1

2
3
4
ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
Education is a platform in which young generations
are trained and make them future-ready. Education
provides knowledge and skills which help the person
to be employable. The Indian education system is
very popular and diversified among other countries
education systems due to its change in the evolution
from ancient to the modern education system.
During the ancient and medieval periods of
education, students were trained by teachers in such
a manner that they can survive and live in that era.
The ancient Indian education system was a well-
structured and comprehensive system that emphasized the development
of the whole child including intellectual, physical, and spiritual growth.
The ancient Indian education system dates back to the Vedic period,
around 1500BCE. Ancient Indian Education is also to be understood as
ultimately the outcome of the Indian theory of knowledge and a part of
the corresponding scheme of life and values. That scheme takes full
account of the fact that Life includes Death and the two form the whole
truth. This gave a particular angle of vision, a sense of perspective and
proportion in which the material and the moral, the physical and
spiritual, the perishable and permanent interests and values of life are
clearly defined and strictly differentiated.
It was primarily based on the gurukul system, where students lived with
their gurus (teachers) and learned various subjects, including the Vedas,
philosophy and martial arts. It is no surprise that the Vedas, which are
the earliest known oral books containing the thoughts of a highly
civilized society are replete with exquisite references to nature and the
concept of interdependence of living organisms. To these gurus, it was
important for humans to realize their humble status in the infinite
universe before embarking on the long journey of learning. This system
of education in India was highly revered and attracted students from all
over the world, including China, Greece, and Tibet.

5
 SOURCES OF EDUCATION
The ancient system of education was
the education of the Vedas,
Brahmanas, Upanishads and
Dharmasutras. The writings of
Aryabhata, Panini, Katyayana and
Patanjali and the medical treatises
of Charaka and Sushruta were also
some of the sources of learning.
Distinction was also drawn between
Shastras (learned disciplines) and
Kavyas (imaginative and creative literature). Sources of learning were
drawn from various disciplines such as Itihas (history), Anviksiki (logic),
Mimamsa (interpretation) Shilpashastra (architecture), Arthashastra
(polity), Varta (agriculture, trade, commerce, animal husbandry) and
Dhanurvidya (archery). Physical education too was an important
curricular area and pupils participated in krida (games, recreational
activities), vyayamaprakara (exercises), dhanurvidya (archery) for
acquiring martial skills, and yogasadhana (training the mind and body)
among others. The Gurus and their pupils worked conscientiously
together to become proficient in all aspects of learning. In order to
assess pupils' learning, shastrartha (learned debates) were organized.
Pupils at an advanced stage of learning guided younger pupils. There
also existed the system of peer learning. The system and source of
education in ancient India was very interesting. The education gave
equal importance for overall development both in terms of physical,
mental and overall development as a person. The gurus and the pupil
worked together consistently as a team to bring proficiency in all aspects
of learning.

6
EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE
 Gurukul System: Students lived with their gurus in residential
schools, receiving personalized attention and mentorship. The
system was based on the Gurukul ashramas, where the students
learned through practical experience.
 Primary, Secondary and Higher Education: Education was
divided into stages, with a focus on vocational training and literary
education.
 Vedantic Philosophy: The system was based on Vedantic
philosophy, which emphasized the importance of self-realization
and spiritual growth.
 Women’s Education: Women’s education was valued but often
limited to domestic skills and household management. Since women
role played essential in moulding society character and upbringing
a responsible civilian. Hence education of women is must in every
age and period.

(A.) THE GURUKUL SYSTEM:

Gurukuls, also known as ashrams, were the residential places of
learning. Many of these were named after the sages. The Gurukul
System which necessitated the study of the student away from his home
at the house of a teacher or in a boarding house of established
reputation, was one of the most important features of ancient Indian
education. During that period, the gurus and their shishyas lived
together helping each other in day-to-day life. The main objective was to
have complete learning, leading a disciplined life and realizing one’s
inner potential. Students lived away from their homes for years together
till they achieved their goals. The gurukul was also the place where the
relationship of the guru and shishya strengthened with time. Smritis
recommend that the student should begin to live under the supervision
of his teacher after his Upanayana, etymologically antevasin, the word
for the student denotes one who stays near his teacher and samavartana,
the word for convocation, means the occasion of returning home from
the boarding or the teacher’s house. Even the State has exempted the
Gurukulas from all types of land taxes. Student often denoted by a term
7
‘Vatu’. A ‘Vatu’ after his Upanayana will be accepted based on certain
standards and parameters and the preceptor would weigh and see that
the required qualities of humility and service were in him, including his
eagerness for knowledge to be augmented with the spirit of enquiry, firm
faith in Acharya.
In an average Gurukula, there will be students studying ranging from
1,000 to10,000, and students were looked after by respective Acharyas
and the entire Gurukula Ashrama would be supervised by ‘Kulapati’.
These Gurukulas were all like residential schools, where the pupils had
to stay for a minimum period of 12 years, leading a celibate life. There
are abundant references in epics and Sanskrit literature that even kings
would send their princes to Gurukulas, for instance, Krishna, Drupada,
hailed from royal families and Sudhama, Drona from poor family
background were educated at the same place. Prior to beginning the
formal teachings, in Gurukulas, strict care was taken to train the pupils
in Yama and Niyama, in order to destroy the impurities of mind enabling
them to receive the light of wisdom, the knowledge which illumines their
life. In addition to this, Ahimsa, Satya, Brahmacharya, Asteya,
Aparigraha, Shaucha, Santosha, Tapa, Swadhyaya, Ishwara Pranidhana
was inculcated and rigorously practiced. While pursuing their education
in different disciplines like history, art of debate, law, medicine, etc., the
emphasis was not only on the outer dimensions of the discipline but also
on enriching inner dimensions of the personality.

Gurukula follows some of the rules which require the student to rise
earlier and sleep later than his teacher. To show him alms gathered at
midday and to attend to the night service of his Agnihotra (sacrificial
8
fire) also show that the student was normally living at the house of his
teacher. Jatakas evident that these students did not leave their homes
just after their Upanayana ceremony, however at the age of 14 or 15
when they were old enough to look after themselves in a distant place.
On the other hand, rich people were tempted to deliberately send their
children to distant places, even when there were famous teachers
available in their own towns, because they were anxious that they should
reap the benefits of the Gurukula system.
The recognition of the importance of association and limitation was one
of the main reasons for the great emphasis laid on the gurukula system.
It is believed that the direct, personal and continuous contact with
teacher or the guru help students to build noble and moral character
which naturally produces great effect on the mind of the scholar during
the period of adolescence. The system eliminated the factors in home life
prejudicial to the educational atmosphere and facilitated better studies.
It was felt that students trained at home would lack the benefit of school
discipline and suffer from desultoriness and want of application and
would thus normally compare very unfavorably with those trained in a
Gurukula. Even royal students, staying in a Gurukul were not allowed to
have any private purse, lest they should secretly purchase prohibited
articles.
" Plain living and high thinking” were to be the student's ideal. They
were to shave their heads clean or keep matted hair, as no time was to
be wasted in oiling, combing and dressing the hair. Students must take
the bath once in the day, but pleasure baths were forbidden. Shoes,
umbrellas and cots were not to be used as a general rule. Food and dress
were to be simple but sufficient. To prescribe these rules to students
were aimed to enable them to imbibe good valuable habits which were
expected to be of good and positive use throughout their life.
Not all gurukulas were in forests though. Many were in villages and
towns, since the gurus were usually householders with families.
However, secluded locations were preferred. Over time, the systems of
transmission of learning to newer generations got institutionalized and
gave birth to famous universities such as Takshshila, Nalanda and the
famous temple universities of which the remains are still found in
southern India. A sizeable number of foreign students came to study in
9
India from China, Korea, Japan, Indonesia and West Asia. While the most
famous names are Fa-Hien and Xuanzang (Hieun Tsang), who left behind
detailed accounts, there are scores of others who made difficult journeys
by foot and on-board ships just to imbibe knowledge from Indian
professors. Many of the foreign students copied texts and commentaries
to carry back to their countries. The rush for gaining an education from
the Brahmins and Buddhist scholars of India was like today’s rush to
study in or be certified by American and European universities.

(B.) PRIMARY EDUCATION

Primary education in the ancient Indian education system was closely
linked with the Brahmacharya Ashrama, which is considered the first
stage of life in the Hindu Ashrama system (the four stages of life). The
Brahmacharya Ashrama, also referred to as the student phase, was
essential for early education and development, particularly for boys, and
it played a fundamental role in their character formation, knowledge
acquisition, and spiritual growth.
It is a moot point whether the art of writing was known in the early
Vedic period. Even if it was known, we must remember that its use for
the preservation of sacred literature was tabooed for a long time.
Secular literature had not yet come into existence, grammar and
arithmetic were yet to be developed and commerce was in a primitive
condition not requiring any account keeping.
At the early times boys and girls were taught and basically trained to
realise the difference between short and long vowels, study the varieties
of accents and coalescence of vowels and consonants. At a slightly later
stage they were enlightened about the changes that took place in the
Vedic stanzas. This was the nature of primary education imparted to
students in the Vedic period.
There is ample evidence to show that the art of writing was well known
to the Aryans at least from c.1000B.C. Reading and writing must have
gradually begun to form an integral part of primary education. It was
during this phase that a young student (called Brahmachari) would
begin to understand the core values of life, such as self-control,
discipline, respect for elders, humility, and compassion. In fact,

10
Brahmacharya Ashrama laid the foundation for their future character
and life’s purpose.

SECONDARY OR HIGHER EDUCATION

Secondary or Higher education in the ancient Indian education system
was a highly structured and spiritually oriented form of learning, which
transcended mere acquisition of knowledge to encompass spiritual
growth, moral development, and social responsibility. Unlike
modern education, which is often specialized and segregated into
subjects, higher education in ancient India was holistic and aimed to
cultivate well-rounded individuals with intellectual, ethical, and spiritual
depth.

Key Features of Higher Education in Ancient India

 Integration of Knowledge and Spirituality: In ancient India, education was

considered sacred, and the goal was not just intellectual growth but
also spiritual enlightenment. The Vedic tradition, which was at the
core of education, aimed at realizing Brahman (ultimate reality)
through learning, meditation, and self-discipline. Higher education
in this context included knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads,
Dharma, and various branches of philosophy and science.
 Centers of Higher Education: Gurukul was the hometown of teachers
where students come after completing their initiation ceremony and
learn until the compilation of their study. The parishads or
academies were the place of the higher learning and education
where students learn through discussions and debates. Goshti or
conferences were the places where the kings of the states used to
invite scholars from every institute to meet and exchange their
views. Ashramas or hermitages were the other learning centers
where students from various parts of the country used to come and
learn from saints and sages. Vidyapeeth was the place of spiritual
learning founded by great Acharya, Sri Shankara in places like
Sringeri, Kanchi, Dwarka and Puri etc. Agraharas was an institution
of Brahmins in villages where they used to teach. Viharas were the
educational institutions founded by Buddhists where the students
11
 were taught the subjects related to Buddhism and philosophy. Most
of the higher education institutions were linked to Buddhist
monasteries or Hindu temples. These institutions acted as
residential universities where students lived and studied under
the guidance of a guru.

Ancient India boasted several renowned universities and learning

centers that attracted scholars from across the world: such as

 Nalanda University (Bihar): A prominent Buddhist university,

famous for its studies in philosophy, logic, mathematics, astronomy,
and medicine.
 Takshashila (Taxila) (Modern-day Pakistan): A major center of
learning, offering courses in Vedic studies, medicine, astronomy,
military science, and statecraft.
 Vikramshila University (Bihar) focused on Buddhist philosophy
and logic.
 Ujjain and Pataliputra were also important academic centers
known for astronomy and mathematics.

(For detailed information refer to section- The Prominent Universities of Ancient

India.)

ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION:

The role of education lies in shaping society and culture. It is a central
aspect of the theoretical framework. The rise of formal institutions in
ancient India reflects the broader societal need for specialized
knowledge and professional training. The shift from the gurukul system
to more structured institutions like Nalanda and Takshashila can be
analyzed through the lens of Emile Durkheim's sociological theories,
which emphasize the role of education in social integration and cohesion.
These universities played a crucial role in educating not just individuals
but entire communities, providing knowledge that facilitated social,
cultural, and intellectual advancement. The sociocultural theory also
underscores how educational systems in ancient India were shaped by
religious, philosophical, and economic needs. The presence of multiple
languages, religious doctrines, and cultural practices within these

12
institutions reflects the diverse nature of Indian society and the role of
education in facilitating cross-cultural dialogue.

CURRICULUM
Curriculum plays an essential role in the education system. It was
dynamic and not static; it was made up of different stages. In the ancient
Indian scriptures, it had been emphatically laid down that all Brahmanas
should devote twelve years to Vedic studies after their Upanayana.
Subjects like Grammar, Philosophy, Arithmetic, Astronomy and metrics
were well developed in this period, for the preservation of Vedic
literature and good grounding in them was not possible without a
knowledge of the art of writing. Elementary arithmetic and grammar,
phonology and metrics also formed part of the primary curriculum of the
education. Sanskrit was still spoken language and Prakrit were yet to be
developed. The fundamental goal of building a good curriculum was to
develop students physically and mentally strong. The curriculum consists
of study of the four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda,
Atharvaveda), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Darshans,
Puranas, Tarka Shastra. The six Vedangas were Shiksha,
Chhandas, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Jyotisha, and Kalpawhile and the
darshanas were Nyaya, Baiseshika, Yoga, Vedanta, Sankhya,
Mimamsa. Algebra, Geometry, and Grammar were also given more
importance. Panini was famous in the domain of grammar at that time.

Hindu learning was a part of Buddhist learning, although more emphasis

was given to Buddhist learning. The curriculum of the Buddhist system
consists of Pitakas, Abhidharma, and Sutras. Both the systems were
going hand in hand at that time. Besides this, medicine was also given
importance. The name Anvishakti stands for the sciences derived from
subjective or metaphysical speculation involving keen introspection.
Three such different subjects or systems of thought and philosophy are
known to Kautilya.

The education was totally through orals and debates. The education
system of the ancient period focused on subjects like warfare, military,
politics, religion. The teachings of Vedanta, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga,
13
and Buddhism were central, with intense focus on logic, metaphysics,
and the nature of existence. Law and Administration texts like
Manusmriti, Kautilya's Arthashastra, and Dharma Shastras taught
governance, statecraft, ethics, and law. Ancient Indian mathematicians
like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara contributed to algebra,
geometry, and the concept of zero. Astronomy was studied
extensively. Medical texts like the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta
Samhita were central to the study of medicine and surgery. Sanskrit
grammar, rhetoric, arts, and music were taught to cultivate creativity
and communication skills.

(C.) VEDIC EDUCATION

Vedic education is to be studied as an
integral part of Vedic thought and
philosophy of life. It will be best
understood in the light of certain concepts
and technical terms in which are
concealed and stored up the tradition
governing the general philosophy and
scheme of life of the Vedic age. It is the
way and means of achieving the spiritual
ends. The theory of karma and duties (dharma) were deeply
embedded in the Vedic education system, influencing both the content of
education and the way of life it aimed to instill in students. Vedas are
also called as ‘Shruti’ (What is Heard), composed in Vedic Sanskrit and
are considered as oldest scriptures of mankind. The word ‘Veda’ is
derived from ‘Vid’ dhatu which means ‘Knowledge’ or ‘Wisdom’. Though
it is considered as ‘Apaurusheya’, in Mahabharata it is attributed to Lord
Brahma. Each Vedas such as, Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Saama Veda and
Atharva Veda, have been further technically classified into four major
categories: Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedas and Puranas.

ARANYAKAS
Aranyakas comprise of text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, etc. These
have grown up on the theological treatises, which are distinctly differ
from literary type. Prof. Macdonell says: ‘They reflect the spirit of an age
14
in which all intellectual activity is concentrated on the sacrifice,
describing its ceremonies, discussing its value, speculating on its origin
and significance’.

UPANISHADS
The Upanishads tell us about the twofold path that are pursued by man
in life, the Path of Preyas, of worldly life, pleasure, and prosperity, to be
achieved by Karma and Dharma, deeds and rituals, the fruits of which
will accrue to him in this life and extend beyond it to its later
incarnations in other worlds. The other path is the Path of Sreyas by
which Man seeks the sole and ultimate reality, the everlasting good in a
life of sustained and strenuous meditation of the Atman. There is no
inherent conflict between the two Paths, between Karma or Dharma, and
Jnana, in the Vedic scheme of life, as the one Path leads to the other, and
Jnana or realization of the Atman is the fruit of Dharma and Karma.
Ultimately, as the Kaivalya Upanishad puts it, “neither through rituals
(Karma) nor through progeny or wealth, but renunciation alone, persons
attain to immortality.”
The two Paths only imply the two phases of life, social and spiritual.
There is the outer and external life of man as a member of society which
imposes upon it its rules and regulations, conventions and obligations,
ultimately based on morality. But behind this external, social life, there
is the inner life of a man as an individual, his spiritual life which is
regulated and shaped in the Upanishads by Upasana(worship) and Yoga
(psychic control) whereby Anubhuti and Moksha are attained. There
were total 13 Upanishads namely-Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya
Upanishad, Taittariya Upanishad, Aittereya Upanishad, Kausitaki
Upanishad, Kena Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Ishavasy Upanishad,
Shwetasvatara Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, Prashn Upanishad,
Maitrayaniya Upanishad and Mandookya Upanishad.
PURANAS
Past The real essence, content and motto of ‘Puranas’ are concisely and
precisely narrated in 12th Skanda, 6th Chapter of Shrimad Bhagavata.

15
There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa-Puranas which are composed
during different periods and various Puranas are referred for correct
understanding of the rich treasure of knowledge. The puranas are also
called as Iti-haasa which means that- History teaches us the past
incidence that has occurred and preaches about Dharma, Artha, Kaama
and Moksha. The names of some of the Maha Puranas are Agni Purana,
Brahmanda Purana, Linga Purana, Markandeya Purana, Matsya Purana,
Naradiya Purana, Padma Purana, Vayu Purana and Visnu Purana etc.
VEDAS
Upon critical perspective of Hindu philosophy, two traditions were
mentioned as, Astika which staunchly considers Vedas as their authority
and Shramana or Nastika traditions which do not consider Vedas as
authority, like Lokayata, Charuvaka, Ajivika, Baudha, Jaina, etc.
However, though there are differences, some of the portions of Vedas
also discuss similar concepts and ideas which are found in Nastika
philosophy.
Several European Philosophers like, Ralph T.H. Griffith, Max Muller,
H.H. Wilson, Witzel and others have learnt Sanskrit, and conducted deep
research into Vedic Philosophy and proved as the upholders of the
ideology of Vedas. There are several theories pertaining to the antiquity
of Vedas which roughly states circa 1700–1100 BC, circa 1500 to 500–
400, circa 1000–500 BC. Due to the ambiguousness, inconsistency and
non-consensus, there is no definite and exact period of origin of Vedas.
There is no archaeological evidence to accurately and categorically
determine the period of Vedas.
It is surprising to note that Vedic knowledge, till the period of Guptas
was preserved by way of oral tradition with precision and elaborate
mnemonic techniques not because there was utter absence of alphabets
or scripts or writing methodologies, but for obvious reasons that the
Vedas were not kept in written or manuscript format for thousands of
years. There are several evidence which prove that even during that
period, the art of writing and scriptures existed. Vedic Knowledge is
scattered among four Vedas, Upanishads and Puranas.

16
 EDUCATION IN THE
RIGVEDA The Rigveda is
established as the earliest work not
merely of the Hindus but of all Indo-
European languages and of
humanity. But the great paradox
that it presents is that though this
is the oldest book of India, it does not mark merely the dawn of its
culture, but rather its meridian. The extant Brahmanas group themselves
round the several Vedas which thus determine their subject-matter.
Thus, the Brahmanas of the Rigveda contain only such explanations of
the ritual as are needed by the Hotri priest in his task of collecting from
the total body of the hymns the verses suited to each particular occasion
as its sastra(canon). Being liturgical works, they follow the order of the
sacrificial performance without reference to the sequence of the hymns
in their Veda. According to the Hindu orthodox view, the Rigveda
contains within itself the seeds and sources from which the entire course
of Hindu thought through the ages has derived and flowed in so many
streams. It lays the foundation upon which Hindu Civilizations has been
building up through the ages. Broadly it is on a foundation of plain living
and high thinking.
The Rigveda itself exhibits an evolution, and the history of the Rigveda is
a history of the culture of the age. The Rigveda is in the form of a
compilation out of old material, a collection and selection of 1017hymns
out of the vast literature of hymns which had been accumulating for a
long period. In dealing with this vast and varied material belonging to
different ages, the editors of the Rigvedic Samhita were called upon to
evolve advanced and comprehensive principles in constructing their
work. Firstly, it had to be a representative collection which could reflect
the different types and kinds of literary achievements and religious
speculation. Thus, the Samhita is characterized by a remarkable variety
in its contents, the topic dealt with in the hymns it brings together,
which differ in their appeal and value. Secondly, besides showing their
skill of selection on the basis of their acquaintance with the vast body of
hymns, the editors of the Samhita were at point to think out about the
sacred texts handed down from time immemorial could be conserved in

17
their pristine purity and original forms and ensured against the
interpolations of later ages.
The Samhita itself indicates the distinguish between two literary ages
and educational activity which were widely separated in both age and
character. The first was an age of creation, of the primordial Rigveda
which came into being in the original hymns as they were revealed by
Rishis. The Vedic Aryans then found it necessary for their work amidst
Dasa, Dasyus or Asuras that they should fix their national sacred
literature reflecting their own ideals of thought and life as a means of
preserving their cultural integrity as a people. Therefore, they called for
the collection floating mass of hymns i.e. the composition of the Rigveda
Samhita. Thus, the age of the origination of Rigvedic hymns was
primarily an age of creation which was necessarily followed by an age of
criticism and compilation, of conservation and codification. The Aitareya
Aranyaka mention three ways of reciting the Rigveda, pratrinna,
nirbhuja, and ubhayamantarena. The first step in the Rigvedic
education was the correct recitation of the taught texts. Jaimini in his
Purva-Mimamsa sutra, has the dictum Vakyaniyamat which means that
the words of mantras must be recited in the prescribed manners to
achieve their full fruit. Thus, the recitation of mantra has a mystical use
by itself.
We thus get the actual of glimpse of the Rigvedic educational system
which comprised the small domestic school run by a teacher who
admitted to his instruction resident pupils. These had to live with him
under prescribed disciplines or vows as vratacharis. An actual refernce
to a Brahmachari and Upanayana ceremony is found in the Rigveda. The
highest stage of education is represented in the Brahmana-samgha.
Thus, the age of the origination of Rigvedic hymns was primarily an age
of creation which was necessarily followed by an age of criticism and
compilation, of conservation and codification.

EDUCATION IN THE LATER VEDAS

It may be stated that Indian Education reached its climax and achieved
the highest degree of efficiency and success in this period when it could
produce a literature like the Upanishads which are universally admitted
recording the utmost possibilities of human speculation regarding some

18
of the ultimate problems of life and metaphysical mysteries. The later
three Vedic Samhitas of Sama, Yajur and Atharva mentioned in the
Brahmanas as dealt with the different types of literary activity and
confine themselves to the duties of the Udgatri and Adhvaryu priests and
follow the order of the ritual already established in their respective
Vedas. These were exclusively compiled for the purpose of ritual
application.
SAMAVEDA: The verses were arranged in the Samaveda in two
parts:(1) the Archika of 585 single stanza or (2) the Uttararchika
comprising 400 chants, mostly of three stanzas each. In the Samaveda
the text is treated only as a means to an end, the learning of melodies.
The melodies given in the Samhita were taught by oral and instrumental
rendering. The oldest notation for music was probably that indicated by
syllables such as ta, cho, etc. But very often the seven notes were
indicated by the figures 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, corresponding in the ascending
order, the ancient Yama are counted in the descending order. Thus, the
only light that the Samaveda thrown on education is that it was
responsible for the development of Indian Music and its School.
YAJURVEDA: Just as the Samaveda is the song book of the Udgatri, the
Yajurveda is the prayer-book of the Adhvaryu priest. Prayers were
accompanied by sacrificial acts about which differences of opinion were
more likely to arise. Any deviation in the ceremonial or in the liturgy led
to the formation of a new Vedic School. Thus, the Yajurveda lent itself to
the formation of numerous schools the number of which was 101 in the
time of Patanjali (as stated in the introduction to his Mahabhasya). The
Yajurveda has two divisions called Black (Krishna) and White (Sukla ),
also called Vajasaneyi- Samhita. The white Yajurveda contains only the
Mantra, the prayers, and sacrificial formulae which the priest has to
utter, while the black Yajurveda contains the Mantra in verse and also a
portion in prose, the earliest Indian prose, presenting the sacrificial rites
that go with the Mantras along with the discussions thereon, anticipating
the later Brahmana literature. Thus, from the point of view of education,
the Yajurveda has made a material contribution to it by the creation of a
prose literature which later culminated in the literary masterpieces of
the Upanishads. The Yajurveda fixes the religious scheme and ordering
of Hindu life in the course of ceremonies it prescribes. It prescribes

19
various sacrifices among which may be mentioned those for the New and
Full Moon, the Fathers, Fire, seasons, Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, and
Agnichayana. This ceremony throws some light upon the architecture of
the time. He will find it specially valuable for a study of the origin,
development of religious ideas. Hence the Yajurveda also supplies the
key to an understanding of the later literature of the Brahmanas of
which it contains the origins and of the Upanishads following the
Brahmanas.
ATHARVAVEDA: The Atharvaveda, indeed, contains much new and
original matter not to be found in the Rigveda. Of about 6000 stanzas
making up 731 hymns devised into twenty books, some 1200 are derived
from the Rigveda, chiefly from its first, eighth, and tenth Books, and only
a few from the other books. A large part of this Vedic Samhita mentions
appropriate herbs as remedies against disease like fever, leprosy,
jaundice, dropsy, scrofula, cough, ophthalmia, baldness, impotence, and
surgical ailments like fractures and wounds, bite of snakes and other
injurious insects, and against poison in general, mania, and other
complaints. The Atharvaveda is somewhat ungenerous in wishing away
some of the ills of life fever to distant regions and people. The
Atharvaveda contains a separate long hymn describing the system of
studentship. The pupil enters upon his stage of studentship through the
performance of the ceremony of initiation called Upanayana by his
chosen teacher called Acharya.
Here’s a breakdown of how the concepts of Upanishads work together in
the Vedic system:

THEORY OF KARMA
When the Aryans settled down in a less spectacular and more peaceful
life and began to investigate more carefully the phenomena of life
around them, they began to feel that man is not entirely an architect of
his own fortune, and that the powers and capacities with which he is
born determine the scope of his prospects and activity to a considerable
extent.
The doctrines of Karman and Rebirth, which were unknown in the early
Vedic Age became universally accepted in the course of time, swinging
the pendulum considerably in favour of nature as against nurture. It
20
began to be averred that the deeds in previous lives, rather than the
training in the present one, will determine whether our intellect is to be
bright and moral propensities strong.

THEORY OF DHARMA
Dharma refers to one’s duties and righteous conduct, according to their
role in society (varna), age, and stage of life (ashrama). In education, this
played out in several ways:

1. Role of the student (Brahmacharya Ashrama):

In the context of the ancient Indian education system,
particularly within the Vedic tradition, the Brahmacharya
Ashrama held a pivotal role as the first stage of a person’s life. It
was not merely an educational phase but also a spiritual, ethical,
and moral training ground for a well-rounded individual.
Students (brahmacharis) lived with their guru in a gurukul
(residential school). Their dharma was to serve their guru with
devotion and to maintain celibacy and discipline. To acquire
knowledge (Vedas, grammar, astronomy, logic, etc.). To cultivate
values like humility, obedience, and non-attachment. The rules of
studentship are clearly mentioned in the Vedas. Studentship was
open to the first three castes. The duties of the student comprised
(1) repetition of sacred texts, (2) worship of fire, (3) ablution, (4)
observance of the vow of begging, (5) services to the teacher to the
end of his life and in his absence to his son or to the fellow-
discipline.

2. Role of teacher:
To impart knowledge selflessly. To guide the moral and spiritual
growth of the student. To treat all students equally, regardless of
their social background (in ideal form, though caste could play a
role in practice). So, the need of a teacher is emphasized by
Kautilya in his Arthashastra. The regulations regarding instructions
and discipline will be determined by him according to the subjects
of study. Teachers had complete autonomy in all aspects from
selection of students to designing their syllabi. When the teacher
was satisfied with the performance of the students, the course
21
 concluded. He would admit as many students as he liked and taught
what his students were keen to learn. Debate and discussions were
the primary methods of teaching. Teachers were assisted by their
advanced level students. The teachers like Ribhu always thought of
the ultimate welfare of their disciples.

3. Role of community:

At that time, knowledge was considered sacred and no fee was

charged. Contributions towards education were considered the
highest form of donation. All members of the society contributed in
some form or the other. Financial support came from rich
merchants, wealthy parents and society. Besides gifts of buildings,
the universities received gifts of land. This form of free education
was also prevalent in other ancient universities like Valabhi,
Vikramshila and Jagaddala. At the same time in the south of India,
agraharas served as centers of learning and teaching. South Indian
kingdoms also had other cultural institutions known as Ghatika and
Brahmapuri. A Ghatika was a centre of learning including religion
and was small in size. An agrahara was a bigger institution, a whole
settlement of learned Brahmins, with its own powers of government
and was maintained by generous donations from the society.
Temples, Mathas, Jain Basadis and Buddhist Viharas also existed as
other sources of learning during this period.

4. Civic and social duties:

Education also prepared students for their varna-dharma duties
as per their societal role (e.g., Brahmin, Kshatriya, etc.). The end
goal was to produce individuals who uphold rta (cosmic order) and
thus maintain societal harmony. The success of the educational
system in infusing a sense of civic responsibility and promoting
social efficiency and happiness, it was but natural that the
educational system should have taken the help of the religious
feeling and the caste discipline for infusing the sense of civic
responsibility. The average man in ancient India was always loyal to
the interests of his guild, village and caste. It was the success of the
educational system in promoting social efficiency, which enabled

22
 Hindu society to be in the vanguard of the march of civilisation for
several centuries.

THE THEORY OF THREE DEBTS: The interesting theory of three

debts, which has been advocated since the Vedic age, has effectively
served the purpose of inducing the rising generation to accept and
maintain the best traditions of thought and action of the past
generations. The theory maintains that the moment an individual is born
in this world he incurs three debts, which he can discharge only by
performing certain duties. First, he owes a debt to gods, and he can
liquidate it only by learning how to perform proper sacrifices and by
regularly offering them. Religious traditions of the race were thus
preserved. Secondly, he owes a debt to the rishis of the bygone ages and
can discharge it only by studying their works and continuing their
literary and professional traditions. The rising generation was thus
enabled to master and maintain the best literary and professional
traditions. The third debt was the debt to the ancestors, which can be
repaid only by raising progeny and by imparting proper education to
them. Steps were thus taken to see that the rising generation became an
efficient torch-bearer of the culture and traditions of the past.

(D.) WOMEN’S EDUCATION

Education was as important for women as it was for men in ancient
India. Saraswati has been depicted as the goddess of learning, speech,
music and eloquence not just in India but wherever Indian culture left its
imprint such as in Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and Indonesia.
Knowledge begot respect and learning were respected for both men and
women wherever it went. The Upanayana ceremony was performed for
women too. The Rigveda contains many verses composed by women
such as Visvavara, Sikata Nivavari, Ghosha, Romasa, Lopamudra, Apala
and Urvashi. Husband and wife were required to jointly perform yajnas,
and many shlokas were required to be recited by the wife. Some yajnas
were performed by the women even without the presence of men. In the
Ramayana, Queen Kausalya performs a yajna by herself on the eve of
Rama’s anointment as heir apparent. She is referred to as mantravid or
one who is well-versed with Vedic mantras, and going by the rigor
attached to the learning and chanting of the Vedas, it is clear that
23
women were very much a part of the learning culture. Women teachers
were called Upadhyayas.

An interesting shloka in the Atharva Veda

indicates that a woman has little chance to find a
good husband if she is not well-educated as a
Brahmacharini. In fact, one of the marriage hymns
hopes that the wife would shine as a good speaker
in assemblies. A likely age for marriage was 16 to
17 years, since child-marriage was not at all the
norm during the Vedic period. While most women
would settle down to a life of domestic duties after
marriage, some women called Brahmavadinis
would marry late after devoting more years to
study or not marry at all. There is an example cited
of Vedavati daughter of sage Kusadhvaja, who did not marry at all. In
the Kaushitaki Brahmana, a lady scholar named Pathyavasti proceeds to
the north in order to study and obtain the title of Vaak.

In the Brihadaranyanka Upanishad, there is reference to a

philosophical debate held in the court of King Janaka in which there is an
exchange between the lady philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi and
Yajnavalkya, the rishi who is credited with several important texts. Gargi
pounds Yajnavalkya with such persistent questions involving a subtle
understanding of scriptures that after answering a few, the rishi declines
to take any more interrogation. In the same Upanishad, one of
Yajnavalkya’s wives Maitreyi has been described as more interested in
studying deeper problems of philosophy than in wearing costly jewels
and dresses. During Adi Shankaracharya’s famous debate with Mandana
Mishra, the umpire was a lady Ubhaya Bharati, a renowned scholar and
the wife of Mishra. All this goes to show that there was no question of
denying education to women in ancient India.

In the Mauryan period, there existed a special category of super-talented

(well-versed in 64 arts), highly educated and extraordinarily beautiful
women called ganikas who enjoyed social respect and were esteemed by
kings and nobles. Ancient India witnessed many princesses and queens
taking a keen interest in administration of their kingdoms and their

24
education fully equipped them to even fight in the battlefield if
necessary. Several queens from Kashmir fought in battlefields as
described in Rajatarangini. Nayanika of the Andhra dynasty,
Prabhavatigupta of the Vakataka dynasty, Chalukya queens and ladies
such as Mailadevi, Akkadevi, Kunkumadevi and Lakshmidevi took active
part in governance.

SPREAD OF LITERACY – A SACRED DUTY

The word ‘Vidya’ is derived from the root vid, to know, which the same
root as Veda is. Since the entire educational system is based on the
Veda, Vidya garnered by Veda enables a person to know the truth
regarding the universe and the individual relationship with the universe.
The Rishis understood that student should have self-motivation to
succeed, and teaching should suit the natural inclination of a student.
It’s the duty of a Guru to test the student and impart knowledge in the
subject of his/her liking. That’s why in ancient times a teacher/guru
provided only suggestions/advice to his students, and students needed to
put their hearts and minds behind that to assimilate the knowledge.
Vedic education starts with an intimate relationship between teacher
and the student. The relationship between the teacher and his students
starts with a religious ceremony called Upanayana.

During this period, Upanayana became an obligatory Sanskar (ritual) for

all the Trivarna's i.e. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The
ceremony takes three days (ratristisrah) during which the teacher holds
within him the pupil to impart to him a new birth and regenerated life
whence the pupil emerges as a dvija or twice-born. Ancient Indians were
deeply invested in gaining perspectives about “The material and the
moral, the physical and the spiritual, the perishable and the permanent.”
His first birth he owes to his parents who give him only his body. It is
mere a physical birth. His second birth is the spiritual. It unfolds his
mind and soul. During the process of gaining these perspectives, they
made important discoveries in the sciences, mathematics and applied
medicine. The sacredness of learning is evident from the large number of
Sanskrit shlokas that deify the guru such as “Acharya
Devobhava”(Taittriya Upanishad). Initiation of children into the

25
alphabets for the first time was done ceremonially in most parts of India
as the Vidhyarambha.

After this Upanayana or initiation, the pupil emerges as a Brahmachari,

a new and changed person both externally and internally. He lives
according to the prescribed regulations governing both his dress and
habits by which he is marked out. The sacred thread ceremony or the
Upanayana ceremony was performed for Dwija children between the
ages of eight and twelve customarily marked the beginning of education.
The student goes about wearing a girdle (mekha) of Kusa grass, the skin
of the black antelope (karshnam) and long hairs (dirghamasru) and
carries fuel which he has to offer to Agni both morning and evening
[Samidha samiddhah]. Besides these external marks, he is also
distinguished by some inner attributes and disciplines. These are stated
to be (1)Srama, self-restraint; (2) Tapas, practice of penance and (3)
Diksha, consecration to a life of discipline through prescribed
regulations such as begging and the like (Sayana). (4) control of senses,
(5) practice of austerities, (6) living a dedicated life, (7) satisfying the
teacher by gifts acceptable to him. Thus, the Brahmachari is abroad (eti),
an example of that discipline and detachment which have created and
sustain the universe. The supreme Being himself is described as the
prime Brahmachari. All creation is the outcome of Brahmacharya and
Tapas.

Traditionally it was considered unethical to barter knowledge for money.

Gurus usually took a token gift (Guru Dakshina) in return for the long
years of knowledge they imparted. Chinese student Xuanzang has left a
touching account of the love of learning in India. It was not forced but
came naturally from the seeds of curiosity planted in childhood. He
found ascetics who devoted their entire lives to learning and teaching
simply for the love of knowledge be it in sciences or philosophy and to
the exclusion of every comfort. Such men, who also adhered to high
moral standards, were held in high esteem by the State but did not care
for any honor bestowed on them. The practice of bhiksha (requesting for
food from households which is incorrectly called begging in modern
times) was common among these ascetics and was regarded as a
perfectly respectable activity. Xuanzang mentions that dedicated
scholars preferred poverty to affluence and did not even heed the ties of
26
domestic love. They knew no fatigue and travelled across the country to
lecture and share their knowledge.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UPANAYAN RITUAL

At the time when the significance of the Upanayana ritual and Mantras
was perfectly grasped, a very powerful impression must have been
produced on the mind of all the parties participating in the ceremony
through the various suggestions conveyed to them by the different
elements in the ritual. The ritual heralded the beginning of a new epoch
in the student's life, characterized by dignity, decorum and discipline.
The scholar was to regard himself as a self-reliant traveller bound for the
realm of knowledge. The journey was to be long and arduous, but if
there was singleness of purpose, devotion to studies and perfect accord
between him and his teachers, he would surely reach his goal.

SAMAVARTANA OR CONVOCATION RITUAL

Samavartana or Snana ceremony was performed at the end of the
Brahmacharya period to mark the termination of the education course.
In early times it was performed when the education of the youth was
over. However, in later times the ritual came to be performed as a kind
of necessary formality just before the marriage. The ritual was intended
to correspond in a very great degree to the modern convocation
function. Only those who have passed their examination are at present
admitted to the convocation, and only those who had finished their
education were in the beginning honored with the privilege of
Samavartana.

Samavartana ceremony is as simple as it is significant. An auspicious day

was selected and, the student was required to shut himself up in the
room throughout the morning. The belief was that the sun can shine only
with the lustre he borrows from the Snatakas (graduates), who have
completed their education. The student came out of his room at the
midday, cleansed his mouth and shaved his head and beard. He then
relinquished his girdle (mekhala), deer-skin (ajina) etc., which were the
insignia of the student's order. The period of strict discipline was now
over and the teacher himself, who had sternly refused him the use of
several luxuries, now came forward to offer them to him. He himself
27
gave him a bath in fragrant water. It was followed by an offer of new
clothes. Ornaments, garland, collyrium, turban, umbrella and shoes, the
use of which was taboo to him in the Brahmacharya period, were now to
be formally and officially offered to him by his teacher with the recitation
of proper Mantras. It was expected that the guardians, who were well
off, would furnish a double set of the above articles, one for-the teacher
and the other for the ward. A Homa followed and the hope was
expressed that the young graduate would get plenty of students to teach.
The teacher then offered him Madhuparka, an honour very selected was
reserved for few like the king, Guru, and son-in-law. After dressed in his
new dress, the student would proceed to the assembly of the learned
men of the locality. He was there formally introduced as a competent
scholar by his teacher. Returning home he would bid farewell to his
teacher after paying him such honorarium (gurudakshina) as he could
afford.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION
The educational system teaches consciousness, self-control and purity of
thought and action. A person who is not selfish and well-educated leads
a pure life, conquers avarice by generosity or hatred by love. Such a
person does not bother about caste, creed or color. All these distinctions
come when education leads to the patch of commercial contracts, but
when it inculcates purity, selflessness and self-realization, then it makes
individual to realize the ideals of uplifting. This system is based on the
idea of attaining perfection without degrading self or humanity.
Knowledge is of two kinds, that which is derived from scriptures, and
that which is derived from reflection. Spiritual knowledge consisting in
words results from the study of science and the knowledge of the
supreme results from reflection.

The Atharva Veda enjoins that there are two-fold system of Vidya; a)
Parā-Vidyā, b) Aparā-Vidyā. These are higher and lower forms of
knowledge respectively. Whatever knowledge, such as arises from the
Rigveda etc. which ultimately helps the individual to attain the highest
knowledge is termed as Apara Vidya and which leads the aspirant to the
attainment of the Supreme is termed Para Vidya. Parā-Vidyā helps one to
28
attain pure-consciousness, Aparā-Vidyā teaches the law of nature and
the cause of another phenomenon. To receive education in these two
learnings one must approach with sacrificial sticks Samidha in hand, the
Master, abiding in Brahman and well-versed in the Vedas. The Master
introduces the child to scholarship, and this is termed as Upanayana -
the initiation of the child into scholarship. Hence, the student's life
commences with the initiation. There is the mention of another form of
knowledge i.e. Kāla-Vidya, which deals with kauśala (applied science).

During the ancient period, the state government and the people did not
interfere in designing curriculum, payment of fees, regulation of
teaching hours. There was a strong bonding between teacher and
student. Every student was allotted with one teacher, and more
emphasis was given to the student-teacher relationship, each student
used to meet teachers personally to learn and gain instructions from
them. During ancient times, royal families, as well as kings of states,
used to donate their wealth to improve the education system and quality.

In ancient India, both formal and informal ways of education system

existed. Indigenous education was imparted at home, in temples,
pathshalas, tols, chatuspadis and gurukuls. There were people in homes,
villages and temples who guided young children in imbibing pious ways
of life. Temples were also the centres of learning and took interest in the
promotion of knowledge of our ancient system. Students went to viharas
and universities for higher knowledge. Teaching was largely oral, and
students remembered and meditated upon what was taught in the class.
The syllabus was designed in accordance with the demands of that era.
At that time students used to leave their houses and went to live with
their gurus until their education was completed. During the early Vedic
period, women’s education was also given more emphasis. The education
focuses on the physical and mental development of students used to
memorize all things, memory played a crucial role during learning. The
education was imparted in forests away from cities and peoples to give
students a pleasant and silent environment of study.

29
METHODS OF LEARNING
The teachers at the ancient period paid
special focus to their students and teach
them according to their knowledge and skill
level. Teaching was basically via orally and
debates. At that time books were not there,
so students had the habit to learn and
memorize all the things taught in the class,
and teachers also helped them in
memorizing. The students used to deep dive
into the concepts taught by their teachers
and explore new methods to learn it.
Listening, Contemplation, and concentrated
contemplation were some new methods of exploring the way of learning.
The teachers used the storytelling methods to teach their students.
Students used to ask question about the topics taught by the teachers
and these topics were discussed and then answered to the students. The
education of that time mainly focused on practical knowledge of the
topics taught in the class. The students got plenty of knowledge through
seminars and debates conducted at frequent intervals. The successful
students flocked together in the assemblies or academies for the
advancements of knowledge by discussing their respective contributions
to it. Thus, the method of conference for the promotion of learning, the
discussing methods in seminars and academies first evolved in India as it
is evident in the Rigveda.

AIMS OF EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

Dr. A.S. Altekar, a prominent historian and scholar, extensively studied
and analyzed the ancient Indian education system. According to him,
education in ancient India was not merely about the acquisition of
knowledge but was deeply interwoven with the broader goals of
spiritual, moral, and intellectual development. Altekar outlined the aims
of education in ancient India as a holistic and integrated system of
learning, which aimed at shaping the individual as a responsible member
of society, while also ensuring their personal and spiritual growth.
Hence, there some aims of ancient Indian education are as follows:
30
1. Focus on Character Building: The first and the foremost aim in
ancient education system. The system focused on building
character and developing moral values in students. The illumination
and power, which men and women received from education, was
primarily intended to transform and ennoble their nature. The
formation of character by the proper development of the moral
feeling was therefore one of the principles of education. The Vedas
unhesitatingly declare that a person of good character with a mere
smattering of the Vedic knowledge is to be preferred to a scholar,
who though well versed in the Vedas, is impure in his life, thoughts
and habits. In other words, education ought to develop man's ideal
nature by giving him a sure moral feeling and by enabling him to
control his original animal nature. The tree of education ought to
flower in wisdom, in virtue, in knowledge as well as in manners.
2. Cultural Preservation: The preservation and spread of national
heritage and culture was one of the most important principes of the
Ancient Indian System of Education. It is well recognized that
education is the chief means of social and cultural continuity. The
services of the whole Aryan community were conscripted for the
purpose of the preservation of the Vedic literature. The Brahmana
community were fostering the studies of the different branches by
doing so they were not only preserving the knowledge of the
ancient in these branches of liberal education but constantly
increasing its boundaries by their own contributions.
3. Development of personality: The development of personality was in
fact the third aim of the educational system. We come across
several masterful personalities, in different walks of life in ancient
India. This was sought to be realized by eulogizing the feeling of
self-respect, by encouraging the sense of self confidence, by
inculcating the virtue of self-restraint and by fostering the powers
of discrimination and judgement. Hindu achievements however in
the different walks of life and branches of knowledge were fairly of
a high order in ancient India down to the 6th century A.D., and this
would hardly have been possible if the products of the educational
system were not masterful personalities. It emphasizes on inclusion
of great Indian personalities like Charaka, Susruta, Aryabhata,
Varahamihira, Bhaskaracharya, Brahmagupta, Chanakya,
31
 Chakrapani Datta, Madhava, Panini, Patanjali, Nagarjuna, Gautama,
Pingala, Sankardev, Maitreyi, Gargi and Thiruvalluvar, among
numerous others, who made seminal contributions to world
knowledge in diverse fields.
4. Self-Restraint: The element of self-restraint, that was emphasised
by the educational system, further served to enrich the student's
personality. Self-restraint that was emphasised was distinctly
different from self-repression. Simplicity in life and habits was all
that was insisted upon. The student was to have a full meal, only it
was to be a simple one. The student was to have sufficient clothing,
only it was not to be foppish. The student was to have his
recreations, only they were not to be frivolous. He was to lead a life
of perfect chastity, but that was only to enable him to be an
efficient and healthy householder when he married. It will be thus
seen that what the educationalists aimed at did not result in self-
repression but only promoted self-restraint that was so essential for
the development of a proper personality.
5. Self-Control and Discipline: Students were expected to develop self-
control and discipline in their daily lives. The rules of discipline
were overall reasonable for the age. They were intended to infuse
piety, teach manners, promote self-control and discipline will
facilitate the formation of good habits. Students were required only
to control their passions and desires a that was for the purpose of
promoting concentration in studies and the development of the
body.
6. Emphasis on Spiritual Growth and Self-Realization: The system
emphasized the importance of spiritual growth and self-realization.
Though the educational system provided the background of piety
and religiousness, its aim was not to induce the student to renounce
the world and become a wanderer as the vast majority was
expected to become householders. The direct aim of all education,
whether literary or professional, was to make the student fit to
become a useful and pious member of society. It was the spiritual
background that was thus provided which was expected to help the
student to withstand the temptations of life. The very atmosphere,
in which he lived and breathed, impressed upon him the reality of
the spiritual world and made him realize that though his body may
32
 be a product of nature, his mind, intellect and soul belong to the
world of spirit, the laws of which ought to govern his conduct,
mould his character and determine the ideals of his life.
7. Establishment of a civilized society and stress on social duties for
happiness: The inculcation of civic and social duties was
particularly emphasized in the educational system. The graduate
was not to lead a self-centered life which laid stress on the civic
responsibilities of their members. The promotion of social efficiency
and happiness by promoting the progress of the different branches
of knowledge, arts and professions, and by emphasizing civic duties
and responsibilities on the mind of the rising generation, the
educational system contributed materially to the general efficiency
and happiness of society.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

It is desirable and important to discuss some educational principles and
postulates accepted and assumed by ancient Indian thinkers. The
principles of the ancient Indian educational philosophy and practice
today, emphasizing the importance of holistic education, moral values,
and personalized learning. This would facilitate the proper
understanding of the evolution and history of the different aspects of
education. Now let us focus on some principles of education. They are as
follows:

1. Holistic Education: Ancient Indian education was characterized by a

holistic approach, which emphasised on the development of the
whole child, including intellectual, physical, and spiritual growth.
This can be understood through the concept of "Vidya"
(knowledge), which was not confined to academic subjects but was
perceived as a path to self-realization and enlightenment. The
gurukul system, for instance, focused on developing well-rounded
individuals by emphasizing not just academic knowledge but ethical
and philosophical inquiry. The framework of holistic education
underpins the idea that ancient Indian education aimed to nurture
all aspects of human potential—mental, physical, and spiritual.
Since education was regarded as the best agency for improving

33
 society, it was naturally insisted that it should be available to every
Aryan, i.e. every Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya, thus received it.
2. Personalized Learning: Students received personalized attention
and guidance from their gurus. Society also took several other
important steps to realise this ideal to ensure an adequate supply of
teachers, it enjoined that teaching was a holy duty which a
Brahmana was bound to discharge irrespective of the consideration
as to whether any fee was likely to be received or not.
3. Emphasis on Moral Values: The system placed great emphasis on
moral values, such as honesty, compassion, and self-discipline. One
of the best ways to secure ready cooperation from students was to
encourage proper habits, great importance was therefore attached
to the formation of proper habits by the student during his
education course. It was realized that habits constituted a second
nature and those formed during the pliable and impressionable
period of childhood would stand a person in good stead throughout
his life. Rules of discipline that are prescribed for the student, have
been laid down not so much for the purpose of prohibiting him from
doing undesirable acts as with the object of forming good and
valuable habits.
4. Practical Learning: Students learned through practical experience
and hands-on training. A practical turn was indeed given to all
instructions as a pedagogic principle. Personal attention to each
student was insisted upon to ensure a high degree of proficiency. In
professional education the necessity of practical training was
emphasized for the same reason. We have found evidence in one of
the Jatakas which shows how Nature- study was always insisted
upon as the best means of awakening a healthy curiosity, a spirit of
observation and inquire which are indispensable aids to intellectual
culture. Indian thinkers also about the relative importance of nature
and nurture. Though natural endowments thus play a great part, it
was realized that they exist only in a potential condition in our
childhood and would not flower into perfection unless they are
properly developed by training and education. One may be born in
Brahmana family on account of his past good Karman. One may be
also endowed by nature with the qualities of a Brahmana like self-
control and love of learning.

34
5. Respect for teachers: Students were expected to show great respect
for their teachers and the learning process. As the teacher held the
great position in the ancient system of education, and it is the reason
that the high reverence was shown to him by the society and their
students. The teachers were respected not for their material
prosperity but for their wisdom, integrity and dedication to truth.
They were free from avarice and worldly desires and endowed with
noble qualities like goodness and tranquility.
6. Inclusivity and Diversity: The system was inclusive and diverse,
welcoming students from all backgrounds and castes. The caste
system has been an important feature of Hindu society for a long
time and has naturally exercised considerable influence on the
theory and practice of education in ancient India. In the ancient
India Brahmanas held their monopoly over the teaching profession.
It is well-known that the Smritis have laid down that Brahmanas
alone should impart Vedic education. It was only in the later times
that education became open to non-brahmins also. There is
evidence to show that non-Brahmanas also sometimes used to
become Vedic teachers. For some Kshatriyas figure among the
composers of Vedic hymns also. In the Upanishads also mentions
the period when kshatriyas took an important part in the
development of philosophy. There are several cases of Brahmanas
approaching renowned Kshatriya teachers like Asvapati, Janaka and
Pravahana Jaivali as humble students of philosophy and religion.
7. Guru-Shishya Parampara: The teacher-student relationship was
highly valued, with gurus playing a significant role in shaping
students lives. With the rise of the mystical systems of philosophy in
the age of the Upanishads, the reverence for the Guru became still
more intensified, for spiritual salvation depended almost entirely
upon his proper guidance. The relations between the teacher and
the student were therefore direct and not through any institution
and were naturally very cordial and intimate. They were united, to
quote the words of the Buddha, 'by mutual reverence, confidence
and communion of life.’
8. Limitations in Education: Ancient Indians had realized that
association and imitation play a great part in moulding the
character and improving the caliber of a student. Even a dull

35
 student, they point out, will improve his intellect if he is in close
association with a brilliant boy and imitates his methods of study.
One should therefore be very careful in choosing one's company.
One can now understand why our educationalists have attached a
great importance to sending a student to live under the direct care
of a teacher, or in a gurukul (boarding) of established reputation.
9. Teaching Methods: Teaching methods included lectures,
discussions, and debates. Practical demonstrations and hands-on
training were used to teach various subjects. Storytelling and
anecdotes were used to convey moral values and teachings. So,
there were another type of institutions which ministered to the
never-to-be satisfied needs of the advanced students whose quest of
Truth and Knowledge did not cease with the period of formal
studentship and necessarily elementary education but was
continued into the householder’s state. Such students improved
their knowledge by mutual discussions or by the instructions of
their renowned specialists and literary celebrities in search of
whom they wandered through the country.
Oral method of teaching
Instructions was imparted orally and characterized by much
earnestness and painstaking labour on the part of the teacher. The
pedagogic method followed was that of trying to quicken and rouse
the latent powers of thinking in the student and lead him on to
conclusions. Even in Fa-Hien's time, the time-honored Brahmanical
system of oral teaching was obtained as the method of instruction
even among Buddhists. The subjects of study were not yet reduced
to writing. Due to this, there was a great disappointment to the
traveller who had set out on his travel with the objective of finding
copies of the sacred manuscripts. Out of the numerous monasteries
visited, it was only in two that the objective was accomplished.
Thus, oral instruction was the only educational method followed in
the north, while the rule was relaxed in the east where the aid of
written literature to education was recognized. The system of
teaching was necessarily individual in the later Vedic age. This was
one of the strongest points in the ancient Indian system of
education. The teacher had to address himself separately to the
instruction of each pupil. The occasions when anything was

36
 explained to all pupils together were comparatively few in number.
The need of bestowing individual attention upon the pupils placed a
natural limit to the number of such pupils which a teacher could
accept and hence determined the size of these domestic schools of
Ancient India.
Examples: Uddalaka Aruni, from the Kuru-Panchala country, goes
to the north where in a disputation to which he challenges the
northern scholars he has something to learn from their leader,
Svaidayana Saunaka. Similarly, Svetaketu Aruneya, Somasushma
Satyayajni, and Yajnavalakya, while travelling about, were met by
Janaka of Videha who raised a discussion at which the Brahmin
scholar learnt something from the Kshatriya. Silaka Salavatya,
Chaikitayana Dalbhya, and Pravahana Jaivali had a discussion on
Udgitha in which the Brahmins learnt something from the Kshatriya
Pravahana Jaivali.
It was in these learned debates of fluctuating bodies of peripatetic
scholars that the truth about the Atman, the ultimate reality, and
foundation of things, was thoroughly threshed out and the study
and wisdom of the elementary school were tested and matured
through the ordeal of criticism and friction of minds.
10. Recitation and Recapitulation: Recitation and recapitulation
formed an important part in the daily routine of the student life.
The homework, which the student did in his spare time, did not
consist of written exercises, it merely amounted to the recitation
and recapitulation of lessons learnt already. Every day students
were required to spend a part of their time in the school in jointly
reciting a portion of the work they had committed to memory. As a
result of this training, the memory of the average student in ancient
India was very highly developed. In an age when books were very
rare, was but meet that great emphasis should have been laid on
the development of memory.
11. Examinations: There were no annual or periodical
examinations in ancient India. New lessons were given to students
only when the teacher was satisfied after a searching oral
examination that the old one was thoroughly mastered. The end of
the education course was not marked by any lengthy and exhaustive
examination, but by the pupil reciting and explaining the last
37
lesson. The modern practice to submit the student to what is known
as Sulaka-pariksha, where he is asked to explain the problems
discussed on a page opened at random, is not mentioned in ancient
books. Even if it goes back to ancient times, it can hardly be
compared to the modern system of examination. At the end of his
education the scholar was presented to the local learned assembly,
where occasionally some questions were asked. This presentation
took place when the Samavartana (convocation) ceremony was
over. It is therefore clear that the eligibility of a student for
Samavartana or receiving the degree did not depend upon the
opinion of the assembly, but upon the opinion of his teacher. Since
there were no degree examinations, there were naturally no
degrees or diplomas. From Taranatha we learn that the Pala kings
of Bengal, who were patrons and chancellors of the Vikramasila
University, used to grant diplomas to students in a convocation held
at the end of their education. In medieval Bengal also learned
bodies used to confer degrees like Tarkachakravarti and
Tarkalankara on very distinguished scholars like Gadadhara and
Jagadisa. This practice of giving degrees and titles seems to be an
innovation of medieval times. Passing examinations and getting
degrees, which dominate the present system of education, played
hardly any part in ancient India. It was not the allurement of the
degrees or the prizes but the thirst of knowledge or the desire to
preserve the national heritage which was the main spring of the
educational effort and activity.

38
TEACHER AND STUDENT RELATION
It is very important to consider the relation between student and
teacher. This relation is based on the nature of society. In ancient India
teacher student relationship was of the ideal nature. The teacher was the
protector of the student in all circumstances. He was fully respected by
the student and was regarded as a great guide for all. He occupied a
more dignified place than the father. The student was just like a son for
the teacher. To render service to the teacher was the sacred duty of the
student. The student was always ready to execute the commanded of the
teacher with all humility. Arrangement for food and living place for the
student was the responsibility of the teacher. The teacher used to nurse
the student when he fell ill. The person who takes charge of immature
children and makes them worthy and useful citizens in society was
naturally held in high reverence. It was the function of the teacher to
lead the student from the darkness of ignorance to the light of
knowledge. The student therefore must be very grateful to him and show
him the highest possible reverence. He is to be revered even more than
parents. From the Vedic age downwards, the teacher has been all along
designated as the spiritual and intellectual father of the student. Without
his help and guidance no education is possible. This is illustrated by the
story of Ekalavya, who when refused admission to his school by Drona,
prepared an image of the teacher under whom he longed to learn, and
successfully finished his studies in archery, under the inspiration that he
received from the inanimate representation of his animate preceptor.
The concept of "Guru-Shishya" (teacher-student relationship) embodies
the constructivist model of learning, wherein knowledge is not merely
transmitted by the teacher but co-created through interaction and
dialogue. In ancient India, education was experiential and dialogic,
promoting inquiry and active participation from students. The teacher-
student relationship was intimate, and students were encouraged to
engage with ideas critically, challenge assumptions, and construct their
understanding of the world. This is especially significant in gurukuls,
where the emphasis was on understanding through practice and
discussion rather than rote memorization. This framework also applies to
the universities of Nalanda and Takshashila, where scholars debated
philosophical ideas, mathematics, and logic, thus fostering a dynamic
exchange of ideas. Piaget and Vygotsky's theories on constructivist
39
learning are relevant here, as the educational settings in ancient India
were designed to promote problem-solving, critical thinking, and
collaborative learning.
The Gurukul Education System of the ancient India may be a good and
proper example of Teacher-Student relation. Student then stayed in
Ashram, which is called Brahmacharya, of Hindu’s four stages of life. At
that time student should perform his duties strictly to acquire knowledge
from his “Guru”. All the students are equal for the teacher. Hence, the
relationship between Teacher and Student was then very ideal and
cordial. So, a competent and sympathetic teacher, who would
unreservedly place at the disposal of his pupil the essence of all his
experience, could hardly be over venerated by the artisan apprentice
working under him. The glorification of the teacher must have produced
great psychological influence on students, for childhood is the heyday of
personal influence.
Public educational institutions, where teachers used to teach students
admitted by the managing body, were not many in ancient India. The
relations between the teacher and the student were therefore direct and
not through any institution. The teacher not only did not demand any fee
but also helped the poor students in getting food or clothing. The student
naturally lived as a member of the household of the teacher and helped
him in doing the household work if necessary. The teacher on the other
hand would not expect this work if the student was a paying boarder and
would limit it to the minimum in the case of poor students. In the words
of the Buddha, 'by mutual reverence, confidence and communion of life'.
The mutual contact between the teacher and the student thus continued
even after the completion of the education and was not without mutual
benefit.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER

Since the teacher was held in high veneration, he was naturally expected
to possess several qualifications. The student was to look upon the
teacher as the ideal person and regulate his own conduct by the example
of his teacher. The latter therefore was expected to be a pious person of
very high character. He was to be patient and treat his students
impartially. Above all he was to be well grounded in his own branch of
knowledge. Profound scholarship however was not sufficient for the
40
teacher. He must have a fluent delivery, readiness of wit, presence of
mind, a great stock of interesting anecdotes and must be able to
expound the most difficult texts without any difficulty or delay. In a
word, he should be not only a scholar but also an adept in teaching, then
only he would be a great teacher, as pointed out by Kalidasa. The
teacher must further be able to inspire as well as to instruct his piety,
character, scholarship and cultured life should be able to exercise a
subtle and permanent influence over the young students sitting at his
feet for their lessons.
The teaching profession had a very high code of profession in antient
India. Private teachers have all along been the sheet anchor of the
educational system. In the prehistoric period, the followers of different
Vedas had no doubt formed their own literary organisations like the
Parishads, the Sakhas, and the Charanas, but curiously enough these do
not seem to have ever made any concerted effort to form educational
institutions, which would hand down to the next generation the
literature of which they were the custodians. There was often
competition for getting more students, but if one teacher was found to
be less well-grounded than his rival in his subject, he was expected to
close his school and become a disciple of his rival in order to get full
knowledge. The teacher was to begin the education of the student as
soon as he was satisfied that his student was sincere and possessed the
necessary calibre. The duty to teach was imperative and all students had
that much of qualifications that were to be taught, irrespective of the
consideration as to whether they would be able to pay any honorarium or
not. As in that time no regular fees were charged by ancient Indian
teachers and institutions. The poorest of the poor could demand and get
education from the teacher by merely agreeing to do household work in
the teacher's house. Further, the teacher was required to teach
everything he knew to his disciple; he could withhold nothing under the
apprehension that his pupil may one day outshine him in the profession.
Now we can conclude that how generous and kind-hearted teachers
usually were in ancient India.

DUTIES OF THE TEACHER

The relationship between the teacher and the pupil was regarded as filial
in character both by Hindu and Buddhist thinkers. The teacher therefore
41
had to discharge several duties in addition to imparting intellectual
education and helping spiritual progress. On assuming the role of a
teacher persons would become curious of his qualities and duties and
would subdue their passions for spiritual merit, all this is evident from
the episode of Khandikya and Keshidhvaja. He was the spiritual father of
the pupil and was held as morally responsible for the drawbacks of his
extra-academic duties were varied and numerous. He was always to keep
a guard over the conduct of his pupil. He must let him know what to
cultivate and what to avoid; about what he should be earnest and what
he may neglect. He must instruct his students as to sleep and as to
keeping himself in health, and as to what food he may take and reject.
He should advise him as to the people whose company he should keep
and as to the villages (and localities) he may frequent If he was poor, he
was to help him in getting some financial help from people of influence
and substance in the locality. He was to arrange for his food and
clothing. If the student was ill, the teacher was to nurse and serve him as
a father would do to his son.

LIMITATIONS TO THE DUTIES OF TEACHER

The duties of teachers in ancient India were highly respected but also
bounded by several limitations, both ethical and practical. These
limitations arose from religious, social, and philosophical traditions,
particularly those found in texts like the Vedas, Upanishads,
Dharmashastras (like Manusmriti), and epics like the Mahabharata. The
teacher was prohibited from assigning any work that was likely to
interfere with the studies of the student. Teachers (or gurus) were
expected to follow strict moral codes. They had to live a simple, celibate,
and disciplined life, especially in the gurukula. They could not exploit
students or seek material gain from teaching. Accepting fees was
allowed, but excessive greed or commercialization of knowledge was
frowned upon. The duty was furthermore nominal than real in the case of
paying scholars. We have seen already that the duty to teach was
imperative and a teacher could not refuse a student merely because he
was poor. Poor students were admitted if they were willing to help who
used to pay their teachers honorarium in advance used to stay in their
houses like eldest sons, doing no household work and spending all their
time in study. Free students, dhammantevdsikas, on the other hand used
42
to do all kind of manual work for their teachers. They used to work by
day, when paying scholars were receiving their lessons, teachers used to
hold special classes for them at night with a view to see that their
education did not suffer on account of their day's work on the farm or in
the household. Teaching was largely oral and often confined to religious
texts, rituals, and moral philosophy. Sciences like astronomy, medicine,
and grammar were taught, but the curriculum was limited by the
teacher's own specialization and tradition. At Nalanda also secular
students who sought free boarding, lodging and education had to do
some manual work for the monasteries. Teachers had the authority to
discipline students, but they were expected to do so with compassion
and fairness. Corporal punishment was discouraged in some texts and
considered a failure of the teacher. Teaching was seen as a sacred duty,
not just a profession. A guru’s role was to lead the student not just to
intellectual understanding but to self-realization. Withholding knowledge
from a deserving student was considered a sin but teaching unworthy or
unprepared students was also discouraged.

DUTIES OF STUDENTS
The student was to hold his teacher in deep reverence and honour him
like the king, parents and God. His outward behaviour must be in
conformity with the rules of decorum and good manners, he ought to get
up and salute his teacher in the proper way, he ought not to occupy a
higher seat or wear a gaudier dress. Reviling and backbiting are severely
condemned. It however did not follow that the student was to connive
blindly at his teacher's mis conduct. Both the Buddha and Apastamba,
who enjoin high reverence for the teacher, lay down that the student
should draw his teacher's attention in private to his failings, and
dissuade him from wrong views if he happened to be inclined towards
them. The duty of obedience comes to an end if the teacher transgresses
the limits of Dharma. His commands were to be regarded as ultra vires,
if they were likely to jeopardies the student's life or were against the law
of the land.
Both in the Buddhist monasteries and Hindu Gurukulas, the student was
expected to do personal service to the teacher like a son, suppliant or
slave. He was to give him water and tooth stick, carry his seat and
supply him bath water, if necessary, he was to cleanse his utensils and
43
wash his clothes. He was further to do all sundry work in his monastery
or his teacher's house, like cleansing the rooms etc., bringing fuel or
guarding cattle. This custom existed in the Vedic age and was widely
prevalent in later times also. Tradition asserts that even great
personages like Sri-Krishna had deemed it an honour to do all kind of
menial work in their preceptor's house during their student days. It was
held that no progress in knowledge was possible without service in the
teacher's house.

CONCLUSION
The ancient education system in India was unique and well-planned. It
helped students gain knowledge and develop good moral values.
Learning took place in Gurukuls, where students lived with their
teachers. They studied subjects like Vedas, mathematics, and science.
Education was free, and students also learned discipline and hard work.
Teachers used storytelling and discussions to teach lessons. Moral
values were an important part of education. This system helped students
to become responsible and kind individuals.
The ancient Indian education system was thus a beacon of knowledge
and wisdom that illuminated the path for generations to come. With its
holistic approach, emphasis on character development, and focus on
spiritual growth, this system produced individuals who were well
rounded, intellectually curious, and morally upright, and had a profound
impact on Indian society, shaping its cultural values, and traditions. In
conclusion, the evolution of education systems in ancient India, from the
informal gurukul model to the formalized universities of Nalanda and
Takshashila, provides a rich and complex history that offers significant
insights into the intellectual, social, and cultural fabric of ancient Indian
civilization. The study of these systems not only highlights the advanced
knowledge and educational philosophies of ancient India but also sheds
light on the enduring influence of these traditions on modern education.
Throughout ancient Indian history, education was seen as a holistic
endeavor that integrated intellectual, moral, and spiritual development.
The teacher-student relationship, as exemplified in the gurukul system,
emphasized critical thinking, personalized learning, and the transmission
of values alongside academic knowledge. The rise of institutions like
Nalanda and Takshashila marked the formalization of education, where
44
diverse subjects, from philosophy to science, were taught, attracting
scholars from across Asia. Hence, the ancient Indian education system
was a remarkable achievement that continues to inspire and influence
education even today.

45
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................1
(A.) THE GURUKUL SYSTEM.......................................................................................................2
(B.) PRIMARY EDUCATION..........................................................................................................5
SECONDARY OR HIGHER EDUCATION ................................................................................. 5
ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION...............................................................................................7
CURRICULUM ........................................................................................................................... 7
(C.) VEDIC EDUCATION...............................................................................................................8
(D.) WOMEN’S EDUCATION ...................................................................................................... 17
SPREAD OF LITERACY – A SACRED DUTY................................................................................18
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UPANAYAN RITUAL...........................................................................20
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION..........................................................................................20
METHODS OF LEARNING.............................................................................................................22
AIMS OF EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA: .................................................................................. 22
KEY PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION: ............................................................................................. 25
SAMAVARTANA OR CONVOCATION RITUAL..........................................................................30
TEACHER AND STUDENT RELATION ......................................................................................... 31

46
QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER.......................................................................................33
DUTIES OF THE TEACHER ....................................................................................................... 34
LIMITATIONS TO THE DUTIES..................................................................................................34
DUTIES OF STUDENTS ............................................................................................................. 35

47