200 BCE–300 CE

SOURCES:
LITERARY- The sources for the history of these centuries are many and diverse. The Jatakas contain
many stories of ordinary people, traders, and travellers. Incidental historical references occur in other
Buddhist works such as the Milindapanha and Lalitavistara. Jaina texts throw light on the history of
Jainism and provide incidental references of historical value. The Puranas give details on political
history. The Puranas and epics are a rich source of information on the emergence of early Hindu cults
and religious practices. The later Dharmasutras and Smritis such as the Manava Dharmashastra
(Manusmriti) and Yajnavalkya Smriti represent Brahmanical discourses. Sangam poetry, the oldest
surviving literature in the Tamil language, is an important source. Graeco-Roman texts (collectively
known as ‘classical accounts’) are among the other important historical sources for the period. They
include the works of Arrian, Strabo, and Pliny the Elder.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL- Archaeology continues to offer information on settlement patterns,
specialized crafts, and trade. In north India, the evidence from late NBPW and post-NBPW levels
reveals a significant expansion of urban centres. The rich range of artefacts includes coins, seals, and
terracottas of fi ne workmanship. Coins are useful in dating archaeological strata. In the Deccan and
South India, certain sites reveal a transition from the later megalithic phase to the urban, early
historical phase.
INSCRIPTIONS- During the period c. 200 BCE–300 CE, the range, type, and number of inscriptions
increased dramatically. In north India, royal inscriptions reflect a transition from Prakrit towards
Sanskrit. In the south, the earliest Tamil inscriptions made their appearance.

The Political History of North India:

THE SHUNGAS- an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled areas of the central and
eastern Indian subcontinent. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, after taking the throne
of the Maurya Empire.

THE INDO-GREEKS- Bactria is the ancient name of the area lying to the south of the Oxus river
and north-west of the Hindu Kush mountains, and corresponds to the northern part of modern
Afghanistan. By the early 2nd century BCE, they had moved into the area south of the Hindu Kush. In
c. 145 BCE, they lost their hold over Bactria, but continued to rule in the north-western part of the
subcontinent for a few decades. The Bactrian Greeks who ruled over parts of north-west India
between the 2nd century BCE and the early 1st century CE are known as the Indo-Greeks or Indo-
Bactrians.
THE KUSHANAS
THE SATVAHANAS
Kings and Chieftains in the Far South: The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas:
The advent of the early historical period in South India is generally dated to the 3rd century BCE. As
mentioned earlier, recent archaeological data from the site of Kodumanal suggests the possibility of
earlier beginnings, at least the 4th century BCE. The early kingdoms of Tamilakam—the land
between the Tirupati hills (Vengadam) and the southernmost tip of the peninsula—emerged in rice-
growing areas of rich agricultural potential. The principality of the Cholas in the lower Kaveri valley
corresponded roughly to modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts of Tamil Nadu, and had its capital
at Uraiyur. The kingdom of the Pandyas in the valleys of the Tamraparni and Vaigai roughly
correspond to modern Tirunelveli, Madurai, Ramnad districts, and south Travancore and had its
capital at Madurai. The Cheras on the Kerala coast had their capital at Karuvur, also known as Vanji.
All these areas participated in the flourishing trade networks of the time. The premier Chola port was
Puhar (also known as Kaveripumpattinam), the major Pandya port was Korkai, while Tondi and
Muchiri were the important ports in the Chera kingdom.

Crafts and Guilds:

in the context of north India, Buddhist texts such as the Angavijja, Lalitavistara, Milindapanha, and
Mahavastu refer to many professions, crafts, and guilds of craftspersons and traders. The
Milindapanha alone mentions some 60 types of crafts. The localization of crafts is evident from Jataka
stories which mention villages named after the main profession of their inhabitants—e.g., potters,
carpenters, metal smiths, foresters, hunters, fowlers, fishermen, and salt makers. Within towns, houses
of specific types of craftspersons were often concentrated in certain streets and quarters. In the context
of South India, Sangam literature indicates the existence of many specialized crafts such as weaving,
gem working, shell working, and metal working. The Jataka stories often attach the suffix kula
(family) or putta (son of) to various craft terms, indicating that sons tended to follow their father’s
profession.
The variety of craft specialization is also evident from inscriptions from different parts of the
subcontinent. Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions mention a mason, master mason, carpenter, and goldsmith.
Donative inscriptions from sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut, and Mathura record the pious gifts of
various kinds of artisans—potters, weavers, masons, goldsmiths, carpenters, sculptors, and ivory
workers. Those from the western Deccan mention occupational groups such as jewellers (manikara),
goldsmiths (suvanakara), blacksmiths (kamara), ironmongers (loha-vanij), perfumers (gadhika), and
stone masons (selavadhaki). Such inscriptions refl ect the prosperity of craftspersons, their social
standing, and their connections with burgeon.
During the period c. 200 BCE–300 CE, there was a significant increase in the number of guilds, as
well as in their scale of activities. Guilds are also mentioned in inscriptions. For instance, inscriptions
of the western Deccan mention guilds of weavers, potters, flour makers, oil millers, bamboo workers,
and merchants. The Jatakas refer to the head of a craftspersons’ guild as jetthaka or pamukkha. There
are references to heads of guilds of garland makers (malakara-jetthaka), metal workers (kammara-
jetthaka), carpenters (vaddhaki-jetthaka), and caravan traders (vaha-jetthaka). There are many
references to sarthavahas—heads of caravan merchants. The head of a merchant guild was also
referred to as a setthi. The Yajnavalkya Smriti refers to the qualifications and powers of guild offi cers
and discusses rules regarding apprenticeship. It also suggests the judicial role of guilds.
The importance of guilds is evident from coins and seals issued by them. Some coins found at Taxila
have the legend negama on the reverse. Some scholars consider them to be coins issued by city
administrations, while others think they were issued by guilds.

Trade and Traders:

The period c. 300 BCE–300 CE saw a significant expansion of trade activity, both within the
subcontinent and between the subcontinent and other lands. Trade was facilitated by the expansion of
the money economy, and the issuing of small denominational coins by the Kushanas and
Satavahanas paved the way for the use of coins for small-scale transactions. Literary works of the
time refer to dinara (a gold coin), purana (a silver coin), and karshapana (a copper coin). In the far
south, apart from northern coins and locally made punch-marked coins and Roman denarii, there is
evidence of die-struck coins issued by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings. The Dharmashastra texts
lay down various prescriptions concerning taxes, profit, and rates of interest on loans. However, they
need not necessarily be reflective of the way trade and markets actually functioned.
The Jatakas give accounts of long caravan journeys. They mention people travelling on foot and
bullock carts, and rich people travelling in chariots and palanquins. They refer to wells and tanks
along roads, and rest houses where weary traders and travellers halted for rest and refreshment.
Sangam texts give vivid literary sketches of the markets and traders of Tamilakam. They describe the
markets of Puhar and Madurai and their sellers of flowers, garlands, aromatic powders, betel leaf,
shell bangles, jewellery, cloth, garments, wine, and bronze.
Trade continued to ply along the Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha. Other important routes
included the sea route connecting Sindh and Gujarat. The route from Rajasthan to the Deccan
followed the western foothills of the Aravalli hills. From Mathura, an important route followed the
Chambal valley to Ujjain in the Malwa region, and from there to Mahishmati in the Narmada valley.
Important trade termini in northern India included Pushkalavati in the north-west, Patala and
Bhrigukachchha in the west, and Tamralipti in the east. The Periplus refers to market towns of
western India such as Paithana (Paithan), Tagara (Ter), Suppara (Sopara), and Calliena (Kalyan).
Strabo talks of boats from the sea sailing up the Ganga to Pataliputra. Further south, the port of
Muziris (Muchiri) was important. There was active coastal trade as well. The ports on the eastern
coast gradually emerged as a signifi cant factor in India–Mediterranean maritime trade in the late 1st
or early 2nd century CE.
Literary sources mention various items involved in trade between different regions of the
subcontinent—cotton textiles from the east, west, and far south; steel weapons from Aparanta in the
west as well as from the eastern regions; horses and camels from the north-west; and elephants from
the eastern and southern regions. The Jatakas mention the merchandise for which certain cities were
famous—e.g., the silk, fine muslin, and sandalwood of Varanasi; the red blankets of Gandhara; the
woollen textiles of the Punjab; and the cotton textiles of Kashi. The Arthashastra refers to textiles of
the south. Kanchi and Madurai were renowned for their fine cotton cloth.The Pattinappalai tells us
that horses were imported from the north. Pepper was another important commodity of trade.

LONG-DISTANCE TRADE:
The Indian subcontinent was part of a larger Indian Ocean world from protohistoric times onwards.
The Jatakas mention long-distance journeys over land, river, and sea. Indian traders are described as
venturing into Suvarnadvipa (Southeast Asia), Ratnadvipa (Sri Lanka), and Baveru (Babylon).
There is also reference to ports on the western coast such as Bharukachchha, Supparaka, and Suvara
and those on the eastern coast such as Karambiya, Gambhira, and Seriva. Sangam poems talk of
yavanas bringing goods by ship into the ports of South India. The ports on the Coromandal coast were
especially important for trade with Southeast Asia. Excavations here revealed Roman pottery and
coins, as well as locally made imitations of Roman pottery and local coins. The demand for Chinese
silk in the Mediterranean region was a major stimulus to trans-regional and trans-continental trade in
this period. The existence of the Kushana empire was a stimulus to trade as it included a section of
both silk routes and also because it probably provided a modicum of safety for traders and a
reduction of tariff posts. Apart from Chinese silk, other commodities were involved in the vibrant
trade interactions and networks connecting the Indian subcontinent, central Asia, West Asia, China,
Southeast Asia, and Mediterranean Europe. Given the enormous distances involved in the transport of
some of the goods, it is not surprising that these trade networks involved many groups of traders from
different lands.
TRADE WITH EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
The period c. 200 BCE–300 CE saw an intensification of trade contacts between the Indian
subcontinent and East and Southeast Asia. Given its proximity to central Asia and the Chinese
military garrisons in the Pamirs, the area around Gandhara was of special interest to the Han emperors
of China. The intial military and political interests were, however, soon overtaken by trade and
religious exchanges with the Indian subcontinent. The commercial exchanges were dominated by silk.
The great Chinese Silk Route connected India with central Asia, West Asia, and Europe. North-west
India became an important junction for the trade between China and the Roman empire. Coral and
glass were valued commodities in China in the early centuries CE, but there is not a great deal of
archaeological evidence of Roman glassware reaching China. The important items transported from
or through India to China during this period were pearls, coral, glass, and fragrances. Silk was the
major Chinese export to India.
On the basis of literary and archaeological evidence, the following list of exports from Southeast
Asia to India can be compiled: gold, spices such as cinnamon and cloves, aromatics, sandalwood, and
camphor. Some of these items were shipped on to Western markets from India, as there was a demand
for them in the Mediterranean region as well. It is also possible that tin was exported to the
subcontinent from the Malay peninsula. Exports from India to Southeast Asia included cotton cloth,
sugar, beads, and certain kinds of pottery. The trade was clearly not confined to luxury goods.
INDO-ROMAN TRADE
The term yavana was initially used in ancient Indian texts to refer to the Greeks, but soon came to
refer to all foreigners who came from the regions lying to the west of the subcontinent. In Ashoka’s
inscriptions, the yavanas appear as a people who lived on the north-western borders of the Maurya
empire. During c. 200 BCE–300 CE, they appear as ‘westerners’ involved in trade. Early Tamil
literature frequently refers to them. Sangam poems mention their large ships sailing on the Periyar
river, bringing in gold and wine and sailing away with cargoes of black pepper.
The period between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE saw flourishing trade between India
and the Roman Empire. The large number of Roman coins have been discovered in India Most of
the coins belong to the reigns of emperors Augustus (31 BCE–14 CE) and Tiberius (14–37 CE), and
there are also imitations of these coins. There are silver coins known as denarii and gold ones known
as aurei. The silver coins are more numerous, both in Rome and India. There is a concentration of
finds in the Coimbatore area of Tamil Nadu and the Krishna valley in Andhra Pradesh. Although
some Roman coins have been found at sites in western India, they are relatively few in number. Apart
from a handful of fi nds at sites such as Taxila, Manikyala, and Mathura, scarcely any Roman coins
have been found in north India. In areas where well-established systems of currency already existed—
for instance in the Kushana and Satavahana kingdoms—Roman coins may have been melted down for
bullion, whereas in the eastern Deccan, where indigenous currency systems were weaker, they may
have been used as currency.
Apart from coins, valuable information regarding Indo-Mediterranean contacts comes from pottery.
The two types of Roman pottery found in India are amphorae jars and terra sigillata. Valuable
evidence of India’s maritime trade links comes from the site of Arikamedu on the Coromandal coast.
Locally produced pottery was found, but there were also some Mediterranean wares—amphorae and
arretine ware (which, as mentioned earlier, is now usually referred to as terra sigillata). Other sorts of
objects that may possibly be of Roman origin have also been reported—e.g., terracotta objects,
glassware, metal artefacts, and jewellery. the distribution pattern of Roman artefacts in India indicates
that while the trade was initially concentrated on the western coast, the Coromanadel coast soon
became more important. Excavations at Berenike on the Egyptian coast, which have yielded black
pepper and beads of South Indian and Sri Lankan manufacture in a 4th century CE context, reflect the
flourishing East–West trade.
THE WIDER ROLES OF TRADE AND TRADERS
Merchants appear as donors in inscriptions from different parts of the subcontinent in this period.
The increasing affluence of sections of the merchant community coincided with religious institutions
getting more institutionalized and organized. Patronizing such institutions by extending financial
support was simultaneously an expression of devotion and piety as well as a quest for the validation
of social status. It has been argued that a close relationship soon developed between Buddhist
monasteries, traders, and guilds. Liu has argued that as monasteries expanded and received more
gifts, they were forced to get involved in various kinds of financial activities, and this led to the
forging of a reciprocal relationship between monks and traders. Passing traders provided donations to
monasteries, and monasteries in turn provided services for traders. Other important issues relate to the
cultural impact of trade and trade as a vehicle of cultural transmission. Liu has demonstrated the
connections between long-distance trade, urbanization, developments in Buddhist theology, and the
spread of Buddhism in China. She shows how the demand for relics, images, and ceremonial objects
played an important sustaining role in Sino-Indian trade.
Ray too argues for links between Buddhism and trade in this period, directing attention to possible
Buddhist symbols and legends on coinage, seals, and pottery, and to the emergence of the idea of the
bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara as the saviour of travellers and seafarers. She argues that trade networks
between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia were initially dominated by trading groups
owing allegiance to Buddhism and that Buddhism spread to Southeast Asia through trading
channels.

GENDER:
Vijay Nath argues that by the time of the Smritis and Puranas, women were relegated to a position of
almost complete subordination and subservience, and were treated as items of property, on par with
Shudras. Women had a low priority among claimants to inherited property in the early Dharmasutras.
But, according to Nath, from about the 2nd century BCE, the law givers recognized and gave
prescriptions regarding women’s right to inheritance. It should be noted, however, that this only
applies to stri-dhana. According to the Manu Smriti (9.194), stri-dhana includes six types of gifts—
those received before the nuptial fi re, in the bridal procession, those given or taken as a token of love
(by her father-in-law or mother-in-law), and those received from her brother, mother, or father.
However, it did not include inherited property or even property acquired by a woman through her own
labour. Regular property rights continued to be essentially governed by rules of patrilineal inheritance.
Nath extends her argument to assert that women’s rights to inherit immoveable property were
significantly acknowledged and expanded in the later centuries (Gupta and post-Gupta periods) in
order to maintain the family’s control over property and to prevent it from escheating to (i.e., being
taken over by) the state.
Like other Dharmashastra works, the Manu Smriti prefers marriages to take place within the varna,
but acknowledges the existence of inter-varna unions and extends approval to anuloma
(hypergamous) ones. The reasons for which husbands can abandon their wives, according to the Manu
Smriti, include if the wife is notorious, afflicted with disease, addicted to alcohol, cruel, treacherous,
insubordinate, barren, a spendthrift, or harsh in speech. For women, on the other hand, lifelong
monogamy is presented as the ideal. The Manu Smriti disapproves of widow remarriage. The Manu
Smriti considers niyoga (levirate) a despicable custom, describing it as pashu dharma. While the
Dharmashastra texts contain various prescriptions about the ideal roles of women belonging to the
upper echelons of society, other texts introduce us to women from different backgrounds, associated
with different vocations. In the Pali Jatakas, apart from queens, nuns, and courtesans, we encounter
women associated with various occupations such as basket making, weaving, and dying.
Vijaya Ramaswamy has drawn attention to the many references to women and work in Sangam
poems and slightly later works, more so in rural than urban contexts. The poems mention women
engaged in agricultural activities such as planting paddy seeds and weeding. Tasks such as the
husking and winnowing of paddy were performed entirely by women. Young girls kept watch over
the agricultural fields and drove away birds and animals. Women were involved in cattle rearing and
dairy farming. The terms ayichchiyar, kovichchiyar, and idaichchiyar were used for shepherdesses. As
today, so also in early historical times, spinning was done almost entirely by women. Sangam texts
refer to women spinners as parutti pentukal. However, there are no references to women weavers.
Bleaching and washing cloth were other activities in which women were involved. There is an
interesting reference in the Purananuru to a potter woman of Venni (Vennikuyattiyar); she was also a
poetess who composed a poem on the victory of Karikala at the battle of Venni. Women were
engaged in basket making and pith work. Fisherwomen were involved in catching and selling fish and
the extraction and selling of fish oil. Men and women living in coastal areas made and sold salt.