily for secondary tillage, preparing seedbeds by finely pulverizing the
soil.
- Application: Common in gardens, small farms, and for preparing fine seedbeds
before planting.
- Advantages: Provides excellent soil aeration and weed control, ideal for smaller
plots or where precise tillage is needed.

2. Vertical Rotary Plough:

- Structure: Vertical rotating blades instead of the horizontal shaft found in typical
tillers.
- Use: Designed for deeper tillage, this type can plough deeper than a rotary tiller
while turning and mixing the soil.
 - Application: Often used in tougher soils where deeper tillage is required and in
situations where soil inversion (like in a mouldboard plough) is needed.
- Advantages: Combines deep tillage with soil pulverization, suitable for larger
fields with compacted soils.

3. Power Harrow:
- Structure: Multiple tines mounted on vertical rotating shafts, working in a more
vertical motion than a typical rotary tiller.
- Use: Pulverizes the soil surface without creating too much disturbance at depth,
making it ideal for seedbed preparation without compacting the deeper soil layers.
- Application: Used in delicate soil conditions where the topsoil needs to be finely
prepared without affecting the soil structure below.
- Advantages: Leaves a level seedbed without compacting the subsoil, excellent for
fields prone to erosion.

4. Rotary Spade Plough:

- Structure: Uses rotating spade-like blades that dig into the soil and turn it over.
- Use: Provides deeper penetration than traditional rotary tillers, working effectively
in compact or hard soils.
- Application: Best suited for heavy clay soils or fields that have not been tilled in a
long time.
- Advantages: Deep working and soil inversion capabilities make it a powerful tool
for primary tillage.

Benefits of Using a Rotary Plough:

1. Efficient Soil Preparation: Rotary ploughs break up and finely pulverize the soil in
one pass, making them highly efficient for seedbed preparation.
2. Versatile: They can be used for both primary and secondary tillage, making them a
versatile tool for various soil conditions and farming tasks.
3. Improved Soil Aeration: The tilling action helps to aerate the soil, promoting root
development and better water absorption.
4. Thorough Mixing: Rotary ploughs mix organic matter, compost, and fertilizers into
the soil more effectively than other types of ploughs.
5. Weed Suppression: The blades cut and bury weeds, reducing weed pressure in the
next crop cycle.

Applications of Rotary Ploughs:

- Primary Tillage: In cases where the rotary plough can cut deep enough, it serves as
an excellent tool for breaking uncultivated soil or heavily compacted fields.
- Secondary Tillage: More commonly used for preparing the seedbed after initial
ploughing. It creates a fine, smooth soil surface ideal for planting crops.
- Garden and Orchard Work: Due to its ability to finely till the soil, it is used in
smaller farming applications like gardens, vineyards, or orchards, where precision and
soil condition are critical.
- Field-Leveling: Rotary ploughs can also help in leveling fields after primary
ploughing operations by finely distributing and leveling the soil surface.
Cultivators- Types- Construction

Fig:- Cultivator
A cultivator is an agricultural implement used for secondary tillage, which involves
breaking up soil clods, preparing seedbeds, controlling weeds, and mixing soil
amendments like fertilizers. Unlike primary tillage tools such as the plough, which
turn over the soil, cultivators are designed to work near the surface, loosening the soil
without deep cutting or turning. They are commonly used between rows of growing
crops to aerate the soil and reduce weed competition.

The construction of a cultivator involves several key components that work together
to perform secondary tillage operations like soil loosening, weed control, and seedbed
preparation. The design and materials used in the construction of cultivators ensure
durability, efficiency, and the ability to withstand the stresses of working in different
types of soil.

Types and Construction Details of a Cultivator:

1. Frame:
- Material: Heavy-duty steel or alloy metal to withstand the forces exerted by the
soil and the tractor.
- Construction: The frame is the backbone of the cultivator. It is constructed from
square or rectangular tubing or beams that provide rigidity and strength. The frame is
designed to be strong yet lightweight enough to ensure easy attachment to a tractor.
- Function: Holds the tines, shanks, and other components in place. It is also
responsible for connecting the cultivator to the tractor via a three-point hitch or
towing system.

2. Tines/Teeth/Shanks:
- Material: High-carbon or heat-treated steel for durability and resistance to wear
from rocks, hard soil, and other obstacles.
- Construction: Tines are constructed in various shapes such as chisel points, sweeps,
or blades, depending on their function. They are bolted or clamped onto the frame and
may be adjustable for different working depths.
- Function: The tines or shanks penetrate the soil, breaking it up, loosening
compacted layers, and uprooting weeds. Depending on the type of cultivator, the tines
may be rigid or spring-loaded for flexibility over rough terrain.
- Types:
- Rigid Tines: Straight or curved, designed for harder soils.
- Spring-Loaded Tines: Flexible tines that bend and return to shape when
encountering obstacles.
- Chisel Tines: Used for deeper tillage, penetrating harder soil layers.

3. Shovel, Sweeps, or Points:

- Material: Forged or cast steel, often heat-treated to improve durability.
- Construction: These are the cutting or digging elements attached to the bottom of
the tines or shanks. They can be designed in different shapes depending on the
intended soil operation (shovels, chisels, or sweeps).
- Function: They cut into the soil to break clods and stir the earth. The size and
shape of these parts determine the width and depth of the tillage.
- Types:
- Shovels: Narrow and pointed for deeper penetration.
 - Sweeps: Wider, V-shaped blades that work closer to the surface, ideal for weed
control.
- Points: For deeper tillage in compact soils.

4. Depth-Control Mechanism:
- Material: Steel or cast iron for the control parts.
- Construction: This system typically includes depth wheels or skids attached to the
cultivator’s frame. These can be adjusted manually or via hydraulic mechanisms to
control how deep the tines penetrate the soil.
- Function: Ensures that the cultivator maintains consistent working depth,
providing uniform tillage across the field. The depth control can be adjusted to suit
different soil conditions and tillage requirements.

5. Gauge Wheels (Optional):

- Material: Rubber or metal-rimmed wheels, mounted on steel axles.
- Construction: Mounted on either side of the cultivator frame, these wheels are
often adjustable to help control the working depth.
- Function: Helps maintain even tillage depth across the width of the cultivator,
particularly in uneven or sloping fields.

6. Three-Point Hitch or Tow Attachment:

- Material: Steel construction for strength and durability.
- Construction: Cultivators are typically attached to tractors via a three-point hitch
mechanism, with two lower lift arms and a top link for stability and control.
- Function: Provides a secure connection between the tractor and cultivator,
allowing for easy maneuvering, lifting, and control during tillage operations.

7. Spring Assembly (for spring-tine cultivators):

- Material: High-tension steel springs.
- Construction: In spring-loaded cultivators, springs are incorporated into the design
of the tines. The spring assemblies are usually located between the tines and the frame,
allowing the tines to flex when they encounter hard surfaces or obstacles.
- Function: Provides flexibility to the tines, preventing damage from rocks or roots
and improving the ability of the cultivator to work in uneven or rocky soils.

8. Crossbars and Toolbars:

- Material: High-strength steel, often tubular.
- Construction: Toolbars are horizontal beams that hold multiple tines or shanks in
position. These can be adjustable, allowing operators to change the spacing between
tines to suit different crops or tillage patterns.
- Function: Provide structural support for the tines and allow for spacing
adjustments for inter-row cultivation or wider field applications.

9. Hydraulic Lift System (optional):

- Material: Hydraulic cylinders, steel piping, and controls.
- Construction: Some advanced cultivators come equipped with hydraulic lift
systems to raise or lower the tines during operation. This is particularly useful for
changing depth on the go or when maneuvering the cultivator.
- Function: Allows the operator to adjust the working depth without stopping the
tractor, improving efficiency and ease of operation.
Construction Process:

1. Frame Construction: The frame is usually welded together from steel tubing or
beams, forming a rigid structure capable of withstanding the forces exerted during
tillage.
2. Tine and Shank Assembly: Tines or shanks are bolted, welded, or clamped onto the
frame. Depending on the type of cultivator, the tines may be fixed or spring-loaded
for flexibility.
3. Attachment of Blades or Points: The blades, sweeps, or shovels are attached to the
bottom of the tines using bolts or clamps. This allows for easy replacement when they
become worn.
4. Mounting of Depth-Control Systems: Wheels or skids for controlling depth are
mounted onto the cultivator frame, and adjustment mechanisms (manual or hydraulic)
are fitted.
5. Assembly of the Hitch System: The three-point hitch or towing system is attached
to the frame, ensuring a secure connection to the tractor.
6. Final Adjustments and Testing: After assembly, adjustments are made to ensure the
tines are properly spaced, depth controls are functional, and the overall balance of the
cultivator is optimized for field use.

Benefits of Using a Cultivator:-

Weed Control: Cultivators provide efficient weed management by uprooting or

burying weed seedlings between crop rows.

Soil Health Improvement: Loosening the soil near the surface helps improve aeration,
water infiltration, and root development.

Efficient Seedbed Preparation: Cultivators can break clods and create a fine, even
seedbed, helping to improve germination rates.

Fertilizer and Amendment Incorporation: Cultivators mix in fertilizers and organic

matter into the soil, improving nutrient availability for crops.

Reduced Soil Erosion: By not inverting the soil, cultivators leave residue on the
surface, which can help prevent erosion and retain moisture.

 Disc harrows

A disc harrow is an agricultural implement used for soil preparation, specifically for
breaking up soil clods, cutting and covering crop residues, and leveling the soil
surface. It consists of a series of concave metal discs mounted on a frame, which cut
into the soil and turn it over. Disc harrows are primarily used for secondary tillage,
preparing seedbeds, and incorporating soil amendments like fertilizers.

Key Components of a Disc Harrow:

1. Discs (Blades):
 - Material: Made of hardened or high-carbon steel to resist wear and tear.

- Shape: Concave in shape, which allows them to slice through the soil and turn it
over.

- Size: Discs vary in diameter, typically ranging from 18 inches to 26 inches or

more, depending on the harrow's size and use.

- Arrangement: Discs are arranged in gangs (sets of discs), and they are spaced
along a shaft, with each gang mounted at an angle to help with soil penetration and
turning.

2. Gang (Disc Assembly):

- Structure: Discs are mounted on a shaft called a gang. The gang can be set at an
angle to determine how aggressively the discs cut and move soil.

- Types:

- Single-action harrow: Two gangs, with discs arranged in opposite directions, cut
soil in one pass.

- Double-action harrow (Tandem): Two sets of gangs, the front gang cuts in one
direction while the rear gang cuts in the opposite direction.

- Offset disc harrow: Has one gang on each side of the frame, used for large fields
or uneven terrain.

3. Frame:

- Material: Heavy-duty steel, often tubular or angle iron, to handle the stress of
dragging through soil.

- Function: Holds the gangs of discs in place, supports the wheels and hitch, and
provides stability during operation.

4. Bearing Assembly:

- Material: Steel housing with roller or ball bearings.

- Function: Allows the discs to rotate freely on the shaft, reducing friction and wear
during operation. Bearings are sealed to prevent dust and soil from entering.

5. Scrapers:

- Material: Metal or steel, mounted on the frame.

- Function: Positioned behind each disc, scrapers prevent soil and debris from
sticking to the disc, ensuring clean cutting and efficient operation.
6. Depth-Control Mechanism:

- Wheels or Skids: Mounted on the harrow to control the depth of tillage. Depth
wheels can be adjusted to ensure the discs penetrate the soil at a consistent depth.

7. Hitch System:

- Material: Steel construction.

- Function: The disc harrow is connected to the tractor via a three-point hitch or a
drawbar for pulling. Depending on the size of the disc harrow, a tractor’s hydraulic
system might be used to lift and lower the implement.

Types of Disc Harrows:

1. Single-Action Disc Harrow:

- Structure: Two gangs of discs arranged in a V-shape, cutting the soil in a single
direction.

- Function: Cuts and turns soil in one direction during a single pass, suitable for
light soil and seedbed preparation.

- Application: Used for breaking clods and leveling fields after primary tillage.

2. Double-Action (Tandem) Disc Harrow:

- Structure: Four gangs arranged in two pairs, with each pair of gangs working at
opposite angles.

- Function: The front gang cuts and turns soil in one direction, while the rear gang
cuts and turns it in the opposite direction, creating a finer soil texture.

- Application: Ideal for secondary tillage and seedbed preparation. It provides more
even tillage and covers crop residue effectively.

3. Offset Disc Harrow:

- Structure: Two gangs positioned side-by-side, but offset so that they do not
overlap in the middle.

- Function: Cuts and turns soil without leaving an unworked strip in the middle,
making it suitable for larger fields or uneven terrain.

- Application: Commonly used for plowing large fields where precise control and
heavy-duty cutting are required. It can work closer to fences or field edges.

4. Heavy-Duty Disc Harrow:

 - Structure: Large, heavy discs with increased cutting power, typically mounted on a
robust frame.

- Function: Penetrates hard or compacted soil more effectively than lighter models,
making it suitable for tougher soil conditions.

- Application: Often used in primary tillage in dry or compact soils, where deep
cutting and mixing of soil are necessary.

5. Light-Duty Disc Harrow:

- Structure: Smaller, lighter discs mounted on a lighter frame.

- Function: Primarily used for lighter tillage tasks such as seedbed preparation and
surface tillage.

- Application: Suitable for lighter soils and smaller fields, or where delicate soil
conditions need to be maintained.

Working Principle of a Disc Harrow:

The discs of a harrow cut into the soil at an angle, lifting and turning the soil as the
harrow is pulled by the tractor. The concave shape of the discs helps to slice through
weeds, crop residue, and soil clods, flipping the soil and burying surface material. By
adjusting the angle of the gangs, the aggressiveness of the cut can be changed. The
depth of penetration is controlled by the weight of the harrow and the depth-control
mechanisms such as wheels.

Advantages of Disc Harrows:

1. Versatile Tillage: Disc harrows can be used for both primary and secondary tillage,
making them highly versatile.

2. Good Soil Mixing: The discs cut and mix the soil effectively, incorporating crop
residues and organic matter.

3. Surface Leveling: They help in leveling the field and breaking soil clods to prepare
a smooth seedbed.

4. Weed Control: Effective in uprooting and burying weeds during tillage.

5. Suitable for Heavy Residue: Disc harrows can handle fields with heavy crop
residues more effectively than other tillage tools.

Disadvantages of Disc Harrows:

1. Limited Deep Tillage: Disc harrows are generally not suited for deep tillage, and
they may not address deeper soil compaction issues.
2. Soil Compaction: If used too frequently or in wet conditions, disc harrows can
cause compaction in the upper soil layers.

3. High Power Requirement: Heavy-duty disc harrows require more tractor power,
which can be a limitation for smaller farms with limited machinery.

4. Risk of Erosion: In some soils, disc harrows may contribute to increased erosion by
exposing loose soil to wind and water.

Applications of Disc Harrows:

- Secondary Tillage: Used after primary tillage to break up clods, level the soil, and
prepare a fine seedbed for planting.

- Incorporating Crop Residue: Disc harrows mix crop residues like straw or stalks
back into the soil, helping to improve organic matter.

- Weed Control: By cutting and burying weeds, disc harrows are effective in
controlling unwanted vegetation before planting.

- Seedbed Preparation: Disc harrows prepare an even, smooth surface for seeding,
especially after primary ploughing operations.

- Land Leveling: They can be used to level the surface of fields and ensure proper
water distribution during irrigation.

Fig:- Disc harrows

 Bund former

A bund former is an agricultural implement used to create raised embankments or

ridges (bunds) in the field. These bunds are often used in water management practices,
particularly in rain-fed agriculture, to control soil erosion, conserve moisture, and
manage irrigation. The bund former typically shapes soil into these bunds along the
contours or in between crop rows.

Key Functions of a Bund Former:

1. Water Conservation: By creating raised bunds, water is trapped and allowed to seep
into the soil rather than running off. This is especially useful in areas with irregular
rainfall, as it helps retain moisture for crops.
2. Soil Erosion Control: Bunds prevent soil from being washed away by water runoff,
particularly on sloped fields.
3. Flood Protection: In low-lying areas, bunds can serve as small barriers to protect
crops from flooding by channeling excess water into drainage pathways.
4. Irrigation Management: Bunds help in managing water distribution in irrigated
fields by directing water flow between the crop rows or sections of a field.
5. Field Division: Bund formers are also used to divide fields into smaller sections for
specific crop management or to create raised beds for planting.

Components and Construction of a Bund Former:

1. Frame:
- Material: The frame is usually made from steel or heavy-duty metal, designed to
hold the structure together and support the load of the soil as the bund former moves
through the field.
- Construction: The frame is robust to withstand the rigors of pulling through soil,
often attached to the tractor’s three-point hitch system.
2. Mouldboards (Blades):
- Material: High-carbon or hardened steel for durability and resistance to wear.
- Shape: Curved or angled blades designed to gather soil and push it into a raised
bund. The angle of the mouldboards helps to pile soil into ridges effectively.
- Function: The blades gather soil from both sides of the implement and push it
toward the center to form a bund.
3. Plough Shares or Tines:
- Material: Steel, designed to cut through the soil.
- Function: These are attached at the front of the bund former and help loosen and
break the soil as the machine moves forward, making it easier for the mouldboards to
push the soil into a bund.
4. Side Wings or Shields:
- Material: Steel or metal plates.
- Function: These are side panels that help contain the soil, directing it toward the
center to form the bund without spilling too far to the sides.
5. Depth-Control Mechanism:
- Wheels or Skids: Some bund formers come with depth-control wheels or skids that
help regulate the depth at which the plough shares or tines penetrate the soil.
- Function: Helps ensure uniform bund height by maintaining consistent soil cutting
depth.
6. Hitch Mechanism:
- Material: Steel.
- Function: The bund former is attached to a tractor using a three-point hitch or
drawn behind a tractor, which provides the pulling force to operate the implement.

Types of Bund Formers:

1. Single Bund Former:

- Creates one bund at a time, used for small fields or where precise bund placement
is required.

2. Double Bund Former:

- Can create two bunds in one pass. This type is efficient for larger fields and speeds
up the bund-making process.

3. Adjustable Bund Former:

- Equipped with adjustable mouldboards or side wings, allowing the user to control
the width and height of the bunds based on specific field or crop requirements.

4. Tractor-Mounted Bund Former:

- Mounted on a tractor’s three-point hitch system, powered by the tractor to create
bunds in larger areas.

Applications of a Bund Former:

1. Contour Farming: In hilly or sloped areas, bund formers are used to create contour
bunds that follow the natural slope of the land, reducing soil erosion and improving
water retention.
2. Rainwater Harvesting: Bunds help to capture rainwater, allowing it to percolate into
the soil rather than running off the surface.
3. Irrigated Fields: In irrigated farming, bund formers are used to divide fields into
plots or create raised beds for efficient water management.
4. Flood Control: In low-lying or flood-prone areas, bunds are used to protect crops
by channeling excess water away from the crops.

Advantages of Bund Formers:

- Water Conservation: Helps retain rainwater in fields, which is crucial in regions with
limited rainfall.
- Soil Erosion Control: Prevents soil loss by creating physical barriers that stop runoff.
- Improved Crop Yield: By managing water distribution and reducing erosion, bunds
help create better growing conditions for crops.
- Simple Design: Bund formers are relatively simple in design and operation, making
them cost-effective and easy to maintain.
 Fig:- Bund former

 Ridger

A ridger is an agricultural implement used to create ridges or raised rows of soil,

typically for planting crops like potatoes, sugarcane, or other root crops. The ridger
pulls soil from the sides and forms a raised, well-defined ridge or furrow. These
ridges improve water drainage, provide better aeration to plant roots, and make it
easier to manage row crops.

Key Functions of a Ridger:

1. Ridge Formation: The main function is to create raised rows of soil, known as
ridges, which are used for planting crops. These ridges offer benefits such as better
root development and water drainage.
2. Soil Aeration: By turning and lifting soil, ridgers help aerate the soil, which
promotes healthier root growth and improves water absorption.
3. Weed Control: Ridgers can help suppress weeds by burying them under the raised
soil.
4. Water Management: The furrows between the ridges act as channels for irrigation
or rainwater, preventing waterlogging and ensuring that excess water drains away.

Components and Construction of a Ridger:

1. Frame:
- Material: Heavy-duty steel or alloy metal.
- Construction: The frame is sturdy and rigid, built to withstand the pulling force of
the tractor and the stress of working in the soil. It holds the ridging bodies or ploughs
in place.
- Function: Supports the entire structure and connects to the tractor's hitch system.

2. Ridging Bodies or Mouldboards:

- Material: High-strength steel or carbon steel, often heat-treated for durability.
 - Shape: The ridging bodies resemble small ploughs or wings that move soil from
both sides into a central ridge.
- Function: These parts are responsible for moving soil laterally, creating a raised
ridge in the middle as the implement is pulled through the field.
- Types:
- Disc-Type Ridgers: Use concave discs to cut and move soil into ridges.
- Mouldboard-Type Ridgers: Use fixed mouldboards or wings to push soil into
ridges.

3. Ploughshares or Tines:
- Material: Hardened steel.
- Function: Positioned at the base of the ridging bodies, these cut through the soil,
loosening it for easier movement into ridges.

4. Depth Control Mechanism:

- Wheels or Skids: Mounted on the frame, these components control the working
depth of the ridger, ensuring consistent ridge height.
- Adjustability: Depth can be adjusted to create ridges of varying heights, depending
on crop and soil requirements.

5. Shovel or Furrower (Optional):

- Material: Hardened steel.
- Function: Some ridgers are equipped with furrowers to open furrows in the soil
before creating ridges, ensuring better placement of seeds or tubers.

6. Hitch System:
- Material: Steel.
- Function: The hitch connects the ridger to a tractor, typically through a three-point
hitch system, allowing it to be raised, lowered, and controlled during operation.

Types of Ridgers:

1. Single Row Ridger:

- Function: Designed to create one ridge at a time.
- Application: Ideal for small fields or precision farming, especially for crops like
potatoes or sugarcane, where spacing between ridges is critical.

2. Double Row Ridger:

- Function: Forms two ridges in one pass.
- Application: Used in larger fields for quicker ridge formation. It is more efficient
than the single-row ridger.

3. Disc Ridger:
- Structure: Equipped with concave discs instead of mouldboards.
- Function: The discs lift and turn the soil into ridges.
- Application: Effective in dry or loose soils where disc-type implements work
better.

4. Adjustable Ridger:
 - Function: Allows for adjustment in the spacing between ridging bodies, which can
be widened or narrowed depending on crop requirements.
- Application: Suitable for fields with different crop spacing needs, offering
flexibility in ridge size and width.

5. Tractor-Mounted Ridger:
- Function: Mounted directly onto a tractor, this type allows for efficient ridge
formation over large areas. It is often equipped with hydraulic mechanisms for easy
control.
- Application: Commonly used in large-scale farming operations where quick and
efficient ridging is required.

Working Principle of a Ridger:

The ridger is attached to a tractor and pulled through the field. As it moves, the
ridging bodies (mouldboards or discs) cut through the soil, loosening it and pushing it
towards the center to form ridges. The soil is piled into the raised rows, while the
furrow remains clear. The height and width of the ridge are determined by the depth
setting and the angle of the ridging bodies. By adjusting the spacing between the
ridging bodies, farmers can control the width of the ridges and furrows.

Applications of Ridgers:

1. Potato Planting: Ridgers are widely used in potato farming to create the raised rows
where potato seeds or tubers are planted. The ridges protect the tubers from excessive
moisture and encourage uniform growth.

2. Sugarcane Farming: Sugarcane is often planted in ridges to ensure proper root

development and effective drainage. Ridgers help create these planting ridges.

3. Vegetable Farming: In crops like carrots, onions, or garlic, ridges are used to
improve soil aeration, drainage, and root growth.

4. Irrigation Management: Ridges help guide irrigation water between rows, ensuring
even distribution and preventing waterlogging.

5. Weed Control: By burying weeds under the ridge, ridgers can help suppress their
growth between crop rows.

Advantages of Using a Ridger:

- Improved Water Management: Ridges enhance water drainage, preventing

waterlogging in the crop root zone and maintaining moisture balance.
- Better Root Development: Raised ridges provide looser, aerated soil, which is
beneficial for root growth.
- Increased Yield: Crops grown on ridges tend to have better yields due to improved
soil conditions and better irrigation management.
- Versatility: Ridgers can be used for various crops, making them a versatile
implement for row cropping.
Disadvantages of Using a Ridger:

- Soil Erosion: In some cases, especially on slopes, the ridges may lead to increased
soil erosion if not managed properly.
- Power Requirement: Depending on the size and type of ridger, the implement may
require significant tractor power, especially in heavy or compacted soils.
- Labor Intensive (Manual Ridgers): For smaller fields where manual ridgers are used,
the process can be labor-intensive and time-consuming.

Fig:- Ridger

 Leveller
A leveller is an agricultural implement used to level the surface of a field by
distributing soil evenly. It helps in preparing fields for planting by smoothing out
rough surfaces, filling low spots, and ensuring uniformity in the soil surface. Proper
leveling of fields improves water management, irrigation efficiency, and ensures even
seed distribution, which is critical for achieving uniform crop growth.

Key Functions of a Leveller:

1. Field Leveling: The main function is to create a flat and even surface by
redistributing soil across the field, filling low areas and leveling high spots.
2. Water Management: A leveled field ensures uniform water distribution during
irrigation, preventing waterlogging in low spots and runoff from high spots.
3. Improved Seeding: Level fields enable better seed placement and uniform
germination by providing an even bed for planting.
4. Soil Preparation: After ploughing or tillage, a leveller helps in breaking up soil
clods and smoothening the soil for better plant establishment.
Components and Construction of a Leveller:

1. Blade (Leveling Board):

- Material: Typically made of high-strength steel to resist wear and tear during
operation.
- Size and Shape: The blade is long, straight, and sharp-edged to effectively cut and
move soil.
- Function: The blade scrapes off high areas of soil and fills low areas, creating a
smooth and level surface.
2. Frame:
- Material: Sturdy steel or iron construction.
- Construction: The frame holds the leveling blade or board in place and provides a
structure for the implement to attach to a tractor.
- Function: The frame is robust enough to handle the stress of pulling soil across the
field. It is often adjustable to set the desired leveling depth.
3. Skids or Runners:
- Material: Steel or metal plates attached on either side of the leveling blade.
- Function: These skids support the leveling blade and help it glide smoothly over
the soil surface. They maintain consistent depth and prevent the blade from digging
too deeply into the ground.
4. Depth-Control Mechanism:
- Adjustable Linkages or Wheels: Some levellers come with depth adjustment
mechanisms that allow the user to control how deeply the blade cuts into the soil.
- Function: This helps to control the amount of soil being moved and ensures an
even finish.
5. Hitch System:
- Material: Steel or iron.
- Function: The leveller is attached to a tractor using a three-point hitch or drawbar.
The hitch system helps to raise or lower the leveller for transport or use and allows for
smooth pulling across the field.

Types of Levellers:

1. Land Leveller (Standard):

- Function: This is a basic leveller used to smooth out fields after ploughing or
tillage. It is pulled behind a tractor and is designed to level large areas efficiently.
- Application: Suitable for flat land where minimal adjustments are required.

2. Laser Leveller:
- Function: A laser leveller uses laser technology to achieve highly accurate and
precise field leveling. A laser transmitter is set up in the field, and the receiver on the
leveller adjusts the blade height automatically to ensure an even surface.
- Application: Commonly used in precision farming and in areas where perfect
leveling is critical for irrigation efficiency, such as paddy fields.

3. Scraper Leveller:
- Function: This type of leveller has a more aggressive blade for scraping and
moving larger volumes of soil. It can remove soil from high areas and deposit it in
lower areas to create a uniform surface.
- Application: Used in uneven or rough fields where significant leveling is needed.
4. Box Blade Leveller:
- Function: A box blade leveller consists of a rectangular frame with side walls, a
rear blade, and a scraper blade at the front. It drags and collects soil as it moves and
distributes it evenly across the field.
- Application: Ideal for soil grading and leveling on rough terrains and large fields.

5. Tractor-Mounted Leveller:
- Function: This type is mounted directly on the back of a tractor via a three-point
hitch and uses hydraulic systems for raising and lowering the leveling blade.
- Application: Suitable for medium to large farms where efficient leveling over
larger areas is required.

Applications of a Leveller:

1. Post-Tillage Leveling: After ploughing or primary tillage, levellers are used to

smooth the soil surface before planting. This creates a more uniform seedbed.

2. Irrigation Fields: Especially important in flood irrigation systems or paddy fields,

where a flat surface ensures uniform water distribution. Laser levellers are commonly
used for precise leveling in such fields.

3. Preparation for Planting: In fields intended for row crops, level soil helps ensure
even seed depth and germination, leading to uniform crop growth.

4. Soil Conservation: By leveling the field, the risk of water runoff is reduced, which
helps prevent soil erosion, especially on slopes or uneven terrains.

Advantages of Using a Leveller:

1. Improved Water Efficiency: Level fields allow for more even distribution of
irrigation water, reducing waste and preventing waterlogging.
2. Uniform Plant Growth: A leveled field ensures consistent seed placement and root
development, leading to even germination and crop maturity.
3. Reduced Soil Erosion: Leveling prevents water runoff and minimizes soil erosion,
preserving the topsoil.
4. Time and Labor Efficiency: Levellers make it easier and faster to prepare fields for
planting by reducing the time spent managing uneven soil manually.
5. Better Equipment Performance: Agricultural machinery such as seed drills and
planters perform better on flat, even surfaces.

Disadvantages of Using a Leveller:

1. Cost of Equipment: Advanced levellers like laser levellers can be expensive,

making them inaccessible to small-scale farmers.
2. Energy Requirement: Larger levellers require more tractor power, which can
increase fuel consumption.
3. Soil Compaction: Frequent use of heavy levellers can lead to soil compaction,
which may negatively impact soil health and crop productivity over time.
 Fig:- Leveller

 Basin lister

A basin lister is an agricultural implement used to create small, shallow depressions or

basins in the soil, often for water conservation, erosion control, and soil moisture
retention. It is particularly useful in dryland farming systems and in areas prone to
water scarcity, as it helps in trapping and holding rainwater around the plants,
reducing runoff, and enhancing water infiltration into the soil.

Key Functions of a Basin Lister:

1. Water Conservation: The primary function of a basin lister is to create small basins
that trap water, allowing it to infiltrate into the soil. This is especially valuable in arid
and semi-arid regions where rainfall is scarce.
2. Erosion Control: By breaking up the smooth soil surface and creating basins, the
lister reduces water runoff and helps prevent soil erosion on slopes or uneven terrain.
3. Soil Moisture Retention: The basins created by the lister hold rainwater in place,
allowing more moisture to seep into the soil and be stored for the crops.
4. Seedbed Preparation: The basin lister can also be used in the preparation of
seedbeds, especially for crops that benefit from being planted in small depressions,
like row crops or certain vegetables.

Components and Construction of a Basin Lister:

1. Frame:
- Material: Heavy-duty steel or iron.
- Construction: The frame is designed to hold the lister shares (ploughs) and is
mounted on a tractor via a three-point hitch. It must be strong enough to withstand the
forces of pulling through soil.
 - Function: Provides structural integrity and connects the implement to the tractor,
ensuring the lister can be used in various field conditions.

2. Lister Shares (Ploughs):

- Material: High-strength, hardened steel.
- Shape: The lister shares are V-shaped or curved like ploughs. These shares dig into
the soil, creating the small ridges and depressions (basins) as the implement moves
forward.
- Function: The shares cut through the soil and throw it to the sides, leaving behind
a depression or basin in the center.

3. Mouldboards (Optional):
- Material: Steel or cast iron.
- Function: Some basin listers may have small mouldboards attached to the shares,
helping to push and turn the soil more effectively into ridges and basins.

4. Furrow Openers:
- Material: Hardened steel.
- Function: Positioned at the front of the lister shares, furrow openers break the
surface of the soil to create small furrows, which assist in basin formation.

5. Depth-Control Wheels or Skids:

- Material: Metal or rubber wheels.
- Function: These wheels control the working depth of the lister shares, ensuring
uniform basin depth across the field. They also provide stability as the implement is
pulled through the soil.

6. Hitch System:
- Material: Steel.
- Function: The basin lister is attached to the tractor via a three-point hitch system,
which allows the operator to raise, lower, or transport the implement easily.

Types of Basin Listers:

1. Single Row Basin Lister:

- Function: Creates one row of basins at a time.
- Application: Suitable for small fields or when precision is needed, such as for row
crops like corn or cotton.

2. Multiple Row Basin Lister:

- Function: Creates multiple rows of basins in one pass, increasing efficiency for
larger fields.
- Application: Ideal for large-scale operations or where wide planting beds are
required.

3. Adjustable Basin Lister:

- Function: Allows for adjustment of basin spacing and depth.
- Application: Useful for varying field conditions and different crop requirements,
providing flexibility in basin formation.
Advantages of Using a Basin Lister:

1. Water Conservation: By capturing rainwater in the basins, the lister helps in storing
moisture in the soil, which is essential for crop survival during dry periods.
2. Reduced Erosion: The basins slow down water runoff, reducing the risk of soil
erosion, especially on sloped land.
3. Improved Crop Growth: Retaining more water in the soil helps crops access
moisture longer, improving growth and yields in dry conditions.
4. Soil Health: By reducing runoff, basin listers help retain nutrients in the soil,
preventing them from being washed away and contributing to better soil health over
time.

Disadvantages of Using a Basin Lister:

1. Not Suitable for All Soils

2. Increased Power Requirement
3. Maintenance Needs

 Wetland preparartion implements

Preparing wetlands for agriculture, particularly for crops like rice, involves
specialized tools and implements that help manage water and soil conditions. These
implements are designed to work in muddy, waterlogged conditions where typical
farm equipment might not function efficiently. Here are the key wetland preparation
implements commonly used:

1. Puddler
A puddler is used for puddling, which is the process of churning wet soil to reduce
water percolation, creating a soft, level, and water-retentive bed for crops like rice.

Components and Working:

- Rotary Puddler: It has rotating blades or discs that are driven by a tractor to stir and
soften the soil.
- Cage Wheel Puddler: Uses cage wheels with steel bars attached to them. When the
tractor moves, these bars break the soil and mix it with water, creating a muddy, even
surface.
- Function: It is used to reduce soil porosity and help create a flat, water-retaining
surface ideal for rice seedlings.

Advantages:
- Improves water retention in the soil, making it easier for rice crops to grow.
- Provides a soft, level field for transplanting seedlings.

2. Wetland Plough (Rice Plough)

The wetland plough is specifically designed to work in waterlogged, muddy
conditions, and is used to till wet soils to break up and invert the soil layers.

Types:
- Mouldboard Wetland Plough: Has a curved metal blade (mouldboard) that cuts
through the wet soil and turns it over. It is often heavier than regular ploughs to
handle the thick, sticky mud.
- Disc Wetland Plough: Uses large, concave discs to cut through and invert the soil.

Advantages:
- Helps bury weeds and plant residues in wet soil.
- Prepares the field by breaking up soil clods and inverting soil layers, which aids in
moisture retention.

3. Leveller
A leveller is used in wetland conditions to flatten and smoothen the puddled soil,
ensuring a uniform surface for water retention and even crop planting.

Types:
- Scraper Leveller: A heavy metal blade is dragged over the wet soil surface to level it.
- Laser Leveller: More advanced, using laser technology to achieve precise leveling of
the field. It is particularly effective in creating uniform water distribution in large rice
fields.

Advantages:
- Ensures even distribution of water in the field, which is critical in rice cultivation.
- Helps in creating uniform soil depth, leading to consistent seedling growth and crop
yields.

4. Rotavator (Rotary Tiller)

A rotavator is a rotary tiller that is used to mix the soil and water uniformly after
ploughing. It breaks down soil clods and prepares a fine, puddled seedbed.

Components and Working:

- Equipped with rotating blades attached to a horizontal shaft. These blades stir the
wet soil, breaking clods and mixing it with water.
- Used after ploughing and puddling to further refine the field surface and prepare it
for transplanting.

Advantages:
- Helps in the quick preparation of a fine seedbed in wetland conditions.
- Reduces labor and time required to prepare the field.

5. Bund Former
A bund former is used to create raised embankments (bunds) along the field's borders
to hold water within the field, especially in rice paddies.

Components and Working:

- Consists of angled blades or discs that shape and form the bunds by gathering soil
from the sides.
- Mounted on a tractor, and as it moves along the field, it piles soil to form raised
structures that help control water flow.

Advantages:
- Helps retain water in the fields for rice cultivation.
- Prevents water runoff, ensuring better water management.

6. Paddle Harrow
A paddle harrow is a type of harrow designed for wetland conditions. It is used to
further refine the puddled soil surface by breaking clods and evening out the soil.

Components and Working:

- It consists of paddles or flat blades mounted on a frame. As the tractor moves
through the field, the paddles break up larger soil clods and smooth out the puddled
surface.
- Often used in conjunction with a puddler for preparing the final seedbed.

Advantages:
- Provides a more uniform surface for planting, which helps in the even distribution of
water and nutrients in the soil.
- Helps achieve a well-leveled, fine soil surface for transplanting rice seedlings.

7. Conical Weeder
A conical weeder is a manually-operated tool used in wetland rice fields to control
weeds between rows of transplanted rice plants.

Components and Working:

- It has a cone-shaped frame with rotating blades or tines that churn the soil and
uproot weeds.
- Operated by hand, the weeder is pushed between rows of rice plants.

Advantages:
- Helps control weeds without the need for herbicides.
- Also aids in aerating the soil, improving water penetration and root development.

For Unit- II reference ppt slide links:-

 https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/tillage-and-primary-tillage-
implements/2519792641
 https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/tillage-secondary-tillage-
implementspptx/251988048