HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

THE CONTINENTAL EXPANSION (1803-1850) AND CIVIL WAR (1861-

1865) POWER POINT
Colonization in North America underwent significant developments following
the North-western Ordinance of 1787, which established a system of
townships as the basis for new states. This ordinance set the stage for
organized expansion and settlement; particularly as White immigration
moved further West. However, this expansion was not without conflict, as
tensions with Native American tribes continued, leading to the Indian
Removal Act of 1830.
The Indian Removal Act forcibly relocated five frontier tribes – the Creeks,
Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaw, and Seminole – to non-settled areas in
present-day Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. This displacement was met
with resistance and marked the beginning of a series of Indian Wars that
persisted until 1890.
By 1860, significant strides had been made towards democracy in America.
Most states had eliminated property and tax requirements for voting,
extending suffrage to virtually all adult males. The movement for female
suffrage also gained momentum, exemplified by the Seneca Falls
Convention of 1848 and the Declaration of Sentiments.
The period from the 1830s to the 1860s saw a cultural renaissance in
America, with influential figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel
Hawthorne, and Walt Whitman contributing to a burgeoning literary and
philosophical scene. Many of these intellectuals hailed from New England,
where they championed democratic ideals and opposed slavery and
expansionism.
Politically, the Federalist faction, led by figures like John Adams, represented
the commercial and industrial interests of the North and central East. They
advocated for a strong central government and opposed the "tyranny of the
majority." Conversely, the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson
and Andrew Jackson, favoured a weaker central government and
championed the interests of farmers in the South and West.
The tensions between these factions came to a head with the outbreak of
the Civil War in 1861. The conflict, rooted in disputes over states' rights,
tariffs, and the institution of slavery, divided the nation between the
Northern and Southern states. Abraham Lincoln's election as president in
1860 further exacerbated these tensions, leading to the secession of several
Southern states and the formation of the Confederate States of America.
The Civil War, which ranged from 1861 to 1865, remains the bloodiest
conflict in U.S. history, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of
soldiers and civilians. The war ultimately led to the abolition of slavery with
the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. However, the aftermath of the war
saw the continued dominance of the Democratic Party in the South, along
with the persistence of segregation and racial tensions, particularly in the
Jim Crow era.
EXPANSION AND CIVIL WAR
THE DISPUTE OVER SLAVERY, SECESSION, AND THE CIVIL WAR
The nation faced turmoil in 1846 when David Wilmot, a newly elected
member of the House of Representatives, proposed the Wilmot Proviso,
which aimed to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. Southern
representatives vehemently opposed this, leading to heated debates and
threats of secession. Although the Proviso passed in the House multiple
times, it consistently failed in the Senate due to southern opposition.
As the Mexican-American War concluded, and with a presidential election
looming, President Polk chose not to seek re-election. The Democratic Party
nominated Lewis Cass, who supported popular sovereignty on the slavery
issue. This led to a split in the party, with some Democrats backing Martin
Van Buren, who endorsed the Wilmot Proviso. Van Buren and abolitionist
Liberty Party members formed the Free-Soil Party.
In the election of 1848, Zachary Taylor, a Whig, emerged victorious,
defeating Cass. California's gold rush and the resulting population boom
intensified the debate over slavery in newly acquired territories.
Californians, seeking statehood without slavery, fueled tensions.
Congress faced intense sectional disputes, leading to a crisis that
threatened the Union. In January 1850, Henry Clay proposed a series of
resolutions known as the Compromise of 1850, aiming to balance the
interests of both slave and free states. Although initially rejected as an
omnibus bill, Senator Stephen A. Douglas's efforts led to the passage of
individual resolutions, averting a crisis.
The Compromise of 1850 delayed secession and civil war for a decade,
allowing for the North's industrial growth and the political rise of figures like
Abraham Lincoln. Meanwhile, a massive influx of immigrants, particularly
from Ireland and Germany, reshaped American society. The South, heavily
reliant on slavery, resisted industrialization, with most of its economy
centered on agriculture. Despite variations in the severity of slavery's
conditions, its influence permeated southern society, posing a fundamental
challenge to the Union's cohesion.
As slavery expanded westward alongside the acquisition of Texas, so too did
the fervent demand for its abolition. Even within the South, antislavery
sentiments existed, supported by groups like the American Colonization
Society, which established a colony of free blacks in Liberia. However, with
the religious revival of the Second Great Awakening, abolitionists of the
Jacksonian era exhibited an unparalleled disdain for slavery. Evangelists like
William Lloyd Garrison, who published "The Liberator," and Harriet Beecher
Stowe, author of "Uncle Tom’s Cabin," passionately condemned the
institution, inciting a moral awakening across the nation.
The Compromise of 1850 briefly calmed political tensions, but the
introduction of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill reignited the slavery debate. This
bill, championed by Stephen A. Douglas and Alexander H. Stephens, aimed
to organize the Nebraska territory without mentioning slavery, effectively
nullifying the Missouri Compromise. Its passage marked a critical turning
point, shattering the fragile peace and intensifying sectional divisions.
The political landscape underwent a seismic shift as the Democratic Party
fractured, paving the way for the emergence of the Republican Party in
response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Meanwhile, the Know-Nothing Party,
fueled by anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments, briefly rose to
prominence before fading away.
The escalating tensions manifested in violent conflicts like Bleeding Kansas
and the infamous altercation between Senator Charles Sumner and
Representative Preston S. Brooks. As the nation hurtled toward disunion, the
election of James Buchanan further exacerbated the crisis. Buchanan's
ineptitude, epitomized by his anticipation of the Dred Scott decision, failed
to alleviate tensions.
The election of 1860, characterized by the victory of Abraham Lincoln and
the subsequent secession of southern states, plunged the nation into civil
war. Lincoln's inauguration and subsequent actions, including the
provisioning of Fort Sumter, sparked armed conflict. The subsequent
mobilization of troops by both the Union and the Confederacy signaled the
beginning of a protracted and devastating struggle.
During the Civil War, while the government saw legislative victories, the
military front faced significant defeats. General McClellan, relieved of
supreme command except for the Army of the Potomac, led an advance on
Richmond through the peninsula between the James and York rivers.
However, the campaign ended abruptly with the Seven Days battle in early
summer 1862, resulting in heavy casualties. Major General Henry W. Halleck
assumed command of the Union army, and a significant naval battle
between ironclads, the Merrimac and the Monitor, marked the end of
wooden fighting ships.
In April 1862, a Union squadron under David G. Farragut captured New
Orleans, while Confederate victories, like at the Second Battle of Bull Run,
highlighted the challenges faced by the Union. However, at Antietam,
although the battle ended in a draw, it allowed President Lincoln to issue the
Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, shifting the focus of the war to
slavery.
International recognition of the Confederacy was halted by these Union
victories, despite British support through shipbuilding for the Confederates.
Meanwhile, Napoleon III of France proposed mediation, which was rejected
by Congress and Secretary of State Seward. Napoleon's intervention in
Mexican affairs further strained relations.
Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus and the Conscription Act faced
opposition, notably from Peace Democrats or "Copperheads." Despite
defeats like Fredericksburg, Lincoln's re-election in 1864 reflected public
support for his policies. Sherman's capture of Atlanta and Grant's victories
signaled the shift towards a Union victory.
Lincoln's second term saw efforts towards reconstruction, with his
Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, offering a mild plan for
restoring the Union. Despite differences with Radical Republicans over
reconstruction, Lincoln's assassination in April 1865 left the task incomplete,
with Andrew Johnson assuming the presidency amidst a struggle between
the executive and legislative branches.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
THE GREAT DEPRESSION, THE NEW DEAL, AND WORLD WAR II
During the Great Depression in the United States, the nation faced an
unprecedented economic collapse that lasted for a decade. It began with
the infamous stock market crash, which saw around $30 billion in market
value wiped out within a month, leading to a cascading effect of business
bankruptcies, soaring unemployment, deflation, and plummeting commodity
prices. Several factors contributed to this disaster, including
mismanagement of the Federal Reserve banking system, abuse of credit,
criminal dishonesty in the business community, and the inflexibility of the
gold standard system. President Hoover attempted to address the crisis with
relief programs and public works initiatives, but conditions worsened,
leading to widespread suffering. The Hoover administration's perceived
failure to end the depression led to public resentment, paving the way for
Franklin D. Roosevelt's landslide victory in the 1932 presidential election.
Roosevelt's New Deal, implemented during his first term, introduced a flurry
of legislation aimed at relief, recovery, and reform. The New Deal initiatives
included the establishment of programs like the Civilian Conservation Corps,
the Works Progress Administration, and the Social Security Act, among
others, which aimed to provide employment, support for farmers, and social
welfare. However, opposition to Roosevelt's policies emerged from both
conservative and radical quarters, and challenges from the Supreme Court
further complicated the administration's efforts to combat the depression.
Despite these obstacles, Roosevelt's leadership during the Great Depression
reshaped the role of the federal government in the economy and society,
leaving a lasting impact on American politics and policy.
FDR's unprecedented popularity led him to secure 60.4 percent of the
popular vote and carry all but two states in the Union, Maine and Vermont,
during the election. His overwhelming victory also extended to Democrats
running for various federal and state offices, resulting in a substantial
majority in both the House of Representatives (333 seats to 89 for
Republicans) and the Senate (76 to 16). Emboldened by this strong
mandate, Roosevelt embarked on a controversial plan to reshape the
Supreme Court, seeking to appoint new justices who would be more
amenable to his New Deal policies.
The plan involved proposing legislation to Congress that would allow him to
appoint a new judge for every existing judge over the age of seventy who
did not retire within six months. With six out of nine justices already past
seventy, this move would have expanded the Court to fifteen members, with
Roosevelt appointing a majority of them. However, Roosevelt's failure to
consult with congressional leaders beforehand sparked intense opposition,
with many seeing it as an egregious attempt to undermine the
independence of the judiciary.
The backlash against Roosevelt's court-packing plan not only highlighted
divisions within the Democratic party but also underscored the importance
of maintaining a balance between the executive and legislative branches.
Despite his setback, Roosevelt managed to advance his agenda through
other means, such as the Judicial Procedure Reform Act, which allowed
federal judges to retire at full pay but did not authorize the appointment of
new judges. Over time, Roosevelt's appointments gradually shifted the
ideological composition of the Supreme Court in favor of the New Deal.
Meanwhile, the New Deal continued to address the challenges of the Great
Depression through various measures, including the Wagner-Steagall
Housing Act, which established the United States Housing Authority and
provided funds for low-cost housing. Additionally, new legislation such as
the Minimum Wage and Hours Act of 1938 and the Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act aimed to improve labor conditions and consumer protections.
The international landscape, characterized by the rise of fascist regimes in
Europe, presented new challenges. While initially advocating for collective
security measures, Roosevelt shifted focus to military preparedness in
response to growing isolationist sentiments and the escalating conflict
overseas. Despite opposition, he successfully lobbied Congress to repeal the
arms embargo and provide aid to Britain through the Lend-Lease program.
In the midst of these developments, Roosevelt secured a third term in the
1940 election, defeating Republican candidate Wendell Willkie. Despite
Willkie's criticism of Roosevelt's foreign policy, the President's assurances of
avoiding foreign entanglements resonated with the electorate, securing him
another victory and reaffirming his leadership during a turbulent period in
American history.
In early December 1940, FDR received a request from Winston Churchill,
detailing Britain’s urgent need for military supplies due to the mounting
submarine attacks by the Germans. Roosevelt addressed this by initiating
the lend-lease program, which he introduced to the American people
through a press conference on December 17, followed by a fireside chat on
the radio. He emphasized the necessity of supporting Britain for victory over
fascism, declaring, “We must be the great arsenal of democracy.” The Lend-
Lease Bill passed Congress in March 1941, allowing vital defense nations to
receive supplies. Roosevelt also sought support for nations fighting for the
Four Freedoms.
Despite Roosevelt's efforts to keep the U.S. out of war, events like the
attack on Pearl Harbor forced America's entry. Roosevelt’s address to
Congress on December 8, 1941, requesting a declaration of war against
Japan, led to unanimous approval. Germany and Italy declared war on the
U.S. shortly after. General George Marshall continued as Army Chief of Staff,
and Admiral Ernest J. King became Chief of Naval Operations. Japanese-
Americans on the West Coast faced discrimination and were interned in
camps, while Mexican-Americans also endured violence.
During the war, millions enlisted in the armed forces, including women
through the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps Act. American involvement led
to the largest mobilization in U.S. history, with significant casualties.
Roosevelt’s powers expanded, and acts like the First and Second War
Powers Acts empowered him to manage domestic policy for the war effort.
The war brought immense economic costs, met partially through raised
taxes and borrowing.
The War Production Board, under Donald M. Nelson, oversaw resource
mobilization, while scientific advancements like radar and the development
of the atom bomb marked significant progress. Battles like Midway turned
the tide in the Pacific, while Allied forces advanced in Europe, culminating in
D-Day in June 1944. The G.I. Bill of Rights provided essential support for
returning veterans, aiding their reintegration into civilian life.
As Allied forces advanced across Europe, Germany endured relentless air
raids. In February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met in Yalta to plan
post-war Europe and Germany's division. However, tragedy struck when
FDR died of a cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945, in Warm Springs,
Georgia. Harry Truman assumed the presidency as Soviet forces prepared to
assault Berlin. Churchill urged Eisenhower to occupy Berlin, but Eisenhower
prioritized preventing the German army's escape to Bavaria.
Berlin fell to the Russians on May 2, and Hitler committed suicide. His
successor, Grand Admiral Karl Doenitz, surrendered on May 7. The
unconditional surrender was signed in Rheims on May 8. The Senate ratified
the United Nations Charter on July 28, signaling America's commitment to
internationalism, and the UN commenced operations on October 24. Though
isolationism persisted, many Americans recognized their global
responsibilities.
Russia declared war on Japan on August 8, invading Manchuria. Despite
demands for unconditional surrender, Japan refused. Truman authorized the
dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima on August 6 and Nagasaki on
August 9, resulting in catastrophic loss of life. Japan surrendered on August
14, accepting unconditional terms but retaining Emperor Hirohito under
MacArthur's command. Thus, one of history's most destructive conflicts
came to a close.