AWSM

MAINS NOTES
2025
INDIAN SOCIETY

BOOKLET-8

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ANALYSIS: SYLLABUS AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Salient features of Indian Society, Unity in Diversity.
1. Discuss the concept of globalization and its impact on Indian society. (2016,8 marks)
2. Explain India’s unity in diversity and diversity in unity. Give suitable examples from the socio-cultural life of the
people in India. (2016,20 marks)
3. How does the celebration of the diversity of cultures help in achieving stronger unity? Explain it in the context
of Indian Society. (2021,4 marks)

2. Social Institutions: Family, Marriage, Kinship, Religion and Social stratification in India.
1. Critically examine the ‘animistic’and ‘naturalistic’ theories of religion? (2016,8 marks)
2. Discuss the meaning and types of Kinship system. (2017,4 marks)
3. Give your comments on causes and consequences of inter caste marriage in India. (2017,4marks)
4. How does religiosity convert into communalism? Give your comments on it with suitable examples. (2017,8
marks)
5. Discuss the universal basis of social stratification. Critically examine the different approaches of it. (2017,20
marks)
6. Which are the main bases of social stratification in India? (2018,4 marks)
7. Write a comprehensive note on the changes taking place in the institutions of marriage, family and Kinship in
India. (2018,20 marks)
8. Explain the rules of endogamy and exogamy. (2019,4 marks)
9. How do the rules of Descent and alliance of Kinship differ from each other? Illustrate. (2020,8 marks)
10. Why is gender dimension of social stratification? How does gender intersect other dimensions of inequality
based on class, race and ethnicity? (2020,20 marks)
11. Critically examine the gender dimensions of the stratification system in Indian society. Do you think legal
measures are enough for women’s empowerment or do we need to also invest in social awareness campaigns?
(2021,8 marks)
12. Discuss the changing patterns of the marriage system among the tribes. Also, underline the reasons leading to
these changes. (2021,8 marks)
13. The thesis that rural is about caste and urban is about class is too Simplistic. Give your views on this statement.
(2022,8 marks)
14. Joint family system even in the rural areas is getting nuclearized. What are the main reasons for this. (2022,8
marks.)
15. Caste system in India is not uniformly defined or operational. How do you think the caste system in Himachal
Pradesh is different from its neighboring states? (2024, 8 marks)
3. Women empowerment and social justice: Policies for women Empowerment in India, Laws for protection of
women, women security and safety initiatives in India.
1. Briefly discuss the relationship between social justice and empowerment of women. (2018,4 marks)
2. Examine the protection of women from Domestic Violence Act. (2019,8 marks)
3. Do you think a healthier and proportional representation of women in decision-making bodies will ensure a
more just and equitable society? Substantiate your arguments with suitable example. (2024, 8 marks)
4. Child Rights and Right to Education.
1. Which are the main features of the Right to Education Act? (2018,4 marks)
2. What is the situation of child rights in India? Comment. (2018,8 marks)
3. Examine various reasons for declining child sex ratio in India. (2018,8 marks)

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5. Rights of differently-able persons and quality of life for them.
1. Do you think different measures taken by Central Govt. for upliftment of differently able persons of society,
justified? Comment on it. (2017,8 marks)
2. Discuss the impact of legal provisions for differently-abled people in India. (2018,8 marks)
3. How rights of differently-able persons have able to improve the quality of life for themselves? (2020,4 marks)

QUESTION BANK
1. There are various forms of diversity in India along with the factors that facilitate unity amongst such diversity.
Analyze the above statement.
2. How does Indian society maintain continuity in traditional social values? Enumerate the changes taking place in it.
3. To what extent is Indian culture resilient to westernization and globalization?
4. How Modernization is different from Westernization.
5. Even though globalization has led to increased employment opportunities for women, it has also created a new set of
challenges for women workers. Discuss with examples.
6. Critically evaluate the significance of steps taken to empower Indian women and weaken the grip of patriarchy
around them.
7. Examine the multidimensional impact of Globalization on tribal development in India.
8. “Indian society has witnessed a breakdown of the joint family system.” Discuss the reasons behind it. Analyze the
emerging trends that can be seen in the institution of family in recent times.
9. Regionalism is a threat to maintaining ‘unity in diversity’ in India.” Critically Analyse the given statement.
10. Even as the caste system has weakened in recent times, caste- b a s e d identity has strengthened particularly in the
wake of democratic politics in India. Comment.
11. Caste is a prominent factor in the Social stratification of Indian society. Comment
12. Write a short note on functions of family institution.
13. Discuss various implications of declining child sex ratio on India.
14. Analyze the major challenges and obstacles hindering the implementation of a Uniform Civil Code in India?
15. What are Rights of differently-able persons? Also write step taken by government of India to improve the quality
of life for them.
16. Explain the features of Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 2016.
17. List out the initiatives taken by government for women safety and security in India.
18. Discuss the provisions of Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016.
19. Critically analyze the challenges related with care for the elderly in both public and private life.
20. What do you understand by Kinship? Describe the types, degrees, function and importance of Kinship.
21. Discuss the implications of a declining sex ratio and Meta son preference for India.
22. Which are the main features of the Right to Education Act?
23. Explain the social stratification in India.
24. What are the salient features of Indian Society?
25. Discuss various schemes and provision related to child right in India.
26. What is gender role stereotyping?
27. The women’s organizations play an important role in ensuring social justice for women in India. Explain?
28. Marriage and family institutions in India are marked by continuity as well as change. Discuss.
29. Law has its own limitations in bringing social change. In this context, critically evaluate the efficacy of steps taken to
empower women and weaken the grip of patriarchy around them.
30. What are the various challenges faced by Persons with Disabilities in India? Highlight the measures taken by the
government for the welfare of Persons with Disabilities.

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31. Examine the specificities of Indian culture and society. What are the changes that you observe in society over
recent decades?
32. While various government initiatives and policies have created opportunities for Self Help Groups (SHGs), there are
challenges that still persist. Discuss.
33. Write the significance of the Right to Education Act, of 2009 in India’s education landscape.
34. Discuss the issues faced by children at shelter homes for homeless children. Also write the provisions of the Juvenile
Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 that governs these shelters and suggest some measures to
deal with the issues faced by children.
35. The caste system in India is marked by continuity and change. Elucidate
36. Apart from economic compulsions, migration has many underlying social causes. Highlighting the social causes
of migration, discuss its impact on rural and urban societies.
37. What does the term LGBTQ mean? What are the problems faced by this community? Critically comment on the
steps taken by the Government to bring them on equal footing with mainstream society.

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SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

“India is the cradle of the Human race.” — Mark Twain

Introduction
¾ Indian society is a grand synthesis of multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-ideological constructs, shaped by the ethos
of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’.
¾ R M Maclver defined society as a “web of social relations which is always changing” where an individual forms the
basic unit of it.

Characteristics of Indian Society

1. Village Life: Villages are an integral part of Indian society, characterized by close-knit communities where traditional
customs and social structures often remain strong. Village life emphasizes community cohesion, mutual support, and
collective decision-making.
2. Rural Society: Rural India constitutes a significant portion of the population, with distinct socio-economic dynamics
compared to urban areas. It often faces challenges such as lack of infrastructure, limited access to education and
healthcare, and dependency on agriculture.
3. Agriculture: Agriculture has traditionally been the backbone of India’s economy, employing a large percentage of the
workforce. The agricultural sector is diverse, ranging from subsistence farming to commercial farming, and faces
challenges such as land fragmentation, water scarcity, and fluctuations in crop yields.
4. Joint Family System: Traditionally, Indian society values the concept of extended families living together. The joint
family system emphasizes close-knit relationships, mutual support, and collective decision-making.
5. Caste System: The caste system has been a significant social structure in India, although its influence has diminished
over time. It categorizes people into hierarchical groups based on birth, traditionally influencing social interactions
and occupations.
6. Cultural Diversity: The co-existence of multi-lingual, multiethnic and multi-caste groups within the border of India.
For instance, around 1600 languages are spoken across the country.
7. Religious Pluralism: India is known for its religious tolerance and pluralism, with major religions such as Hinduism,
Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and others coexisting peacefully. This diversity contributes to a multi-
religious and multicultural society.
8. Co-existence of Individualism and collectivism: Individualism emphasizes human independence, self-reliance and
liberty, while collectivism prioritizes a group.
™ For example, constitutional values of secularism, and liberty as enshrined in the Preamble.
9. Gender Roles and Patriarchy: Traditional gender roles often emphasize the importance of family, with distinct
expectations for men and women. Patriarchal norms have historically shaped social structures, though there are
ongoing changes with increased emphasis on gender equality and women’s empowerment.
10. Economic Diversity: India’s economy encompasses a wide spectrum, from traditional agricultural practices to modern
industries and technology hubs. Economic disparities persist, contributing to socio-economic challenges.
11. Language Diversity: India is multilingual, with hundreds of languages spoken across the country. Hindi and English
serve as official languages at the national level, but each state also has its own official language(s).
12. Globalization and Modernization: Rapid urbanization, globalization, and technological advancements have brought
about social changes, influencing lifestyles, aspirations, and cultural practices.
13. Political Diversity: India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic, where political diversity is reflected in its
multi-party system and varying political ideologies.
14. Secularism: India’s constitution promotes secularism, ensuring religious freedom and equal treatment of all religions
by the state.

These features collectively shape the dynamic and complex fabric of Indian society, showcasing both its challenges and its
resilience in adapting to changing global and domestic landscapes.

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Unity and Diversity

“Unity in diversity” is a phrase used to describe the variety and uniqueness found within a group or society while
emphasizing the importance of harmony and togetherness among its members. In the context of India, it signifies:
1. Cultural Plurality:
™ Festivals: India celebrates numerous festivals such as Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Holi, and Durga Puja, each
reflecting regional and religious diversity.
™ Art and Architecture: From the intricacies of Mughal architecture to the classical dance forms like
Bharatanatyam and Kathak, India’s artistic expressions vary widely across regions.
™ Cuisine: Indian cuisine showcases diverse flavors and cooking styles, ranging from spicy curries in the south to
rich Mughlai dishes in the north.
2. Linguistic Diversity:
™ India recognizes 22 languages under the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, with Hindi and English serving as
official languages.
™ Each state often has its own state language, such as Tamil in Tamil Nadu, Bengali in West Bengal, and
Marathi in Maharashtra, contributing to linguistic diversity.
3. Religious Harmony:
™ India’s secular constitution ensures freedom of religion, fostering a spirit of tolerance and mutual respect
among diverse religious communities.
™ Religious sites like the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the Basilica of Bom Jesus in
Goa attract followers from different faiths.
4. Regional Variance:
™ Each Indian state exhibits unique cultural practices, attire, and traditions. For instance, Kerala’s Kathakali
dance contrasts with Gujarat’s Garba during Navratri.
™ Music genres like Carnatic in the south and Hindustani in the north highlight regional artistic distinctions.
5. Historical Unity:
™ India’s history includes ancient civilizations like the Harappan civilization and contributions to mathematics
by scholars like Aryabhata and Bhaskara.
™ Independence movements led by Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders united Indians against British colonial
rule, shaping a shared nationalist identity.
6. Political Unity:
™ India’s federal structure comprises 28 states and 8 union territories, united under a democratic framework.
™ The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, guarantees fundamental rights and principles of justice, equality,
and liberty for all citizens.
7. Celebration of Differences:
™ Cultural exchanges and initiatives like the Kumbh Mela, where millions gather regardless of caste or creed,
demonstrate India’s inclusive ethos.
™ Interfaith dialogues and communal harmony efforts promote understanding and respect across religious
boundaries.

India’s unity in diversity is not just a slogan but a lived reality, where the coexistence of multiple cultures, languages, religions,
and traditions enriches the nation’s social fabric and strengthens its identity on the global stage.

Social Institutions
¾ Social institutions are structures of society which guide and shape the expected behaviour of individuals and help to
build and sustain the society itself.
¾ Social institutions consist of kinship, family, marriage, educational institutions and so on.
¾ They constrain and control, punish and reward the individuals of society.

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FAMILY

In sociology, the family is defined as a social institution that typically consists of a group of individuals related by blood,
marriage, or adoption, who live together and cooperate economically, care for any children, and consider their identity to
be significantly attached to the group.

Sociologists study the family to understand how it shapes and is shaped by broader social structures, norms, and inequalities
within societies.

It is the first and the most immediate social environment to which a child is exposed. No other social institution appears
more universal and unchanging.

Functions of Family
¾ Procreation: The production and rearing of children is one of the most essential functions of the family.
¾ Provides shelter: Family provides comfort, protection, space and peace to its members.
¾ Socialization: The family is the first institution to provide socialisation.
¾ Economic functions: Family has become a consuming unit over producing unit. Members are engaged in earning
wages to ensure socio-economic well-being.
¾ Educational functions: The family provides the child with the basic training in social attitudes and habits which are
essential to participating in social life.
¾ Religious functions: The family is a centre for religious training, providing spiritual needs and passing on religious
inheritance to the next generation.

Its functions can be broadly categorized into primary and secondary functions.

Primary Functions of Family

These are essential, universal functions that are crucial for the survival and continuity of society:
¾ Biological/Reproductive Function
™ The family ensures the biological reproduction of society by producing and raising children.
¾ Emotional Support and Socialization
™ The family provides love, security, and emotional support to its members.
™ It is the primary agency for the socialization of children, transmitting cultural values, norms, language, and
traditions from one generation to the next.
¾ Protection and Care
™ The family protects its members, especially children, the elderly, and the sick, offering physical and psychological
security.
¾ Regulation of Sexual Behaviour
™ The family regulates sexual relations and establishes socially approved relationships, thus maintaining social order
and morality.
¾ Economic Support (in traditional settings)
™ Traditionally, the family was the basic economic unit, with all members contributing to and sharing resources.

Secondary Functions of Family

These functions, while significant, are not unique to the family and can be performed by other institutions in modern
society:
¾ Educational Function
™ The family provides informal education, teaching children basic skills, values, and social etiquette before formal
schooling begins.

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¾ Religious Function
™ The family introduces and nurtures religious beliefs, practices, and rituals, and often acts as the primary unit for
the observance of religious ceremonies.
¾ Recreational Function
™ The family offers opportunities for recreation and leisure, such as celebrating festivals, family gatherings, and
shared hobbies.
¾ Social Status and Identity
™ The family determines the social status, caste, and identity of an individual in Indian society, influencing marriage,
occupation, and social interactions.
¾ Economic Cooperation
™ In many Indian families, especially in rural and joint family systems, members cooperate economically, pooling
resources and sharing responsibilities.
¾ Care of the Elderly
™ The family is traditionally responsible for the care and support of elderly members, a role still significant in Indian
society.

In India, the family remains a vital institution, adapting to modern changes while continuing to fulfill both its primary and
secondary functions. Its role in socialization, emotional support, and cultural continuity is especially significant, even as
some secondary functions are increasingly shared with or taken over by other institutions in contemporary society.

Theoretical Perspectives on Family:

1. Functionalism: Emphasizes the functions of family in maintaining social stability and cohesion. It views family as
a system where each member plays a role to maintain balance and order.
2. Conflict Theory: Highlights power dynamics and inequalities within families and society. It examines how family
structures and functions may perpetuate or challenge social inequalities based on class, gender, and race.
3. Feminist Perspectives: Critically analyze gender roles and power relations within families. They highlight how
patriarchal norms and expectations shape family dynamics and constrain women’s autonomy.

Indian Family System

In India, family holds a central place in social structure and daily life. In Hindu tradition, the concept of Grihastha Ashram
refers to the stage of life associated with householders or married individuals, focusing on family life and responsibilities.

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The Indian family system is characterized by:
1. Joint Family: Historically prevalent, where extended families live together under one roof, often led by the eldest male
member (patriarch). It emphasizes unity, mutual support, and pooling of resources.
2. Changing Dynamics: While joint families are still found in rural areas and certain urban settings, nuclear families are
increasingly common due to urbanization, education, and career opportunities.
3. Role of Gender: Traditional gender roles are significant, with distinct expectations for men and women within
the family.

Merits of the joint family system

¾ Ensures economic progress: The joint family meets the basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter of its members.
¾ Advantage of division of labor: Every member in the family is given the advantage of division of labour.
¾ Social insurance: The joint family acts as a social insurance for the old, sick and incapable.
¾ Helps social control: By exercising control over the behaviour of its members. The individuals are taught to subordinate
their individual interests to family interests.
¾ Better Child Rearing: Children are nurtured not only by parents but also by grandparents, uncles, and aunts.
Encourages moral development and balanced socialization.
¾ Promotes psychological security: The joint family, through creating a harmonious atmosphere in the family,
contributes to the development of social solidarity.
¾ Value Transmission: Ensures transmission of cultural values, traditions, discipline, and respect for elders. Promotes
collective living and social responsibility.

Demerits of joint family system

¾ Frequent Conflicts: Different opinions and lifestyles among many members often cause disputes over finances, chores,
and child-rearing.
¾ Financial Strain/Unequal Burden: Earning members may feel burdened supporting non-earning relatives, hindering
personal savings.
¾ Restricted Individual Freedom: Personal aspirations, career choices, and independent decisions can be stifled by
family expectations or elder dominance.
¾ Undermines the status of women: In patriarchal joint families, women have only secondary roles and are not given
sufficient freedom to express and to develop their personality.
¾ Resistance to Change: Older generations can be resistant to modern ideas, hindering adaptation and progress.
¾ Delays in Decision-Making: Major decisions often require group discussion, slowing down important choices and
causing frustration among younger or more ambitious members.
¾ Economic Issues and Lethargy: Since all earnings are pooled and distributed equally regardless of individual
contribution, there is often a lack of incentive to work harder. Some may become idle and depend on others, reducing
the overall economic productivity of the family.

However, there are ongoing shifts towards more egalitarian relationships and women’s empowerment.
1. Cultural Significance: Family rituals, festivals, and ceremonies reinforce familial bonds and cultural traditions. These
practices strengthen intergenerational ties and preserve cultural heritage.
2. Modern Influences: Globalization, education, and economic changes have influenced family dynamics, contributing to
evolving norms and practices within Indian families.

Understanding the family from sociological perspectives helps illuminate its complex roles, structures, and functions
within societies like India, where traditional values coexist with modern influences, shaping familial relationships and
societal norms.

Types of Family:
1. Nuclear Family: Consists of parents and their children living together. It is common in modern industrial societies
and often associated with greater mobility and independence.

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2. Extended Family: Includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, living
together or in close proximity. It provides a broader support network.
3. Single-Parent Family: Headed by one parent due to divorce, separation, death, or personal choice. Single-parent
families face unique challenges but can be resilient and supportive.
4. Blended Family: Formed when two adults with children from previous relationships marry or cohabit. It involves
integrating different family units into a new household structure.
5. Childless Family: Couples without children by choice or due to infertility. Their focus may be on careers,
personal goals, or other relationships.

Based on residence patterns, authority structures, and inheritance practices, families can be classified into various
types.

Based on Residence Patterns:

1. Patrilocal Family: The family structure where a married couple lives with or near the husband’s parents or
paternal relatives. Common in many traditional societies where patrilineal descent and inheritance are significant.
2. Matrilocal Family: The family structure where a married couple lives with or near the wife’s parents or maternal
relatives. Found in some matrilineal societies where descent and inheritance follow the maternal line. Nairs in Kerala,
Khasis in Meghalaya.
3. Neolocal Family: The family structure where a married couple establishes their own independent household separate
from both sets of parents. Predominant in modern urban societies where individual autonomy and privacy are valued.

Based on Authority Structures:

1. Patriarchal Family: Family authority and decision-making are primarily vested in the eldest male, often
the father or grandfather. Common in traditional societies where men hold dominant roles in economic, social, and
political matters.
2. Matriarchal Family: Family authority and decision-making are primarily vested in the eldest female, such as the
mother or grandmother. Found in some societies where women have significant influence in familial and community
affairs.
3. Egalitarian Family: Family authority and decision-making are shared equally or more equally between partners,
regardless of gender. Increasingly common in modern Western societies, emphasizing equality in marital relationships
and parenting.

Based on Inheritance Practices:

1. Patrilineal Family: Descent and inheritance are traced through the male line, with property and status typically passed
from father to son. Found in many patriarchal societies where lineage and familial identity are determined through
the male line.
2. Matrilineal Family: Descent and inheritance are traced through the female line, with property and status passed
from mother to daughter. Practiced in some societies where women hold significant familial and economic roles,
influencing inheritance patterns.
3. Bilateral Family: Descent and inheritance are not strictly traced through either male or female lines but may consider
both sides of the family equally. Common in modern societies where legal systems often accommodate inheritance
rights for both paternal and maternal relatives.

These classifications illustrate the diversity of family structures worldwide, reflecting cultural norms, economic conditions,
and historical practices that shape familial relationships, roles, and responsibilities within societies

CHANGES IN FAMILY STRUCTURE IN INDIA

Indian Society was defined by its joint family system unique all over the world. In modern day this is replaced by nuclear
family system leading to more individualism. Many factors like urbanisation, education etc has caused more nuclearization
and change in Indian family system.

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Factors Responsible for Changes in Family Structure
¾ Urbanization and Industrialization
™ Migration to cities for jobs and education has led to the breakdown of traditional joint families and the rise of
nuclear families.
9 Example: Cities like Bengaluru and Pune have seen a surge in nuclear families as young professionals migrate
for jobs, leaving behind extended family setups.
¾ Economic Changes
™ Increased income opportunities, women’s participation in the workforce, and new patterns of saving and
investment have altered family roles and dependencies.
9 Example: A 2024 RBI report notes that dual-income nuclear families are increasingly common in metropolitan
areas, with both spouses working and making independent financial decisions.
¾ Education and Modern Values
™ Higher educational attainment, especially among women, has promoted values of individualism, gender equality,
and delayed marriage, affecting traditional family arrangements.
9 Example: Data from the National Family Health Survey shows a rise in the average age of marriage and a
decline in fertility rates, especially among educated women.
¾ Globalization
™ Exposure to global lifestyles and values has influenced attitudes towards marriage, gender roles, and
intergenerational living.
9 Example: The influence of global media and exposure to Western lifestyles has led to greater acceptance of
live-in relationships and inter-cultural marriages, especially among urban youth in cities like Mumbai and
Delhi.
¾ Legal and Policy Reforms
™ Laws supporting women’s rights, LGBTQIA+ rights, and protection from domestic violence have redefined family
norms and structures.
9 Example: The Supreme Court’s 2023 judgment recognizing the rights of live-in partners and the 2024
expansion of inheritance rights for daughters have contributed to more diverse family forms and empowered
women within families.
¾ Technological Advancements
™ Communication technology enables family members to stay connected despite physical distance, but also supports
independent living.
9 Example: The proliferation of smartphones and affordable internet (over 800 million users in 2025) enables
family members to stay connected virtually, even when living apart. Apps for elder care and online counseling
have made independent living more feasible for seniors.
¾ Changing Social Norms
™ Acceptance of inter-caste, interfaith, and love marriages, as well as growing recognition of non-traditional families,
has diversified family forms.
9 Example: A 2023 Pew Research Center survey found that over 60% of urban Indians support inter-caste and
interfaith marriages, reflecting a shift in attitudes towards traditional family boundaries.
¾ Pandemic Effects
™ COVID-19 accelerated remote work, changed caregiving roles, and sometimes led to temporary reunification of
extended families.
9 Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many urban professionals returned to their hometowns,
temporarily reviving joint family living. However, remote work has since allowed more young families to
relocate independently, furthering nuclearization.

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Actual Changes in Family Structure
¾ Decline of the Joint Family System
™ The traditional joint family, where several generations lived together, is declining, especially in urban areas.
Nuclear families (parents and children only) are now the norm in cities and increasingly in rural areas.
¾ Rise of Nuclear and Single-Parent Families
™ Nuclear families are more common due to urban migration, job transfers, and a desire for privacy and autonomy.
Single-parent families have increased due to divorce, separation, or choice.
¾ Changing Gender Roles
™ Women’s increased educational attainment and workforce participation have shifted traditional gender roles,
leading to more egalitarian family relationships and shared responsibilities.
¾ Shift in Marriage Patterns
™ There is a trend toward later marriages, smaller families, and increased acceptance of inter-caste, interfaith, and
love marriages. The spousal age gap is influenced by education and economic status, especially in urban areas.
¾ Recognition of Non-Traditional Families
™ There is growing visibility and advocacy for LGBTQIA+ families, though legal and social acceptance remains
limited.
¾ Changing Sibling Dynamics
™ Sibling relationships are evolving due to greater autonomy, higher mobility, and changing communication
patterns, influenced by education and career transitions.
¾ Elderly Care
™ With nuclearization, care for the elderly is becoming a challenge, leading to the rise of old-age homes and
professional caregiving services.

Family structures in India are undergoing significant transformation, driven by urbanization, economic changes, education,
globalization, and evolving social norms. While the joint family system is declining, nuclear, single-parent, and non-
traditional families are on the rise. These changes reflect both the challenges and adaptability of Indian society in the 21st
century.

MARRIAGE

Marriage is a socially recognized union between individuals that establishes rights and obligations between them, as well
as between them and their children, and in-laws. It is a fundamental institution across cultures, serving various functions
and evolving in response to societal changes.

Marriage holds deep cultural and religious significance in Hindu tradition, guided by ancient texts and rituals that
shape its practice and symbolism. Marriage, known as “Vivaha” or “Kalyanam,” is considered a sacred union that
transcends individual lives, uniting two souls on a spiritual journey towards Dharma (righteousness), Artha (prosperity),
Kama (desire), and Moksha (liberation).

Hindu marriage is regarded as one of the 16 essential rituals (samskaras) in one’s life, marking a significant transition and
commitment to fulfill familial and societal duties.

Functions of Marriage:
1. Socialization: Marriage contributes to the socialization of children, providing a stable environment for their
upbringing and instilling cultural values and norms.
2. Legal and Social Status: Marriage confers legal rights and privileges, such as inheritance rights, decision-making
authority, and access to healthcare and social benefits.
3. Social Regulation: Marriage provides a socially approved framework for sexual relations, ensuring stability and
order in society by regulating sexual behavior.

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4. Reproduction and Kinship: Marriage facilitates reproduction and establishes kinship ties, defining familial
relationships and roles within society.
5. Emotional and Economic Support: It offers emotional intimacy, companionship, and mutual support between
partners. Marriage often involves pooling of economic resources and responsibilities for household maintenance.

Types of Marriage:
¾ Based on the Number of Partners Involved:
™ Monogamy: At a given time, a man or woman remains married to only one woman or man.
™ Polygamy: More than one spouse at a given time.

There are two types of polygamy:

¾ Polygyny: One man is married to more than one woman at a given time. It is present in Baigas and Gonds of India.
¾ Polyandry: When one woman marries several men at a given time. It is still prevalent in Indian tribes including, Toda,
Kota, Khasa and Ladhaki Bota.
¾ Based on Spouse Selection:
™ Endogamy: Marriage within one caste, sub-caste, and tribe. For instance, Indian arrange marriage is based on
caste endogamy.
™ Exogamy: Marriage outside one’s kins group. For instance, India practice gotra exogamy, i.e., one cannot marry
individual belonging to the same gotra.
¾ Contemporary Types of Marriage:
™ Companionship Marriage: Marriage is based on a need for companionship.
™ Open Marriage: Marriage in which both partners concur that having an extramarital connection is acceptable
and will not be viewed as infidelity

Theoretical Perspectives on Marriage:

1. Functionalism: Views marriage as a social institution that contributes to societal stability by fulfilling essential
functions such as regulating sexual behavior, reproducing and socializing children, and providing emotional and
economic support.
2. Conflict Theory: Analyzes marriage as a site of power struggles and inequality, particularly regarding gender roles,
economic disparities, and access to resources within marital relationships.
3. Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on how individuals negotiate and construct meanings of marriage through everyday
interactions, examining how roles, identities, and expectations are shaped and maintained within marital relationships.
4. Feminist Perspectives: Critically examine marriage as a patriarchal institution that historically subordinates women,
perpetuates gender inequalities, and limits women’s autonomy and opportunities for personal and professional
development.

CHANGE IN MARRIAGE SYSTEM

Factors Responsible for Changes in Marriage Structure

¾ Urbanization and Economic Independence
Urbanization has led to migration from rural to urban areas, exposing individuals to diverse cultures and lifestyles.
Economic independence, especially among women, has shifted marriage from a family-controlled institution to a
partnership based on compatibility and shared responsibilities.
™ Example: In cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru, dual-income couples are now common, with both spouses
working and sharing domestic responsibilities, a trend rarely seen in traditional rural joint families.
¾ Education and Changing Aspirations
Higher education, particularly for women, has raised aspirations for personal development and career, resulting in
delayed marriages, smaller families, and a preference for choosing one’s own partner.

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™ Example: NFHS shows the average age at marriage for women has risen to over 23 years, compared to 19.3 years
in 2005–06, reflecting the pursuit of higher education and careers before marriage.
¾ Legal and Policy Reforms
™ Progressive legal reforms have empowered individuals to exercise greater autonomy in marital decisions. Laws
now protect women’s rights to property, divorce, and remarriage, and recognize live-in relationships.
™ Example: The Supreme Court’s 2023 recognition of live-in relationships and the expansion of inheritance rights
for daughters have enabled more individuals to make independent marital choices.
¾ Decline of Caste and Community Barriers
™ Social taboos around inter-caste and interfaith marriages are weakening, especially in urban areas, due to increased
social mobility, education, and exposure to diverse environments.
9 Example: A 2023 Pew Research Center survey found that over 30% of marriages in metropolitan areas are
now inter-caste or interfaith, a significant rise from previous decades.
¾ Globalization and Exposure to New Values
™ Global media, travel, and digital connectivity have introduced new ideas about relationships, love, and marriage,
leading to greater acceptance of love marriages and non-traditional unions.
9 Example: Urban youth in cities like Delhi and Pune are more open to live-in relationships and intercultural
marriages, influenced by global trends and media.
¾ Technology and Matrimonial Platforms
™ Online matrimonial sites and dating apps have revolutionized how people meet and choose partners, giving
individuals more autonomy and choice in the marriage process.
9 Example: Platforms like Shaadi.com and Bumble reported record user growth in 2024–25, with many
couples meeting online before marrying.
¾ Changing Gender Roles
™ Increasing female workforce participation and changing societal attitudes have led to more egalitarian marriages,
with shared domestic and financial responsibilities.
9 Example: In 2025, female workforce participation in urban India rose to 27%, leading to marriages where
both partners contribute to household income and decision-making.
¾ Social Movements and Awareness
™ Campaigns against dowry, child marriage, and domestic violence, supported by NGOs and legal reforms, have
reduced the prevalence of such practices and changed public attitudes toward marriage.
9 Example: NFHS-6 data shows a marked decline in reported dowry and child marriage cases, especially in
states with strong legal enforcement and active social campaigns.

Actual Changes in Marriage Structure in Contemporary India

¾ Increase in Age at Marriage
™ The median age at first marriage has increased, reflecting delayed marriages due to education and career priorities.
9 Example: NFHS reports the median age of marriage for women is now over 23 years.
¾ Rise of Love Marriages and Inter-Caste/Interfaith Unions
™ There is a growing trend toward love marriages and inter-caste/interfaith unions, especially in urban areas.
9 Example: In metropolitan cities like Delhi and Hyderabad, love marriages and inter-caste/interfaith unions
now account for over one-third of all registered marriages.
¾ Acceptance of Live-in Relationships and Non-Traditional Partnerships
™ Legal and social acceptance of live-in relationships and same-sex partnerships is increasing, especially among
urban youth.

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9 Example: The 2023 Supreme Court ruling on live-in relationships has led to greater societal acceptance,
particularly in metropolitan cities.
¾ Decline in Arranged Marriages (Though Still Prevalent)
™ While arranged marriages remain dominant, there is a clear shift toward greater individual choice and consent.
9 Example: Many “arranged” marriages now involve significant input from the prospective bride and groom,
with families acting as facilitators rather than decision-makers.
¾ Changing Rituals and Ceremonies
™ Weddings are becoming smaller, more personalized, and less ritualistic, with a focus on sustainability and
individuality.
9 Example: Urban weddings increasingly feature eco-friendly practices and destination events, moving away
from traditional, elaborate ceremonies.
¾ Increasing Divorce Rates
™ Divorce rates, while still low by global standards, are rising, especially in urban areas, reflecting changing attitudes
toward marital breakdown and greater legal awareness.
9 Example: The divorce rate in urban India has doubled in the last decade, with more couples seeking separation
due to incompatibility rather than social stigma.
¾ Individualization and Personal Choice: Shift towards marriages based on personal fulfillment, companionship, and
shared interests rather than solely economic or social considerations.
¾ Reduction in Dowry and Child Marriage
™ There is a steady decline in dowry and child marriage cases, especially in states with strong legal enforcement and
social campaigns.
9 Example: NFHS data shows a significant decrease in reported dowry and child marriage cases in states like
Kerala and Maharashtra.
¾ Recognition of Same-Sex Unions
™ Same-sex partnerships are increasingly visible and accepted in urban India, following progressive court judgments
and advocacy.
9 Example: While not yet legally recognized as marriage, same-sex partnerships are more visible in cities like
Mumbai and Bengaluru, with pride parades and advocacy events gaining support.

The marriage structure in India is undergoing rapid transformation, driven by urbanization, education, legal reforms,
globalization, technology, and changing social values. These changes are reflected in delayed marriages, increased autonomy
in partner choice, acceptance of non-traditional unions, and a decline in regressive practices—especially in urban and
progressive regions. Traditional arranged marriages persist, but their nature is evolving to accommodate individual
preferences and contemporary realities.

LIVE-IN RELATIONSHIPS

A live-in relationship is an arrangement where two people choose to live together as partners without being legally married.
They share responsibilities and daily life, similar to a married couple, but without formalizing the relationship through
marriage.

Advantages of Live-in Relationships

¾ Compatibility Check
™ Living together allows couples to understand each other’s habits, values, and compatibility before deciding on
marriage.
¾ Test for Marriage
™ Couples can experience the realities of partnership—such as managing finances and household chores without
immediate family or societal pressure.

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¾ Easier Separation
™ Unlike divorce, which can be a lengthy and emotionally taxing process, ending a live-in relationship is simpler
and less bureaucratic.
¾ Promotes Unity in Diversity
™ Live-in relationships often cross cultural, religious, or caste boundaries, fostering understanding and unity in a
diverse society.

Disadvantages of Live-in Relationships

¾ Social Stigma and Mental Distress
™ Couples may face judgment, discrimination, and lack of acceptance from neighbours, landlords, and society at
large.
9 Example: Finding rental accommodation for unmarried couples remains a challenge in many Indian cities.
¾ Status of Children
™ While courts now recognize children born from live-in relationships as legitimate, these children may still face
social stigma and emotional stress due to societal attitudes.
9 Example: Studies indicate children from such relationships often feel isolated or face questions about their
parentage.
¾ Lack of Commitment
™ Live-in relationships may lack the perceived permanence of marriage, leading to insecurity or instability for some
partners.
¾ Challenges for Single Mothers
™ Single mothers from live-in relationships may face greater social and financial challenges, especially in conservative
communities.
¾ Lack of Family Support
™ Most families in India still do not support live-in relationships, leaving couples without the social safety net that
married couples often enjoy.

Legal Aspects
¾ Legitimacy of Children
™ The Supreme Court (Kattukandi Edathil Krishnan & Another Vs Kattukandi Edathil Valsan & Others, 2022)
reaffirmed that children born from live-in relationships are legitimate and have inheritance rights.
¾ Right to Alimony
™ Women in live-in relationships are eligible for maintenance/alimony, as per the Punjab and Haryana High Court
(Ajay Bhardwaj Vs Jyotsana, 2016) and subsequent Supreme Court clarifications.
¾ No Illegality
™ The Supreme Court (Lata Singh Vs State of UP, 2006) and subsequent judgments have held that live-in relationships
between consenting adults are not illegal in India.
¾ Domestic Violence Protection
™ The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, extends protection to women in live-in relationships,
ensuring their right to seek legal remedy in cases of abuse.
¾ Recent Developments
™ Several High Courts have directed police protection for live-in couples facing threats from families.
™ However, there is still no comprehensive national law governing live-in relationships, leading to ambiguity in
matters like property rights, custody, and inheritance.

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Present Scenario
¾ Legal Status
™ Live-in relationships are legally recognized for Hindus and most secular citizens, with rights for women and
children. However, under Muslim personal law, live-in relationships are not recognized, leading to legal uncertainty
for Muslim couples.
¾ Need for Legislation
™ The lack of a uniform legal framework means rights and protections can vary. There is increasing demand for
clarity through a Uniform Civil Code or a dedicated law on cohabitation.
¾ Social Trends
™ Acceptance is growing in urban India, especially among the youth and educated middle class, but stigma remains
strong in rural and conservative areas.

Conclusion

Live-in relationships in India are increasingly common, especially in urban areas, offering couples flexibility and a chance
to test compatibility before marriage. While legal recognition and protections have improved, social acceptance and
comprehensive legislation are still evolving. The debate around a Uniform Civil Code and further legal reforms continues
to shape the future of live-in relationships in India.

KINSHIP

Kinship refers to the web of social relationships that are based on blood ties (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity), forming
the foundation of family structures and social organization in societies.

Kinship encompasses relationships of descent (parent-child), marriage (spouse), and adoption, defining roles, responsibilities,
and rights within families and communities.

Functions of Kinship:
1. Social Organization: Kinship systems organize individuals into social groups (families, clans, lineages) based on
shared ancestry and reciprocal obligations.
2. Support and Cooperation: Kinship provides emotional support, economic cooperation, and mutual aid among
relatives, ensuring survival and well-being.
3. Identity and Belonging: It shapes personal identity, cultural belonging, and social status through inherited roles,
responsibilities, and privileges.

Types of Kinship:
1. Consanguineal Kinship: Based on blood ties through descent:
™ Lineal Kinship: Direct descent relationships (parent-child, grandparent-grandchild).
™ Collateral Kinship: Extended family relationships (siblings, cousins).
2. Affinal Kinship: Based on marriage ties:
™ Affinity: Relationships through marriage (spouses, in-laws).
3. Fictive Kinship: Non-biological relationships based on symbolic ties (e.g., godparents, ritual kin).

Degrees of Kinship:

The degree of kinship refers to the level of relationship or closeness between individuals within a kinship system. It is
typically measured by tracing genealogical connections and identifying the specific lineage through which individuals are
related.

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Calculating Degrees of Kinship:

Degrees of kinship are often calculated based on the number of intervening generations or links between individuals
in a kinship diagram. For example:
1. First Degree: Direct descendants (parent-child, grandparent-grandchild). These are typically considered primary kin
relationships because they involve direct descent or ascent relationships.
2. Second Degree: Siblings (brothers and sisters). These relationships are not direct parent-child or grandparent-
grandchild but still involve close familial ties. These are considered as secondary kin
3. Third Degree: Cousins (depending on the generation relative to ego). Third Degree of Kinship and beyond can
be considered tertiary kin relationships because they involve more distant relatives who are not part of the immediate
nuclear family but are still recognized within the extended family structure.

In practical terms, understanding degrees of kinship can be crucial in legal contexts (inheritance laws, custody
disputes), social interactions (family reunions, obligations towards relatives), and anthropological research (studying
kinship systems and social structures). It provides a framework for analyzing how individuals are connected within families
and communities, reflecting both biological and social ties that define human relationships across cultures.

Contemporary Changes in Kinship:

1. Urbanization and Migration: Shift from rural joint families to nuclear families due to employment opportunities in
urban areas, affecting traditional kinship support systems.
2. Economic Changes: Increased female workforce participation and dual-income households altering gender roles,
decision-making, and economic contributions within families.
3. Legal and Policy Reforms: Changes in inheritance laws, marital rights, and adoption practices reflecting evolving
societal norms and legal frameworks.
4. Social media and Connectivity: Technological advancements facilitating global kinship networks, communication,
and maintenance of relationships across distances.
5. Individualization and Choice: Emphasis on personal autonomy, marital choices, and diverse family forms
challenging traditional kinship norms and roles.

In summary, kinship is a dynamic social structure that adapts to cultural, economic, and technological changes, influencing
family dynamics, social organization, and individual identities within contemporary societies like India and beyond.

DESCENT

Descent refers to the way in which individuals trace their ancestry or lineage, establishing relationships with their forebears
through blood (consanguinity), marriage (affinity), or adoption. It forms the basis for kinship systems in societies and
determines how family ties, inheritance, and social identity are structured.

Types of Descent
¾ Ambilineal Descent
™ Descent is traced through either the father’s or the mother’s line, as chosen by the individual or family. This system
allows flexibility in affiliating with either parent’s lineage.
¾ Bilateral Descent
™ Descent is traced through both the father’s and mother’s lines simultaneously. All ancestors, regardless of gender,
are considered equally related. This is common in many modern societies, including most urban families in India.
¾ Bilineal Descent
™ Descent is traced through the father’s male line for certain purposes (like inheritance) and through the mother’s
female line for others (such as ritual roles). Both lines are important but for different aspects of social life.
¾ Unilineal Descent
™ Descent is traced exclusively through one parent’s line—either the father or the mother, but never both. There are
two main forms:

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™ Patrilineal Descent: Lineage is traced through the father’s side. Most traditional Indian families follow this
system, where property and family name pass through the male line.
™ Matrilineal Descent: Lineage is traced through the mother’s side. This is found in some communities, such as the
Khasi and Nair of Kerala, where inheritance and family ties are established through the female line.

Importance of Tracing One’s Lineage

¾ Inheritance and Property Rights
™ Determining rightful heirs and the distribution of family property depends on the lineage system followed.
¾ Religious and Ritual Purposes
™ Many rituals, such as ancestral worship, death ceremonies, and shraadh (ancestral rites), require knowledge of
one’s lineage to perform them correctly.
¾ Regulation of Marriage
™ Lineage rules help prevent marriages within prohibited degrees of kinship, thus maintaining social order and
preventing incestuous relationships.
¾ Social Identity and Status
™ Lineage often determines an individual’s social standing, clan or gotra, and community affiliations, which are
significant in Indian society.

Tracing descent is fundamental to understanding kinship, inheritance, social roles, and marriage regulations in Indian
society. The type of descent system followed shapes family structure, property rights, and cultural identity.

RELIGION

Religion encompasses beliefs, practices, rituals, and moral codes centered around the worship of a deity or deities, spiritual
beings, or a divine power. It plays a significant role in shaping cultures, societies, and individual identities.

Functions of Religion:
1. Explaining the Unexplained: Religion provides explanations for existential questions about the origins of the
universe, life, death, and human purpose.
2. Social Cohesion: It fosters social unity by promoting shared beliefs, values, and rituals that reinforce group
identity and solidarity.
3. Moral Guidance: Religion often provides ethical guidelines and moral principles that shape individual behavior
and societal norms.
4. Psychological Support: It offers comfort, hope, and meaning in times of adversity, grief, and uncertainty.
5. Social Control: Religion regulates behavior through religious laws, rituals, and teachings that guide interpersonal
relationships and societal interactions.

Roles of Religion:
1. Cultural Identity: Religion shapes cultural identity, influencing language, art, music, literature, and traditions.
2. Political Influence: It has historically influenced political structures, governance, and laws, often shaping societal
values and policies.
3. Education and Knowledge Transmission: Religious institutions have been centers of education and knowledge
transmission, preserving historical records, philosophy, and scientific advancements.
4. Social Services: Many religious organizations provide humanitarian aid, charitable services, and community
support to address social issues such as poverty, healthcare, and disaster relief.

Religious Diversity in India

¾ Pluralistic Religious Landscape: India is home to almost all major world religions. Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,
Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism are practiced widely, making India one of the most religiously diverse countries in
the world.

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¾ Indigenous and Foreign Religions: India is the birthplace of four major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and
Sikhism. Religions like Islam and Christianity came from outside but have deep historical roots and large followings
in India.
¾ Constitutional Secularism: The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion (Article 25–28) and declares
India a secular nation, ensuring equal respect and protection for all religions without state interference in religious
affairs.
¾ Regional Religious Patterns: Religious communities are spread across regions. For example: Hinduism is predominant
in most states.
™ Islam has significant presence in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, and Jammu & Kashmir.
™ Christianity is strong in Kerala, Goa, and Northeast India.
™ Sikhism is concentrated in Punjab.
¾ Inter-Religious Coexistence: India has a long history of syncretic traditions (e.g., Bhakti and Sufi movements) that
emphasize harmony between religions, although communal tensions have occasionally disrupted this coexistence.
¾ Festivals and Public Life: Religious diversity is visible in the celebration of festivals such as Diwali, Eid, Christmas,
Guru Nanak Jayanti, and Buddha Purnima, which are nationally acknowledged and celebrated across communities.

Comparison of Religion, Sect and Cult

Aspect Religion Sect Cult

Definition System of beliefs, practices, and Subgroup within a larger religious Group with unconventional
moral codes tradition beliefs and practices

Organizational Formal institutions, hierarchies Often less formal, may operate Charismatic leader or small
Structure within larger tradition group with centralized
control
Size Large number of adherents Smaller than mainstream religion, Small, tight-knit group
but larger than cult

Beliefs and Established doctrines, rituals Often divergent from mainstream Unconventional or extreme
Practices beliefs beliefs and practices

Leadership Often hierarchical, institutional May have charismatic or dissenting Charismatic leader with
leaders leaders significant influence

Social Generally accepted and recognized May be viewed as dissenting or Often stigmatized or viewed
Perception in society reformist with suspicion

Examples Christianity, Islam, Hinduism Protestantism (within Osho Rajneesh Movement,

Christianity), Sunni/Shia (within Brahma Kumaris, Sathya Sai
Islam), Shaiva, Vaishnava, Baba Movement, ISKCON
Shakti(Hinduism) (International Society for
Krishna Consciousness)

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Comparison of Animism, Naturism, and Mysticism

Aspect Animism Naturism Mysticism

Definition Belief in spiritual qualities or Reverence and spiritual Pursuit of direct communion with
souls in natural elements. significance attributed to natural the divine or ultimate reality through
landscapes and elements. spiritual practices

Beliefs Everything in nature possesses - Certain natural features are Personal transformation and spiritual
a spiritual essence. sacred and embody divine enlightenment through mystical
presence. experiences.
Emphasis on
interconnectedness between Advocacy for ecological Emphasis on unity of existence and
humans and the natural world. stewardship and sustainable dissolution of dualistic concepts.
practices.
Practices Rituals and ceremonies to Worship or veneration of deities Meditation, contemplation, and
honor and communicate with associated with natural elements. prayer to attain higher states of
spirits. consciousness
Rituals, pilgrimages, or offerings
Maintenance of harmony and to honor sacred natural sites. Seek experiences of divine presence
balance within the environment or cosmic unity beyond ordinary
perception.
Examples Indigenous tribes worldwide. Indigenous tribes worldwide Sufism in Islam, Christian mysticism,
Zen Buddhism.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social Stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on various
factors such as wealth, power, status, and prestige. It involves the division of society into layers or strata, with
differing levels of access to resources, opportunities, and social rewards.

In India, social stratification is complex and historically influenced by factors such as caste, class, religion, and
ethnicity.

Categories of Social Stratification in India:

¾ Caste System: The caste system is a social hierarchy prevalent in India, traditionally dividing society into
hierarchical social groups called Varnas.
™ Brahmins (Priests and Scholars): Traditionally at the top, responsible for religious rituals and education.
™ Kshatriyas (Warriors and Rulers): Second in hierarchy, historically involved in military and administrative
roles.
™ Vaishyas (Merchants and Landowners): Third in hierarchy, involved in trade, commerce, and agriculture.
™ Shudras (Artisans and Laborers): Lowest in hierarchy, traditionally performing manual labor and service
occupations.

Historically marginalized groups, often referred to as “Panchama Varna” or the fifth varna outside the traditional
four-fold varna system.

Features of Caste System

¾ Segmental Division of Society:
™ Caste is acquired by birth and cannot be changed or left.
™ A person can, however, be expelled from their caste.

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¾ Endogamy:
™ Marriage is restricted within one’s own caste or sub-caste.
™ It is fundamental for the perpetuation of the caste system.
¾ Untouchability:
™ It refers to isolating a group considered impure or polluted.
™ Social customs led to exclusion and discrimination.
¾ Hierarchy:
™ The caste system is based on a hierarchical structure.
™ Example: Upper caste Brahmins to lower caste Dalits.
¾ Civil and Religious Disabilities:
™ Dalits and lower castes faced severe restrictions in public and religious life.
™ They were barred from temples, wells, and often deemed polluting by touch or presence.
™ In contrast, upper castes enjoyed exclusive social and religious privileges.

Transformation of the Caste System

¾ Rise in Inter-Caste Marriage:
™ Inter-caste marriages have become more common, influenced by Western models.
™ Economic and social necessities have contributed to this rise.
¾ Decline in Brahmin Supremacy:
™ Secularisation and Westernisation have reduced the power of Brahmins.
™ Traditional respect and social dominance have declined.
¾ Changes in Commensality:
™ Migration has made it difficult to follow traditional dietary rules.
™ People are no longer restricted to their original locations.
¾ Occupational Changes:
™ Earlier, occupations were caste-based and hereditary.
™ With industrialisation and modernisation, rigidity has reduced and new job avenues have emerged.
¾ Attitudinal Changes:
™ People’s perception of caste has changed.
™ There is a growing disillusionment with ascriptive caste roles.
¾ Comeback of the Caste System:
™ Caste identity is gaining prominence due to political reasons.
™ It has become a major tool for vote-bank politics.

A Paradox in the Present Caste System

Weakening of the Caste System Strengthening of the Caste System

Change in hierarchical structure: The caste hierarchy
Caste-based affirmative actions: Reservation in education
based on purity and pollution has weakened due to
and jobs has reinforced caste identities for claiming benefits.
secularization and rational thinking.
Breakdown of the Jajmani system: The traditional Rise of caste-based politics: Caste is now actively used as
economic system based on caste-determined services and a political tool for vote-bank mobilization and electoral
interdependence has collapsed. strategies.

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Weakening of the Caste System Strengthening of the Caste System
Disruption of traditional occupations: Globalisation and Caste as an identity marker: Caste remains a dominant
the rise of the service sector have allowed people to choose factor in social identity, particularly in rural areas and
professions beyond their caste. matrimonial alliances.
Legal empowerment through caste-politics: Enactment Political consolidation around caste: Political parties often
of laws like the SC/ST Atrocities Act to protect marginalised appeal to specific caste groups, making caste a central aspect
castes has reduced oppression. of political affiliation.
Democratic decentralisation: Reservation in Panchayati Sustained demand for reservations: Continued demands
Raj institutions has enabled lower caste participation and for inclusion in reserved categories have kept caste
representation in governance. consciousness alive.

Factors Affecting Changes in the Caste System

¾ Sanskritization:
™ Lower castes try to elevate their social status by imitating the practices of higher castes.
™ Examples: Adopting vegetarianism, teetotalism, rituals, and customs of upper castes.
¾ Westernization:
™ Influences from Western culture in education, food habits, dressing, and manners.
™ Encouraged rational and scientific thinking.
¾ Industrialisation and Urbanization:
™ Migration to industrial towns led to loosening of caste restrictions.
™ Urban life weakens caste-based interactions.
¾ Caste and Politics:
™ Political empowerment of lower castes through elections.
™ Caste has become central to electoral strategies and power dynamics.
¾ Legislative Measures:
™ Laws enacted to abolish untouchability and protect marginalized groups.
™ Focus on social justice and inclusive development.
¾ Modernisation:
™ Scientific outlook, urbanisation, industrialisation, improved lifestyle, and rational attitudes have made caste more
flexible.
™ Modern values challenge caste rigidity.
¾ Emergence of Dominant Castes:
™ Some castes have gained significant economic, social, and political power.
™ Examples: Jats, Yadavs, Marathas, etc., who dominate in their respective regions.

CLASS SYSTEM
¾ Class: Social class in India is primarily based on economic factors such as wealth, income, occupation, and
education.
™ Upper Class: Wealthy individuals with significant economic and social capital.
™ Middle Class: Professionals, white-collar workers, and skilled laborers with moderate income and education.
™ Lower Class: Unskilled workers, daily wage earners, and those in poverty with limited access to resources.

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¾ Religious Stratification: India’s religious diversity also contributes to social stratification, with different religious
communities often experiencing varying levels of socio-economic status and opportunities.
™ Majority Religion Groups: Dominant religious communities (e.g., Hindus, Muslims) with varying socio-
economic profiles.
™ Minority Religion Groups: Religious minorities (e.g., Christians, Sikhs) often facing socio-economic challenges
and discrimination in some contexts.
¾ Ethnicity and Regional Differences: Ethnic and regional identities in India also play a role in social stratification,
influencing socio-economic status and access to resources.
™ North-South Divide: Differences in development and socio-economic indicators between northern and
southern regions.
™ Tribal Communities: Indigenous tribal groups often marginalized with limited access to education, healthcare,
and economic opportunities.
¾ Gender: Gender-based stratification refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power
between men and women in Indian society.
¾ Patriarchal Norms: Traditional gender roles often limit women’s access to education, employment, and decision-
making roles.
™ Gender Pay Gap: Disparities in wages and economic participation between men and women.

Alongside caste, class, religion, ethnicity, and gender contribute to diverse layers of social hierarchy and inequalities within
Indian society. Understanding these categories is essential for analyzing socio-economic disparities and formulating policies
to promote social justice and equality.

Relevance of Social Stratification in India:

1. Historical Context: Social stratification, particularly the caste system, has been deeply rooted in Indian society for
centuries, shaping social relationships, occupations, and identities.
2. Cultural Significance: The varna and jati (caste) systems continue to influence marriage patterns, social
interactions, and religious practices in many communities.
3. Political Representation: Caste-based politics and reservations (affirmative action) in education and employment
highlight the ongoing relevance of caste in contemporary Indian politics and governance.
4. Economic Disparities: Social stratification contributes to unequal distribution of wealth, resources, and
opportunities among different caste groups, affecting socio-economic mobility.
5. Identity and Social Status: Caste and class play significant roles in determining individual and group identities,
affecting social status, prestige, and access to social networks.

Problems with Social Stratification in India:

1. Caste-Based Discrimination: Discrimination and prejudice against lower castes (Dalits) persist in various aspects of
life, including education, employment, and social interactions.
2. Inequality and Poverty: Social stratification reinforces economic inequality, with lower castes and marginalized
communities often facing higher levels of poverty, lack of access to education, and limited economic opportunities.
3. Social Exclusion: Caste-based social norms and practices lead to exclusionary practices, such as untouchability
and social segregation, perpetuating social divisions.
4. Violence and Conflicts: Inter-caste violence and conflicts continue to occur in different parts of India, stemming from
historical grievances and competition for resources.
5. Challenges to Social Cohesion: Social stratification undermines efforts towards building a cohesive and inclusive
society, hindering social harmony and collective progress.
6. Legal and Policy Challenges: Despite legal measures and affirmative action policies, implementation challenges and
resistance from dominant caste groups hinder efforts to address caste-based inequalities effectively.
7. Intersectional Issues: Intersectionality of caste with other factors such as gender, religion, and ethnicity exacerbates
vulnerabilities and inequalities faced by marginalized groups.

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8. Modern Challenges: Globalization, urbanization, and modernization bring new dynamics to social stratification,
influencing socio-economic mobility and identity politics in complex ways.

WOMEN AND THEIR ISSUES

“Feminism isn’t about making women stronger. Women are already strong, it’s about changing the way the world
perceives that strength.” - GD Anderson

Globalization and women

Globalization involves different issues that are related to women’s empowerment. Women’s reservations, rights, problems,
status, and authority, etc are nowadays known to women. In the family, we can say that women are getting a favorable
situation.

The voice of women is increasingly heard in Parliament, courts, and in the streets.

Positive impacts:
1. WOMEN & AWARENESS:
™ Access to global media and televisions led to increased awareness on the status of women.
™ Better recognition of basic rights of women like liberty and equality in social, cultural and economic spheres.
2. WOMEN & EDUCATION:
™ Increased access to education and a rise in women’s literacy rate.
™ Decline in child marriage.
™ Rise in private educational institutions and inequalities in the quality of education.
™ Minimal improvement in tertiary education compared to primary and secondary.
3. WOMEN & HEALTH:
™ Rise in access to healthcare driven by vaccination, and institutional deliveries.
™ Education combined with policy initiatives led to a decline in the total fertility rate, maternal mortality rate,
and infant mortality rate.
4. WOMEN & TECHNOLOGY:
™ Rise in consumerism of household appliances and direct effect on women empowerment. (Less time in
household chores means more opportunities for women)
™ Rise of technology related entrepreneurship (e.g. Networking, e-commerce)
™ Lifestyle changes exposed women to non-communicable diseases like diabetes, cancer.
5. FEMINISATION OF LABOUR FORCE:
™ Rise in labour force participation rate of women in the initial years.
™ Women benefitted from the financial independence and more women entered the public space.
™ Increased household income confined women to private space post reforms, resulting in defeminization of
labour force.
6. ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND WOMEN:
™ Development of entrepreneurial attitude: Traditionally most women stayed at home taking care of domestic needs
and children. Now with increased connectivity and exposure, we see a surge in enterprises led by women
such as Nykaa.
7. CULTURAL SPHERE: Marrying within the same caste has become less important, and women have in many
cases reserved the right to marry whoever they choose irrespective of caste. With changing attitude towards women,
especially in the urban areas, women enjoy more egalitarian set of gender relationship.

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Negative impacts:
1. Double burden: Women do both household work (like cooking, baby care, etc.) as well as professional work. This
dual responsibility makes it difficult to leave their mark in their places of work.
2. Sexual harassment at work place: Job opportunities have increased but safety at workplace and in public spaces
remains an issue. The issue of women safety is of particular concern in new age industries that have opened as a
result of globalization and involve working at odd hours.
3. Gender inequality: Gender differences in education, particularly scientific and technical education, have limited
women’s access to new employment opportunities created in the globalized world.
4. Access to resources: Issues related to property rights of women and limited access to productive inputs also
constrain their capacity to benefit from trade opportunities that have opened up.
5. Lower-level jobs: Barring the IT sector, women are mainly employed in middle and lower managerial level jobs.
Women’s participation in the higher managerial level in the private sector is still limited (glass ceiling effect).

Thus, Roles of women in India have been changing and they are now emerging from the past traditions into a new
era of freedom and rights.

Decreasing women in workforce

According to the World Bank, Indian women’s labour force participation proportion of the population over the age of
15 that is economically active is 28.7 % in 2024.

Low labour force participation of women in India:

1. Persistent Underrepresentation in Leadership
™ Women remain significantly underrepresented in top management and leadership roles. Less than one-third of
managers in India are women, and this proportion has seen only marginal improvement over the past three
decades.
2. Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) Trends
™ The FLFPR in India has continued to be among the lowest globally. After falling from 31.2% in 2012 to 23.3%
in 2018, Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) in India stands at 41.7 % (2024), below the global
average of 48.7%.
™ The rural FLFPR, which had declined by over 11 percentage points by 2018, remains subdued, with many women
engaged in unpaid or informal work not captured in official statistics.
™ Socio-cultural barriers, safety concerns, and lack of suitable job opportunities continue to restrict women’s
participation, especially in rural and semi-urban areas.
3. Economic Contribution
™ Women constitute nearly 48% of India’s population, but their contribution to GDP remains disproportionately
low—around 18% in 2025, compared to 40% in China.
™ The majority of working women are concentrated in low-paying, informal, or agricultural jobs, further limiting
their economic impact.
4. Potential Economic Gains
™ The gender gap in employment remains vast: the gap between male and female labour force participation is still
close to 55–58 percentage points.
™ Closing this gap could boost India’s GDP by nearly one-third by 2050, translating to an estimated $6 trillion in
constant US dollar terms

Reasons for the fall in women’s Labour Force Participation in India

1. Occupational segregation:
™ Between 1977 and 2024, India’s economy witnessed a surge in the contribution of services (39 percent to 54
percent) and industry (33 percent to 27 percent) to GDP.
™ The proportion of rural men employed in agriculture fell from 80.6 percent to 53.2 percent, but rural women
only decreased from 88.1 percent to 71.7 percent (NSSO data).

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™ A drop in farm jobs in May 2025 saw rural female LFPR fall from 28.8 % to 27.8 %
2. Increased mechanization
™ In agriculture, and as the use of seed drillers, harvesters, threshers and husking equipment increased, men
displaced women. In textiles, power looms, button stitching machines and textile machinery phased out
women’s labour.
™ Nearly 12 million Indian women could lose their jobs by 2030 owing to automation, according to a McKinsey
Global Institute report.
3. The income effect.
™ With increasing household incomes, especially over the last three decades, the need for a “second income”
reduced. Consequently, families withdrew women from labour as a signal of prosperity.
4. Gender gaps in higher education and skill training: As of 2025, the proportion of working-age women in India
who have received formal vocational training has improved but remains low—estimated at around 4% (up from 2%
in 2018-19).
™ Consequently, women form only 20 percent of cloud computing, 22 percent of engineering, and 26 percent
of data/artificial intelligence jobs.
™ As of FY24, female enrolment in long-term ITI/NSTI programs was just 13.3 %
5. Social norms: Unpaid care work continues to be a women’s responsibility, with women spending on average five
hours per day on domestic work, vs. 30 minutes for men (NSSO).
6. Covid and Women: In this context, the COVID-19 pandemic has come as a shock, resulting in massive job
losses for women, especially informal workers, and slower recovery of women-led micro-businesses.
™ It has also increased domestic work, deepened gender digital divides, disrupted girls’ schooling and placed
millions of female health workers at risk.
7. Double burden on women: Balancing employment and domestic responsibilities (including household chores and
care giving).

Steps taken by Government to improve women labour force participation.

1. Pradhan Mantri Mahila Shakti Kendra (PMMSK): This scheme continues to empower rural women by promoting
community participation and leveraging student volunteers to facilitate access to government services, skill
development, digital literacy, and legal aid for women.
2. National Crèche Scheme: The scheme has been expanded to provide quality daycare for children (6 months to 6 years)
of working women, with a renewed focus on urban slums and rural areas. It now integrates early childhood education
and nutrition components to support women’s workforce participation.
3. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK): RMK remains a key institution for providing micro-credit and financial literacy to
poor women, supporting self-employment, entrepreneurship, and income-generating activities at concessional terms.
Digital platforms have been integrated for easier access to credit and training.
4. Working Women Hostels: The government has increased funding and eased norms for setting up hostels in both
urban and semi-urban areas, ensuring safe and affordable accommodation for women working away from home. New
hostels now include digital security systems and creche facilities.
5. Scheme for Adolescent Girls (SAG, formerly SABLA): The scheme has been revamped to provide life skills, digital
literacy, health awareness, and supplementary nutrition to out-of-school adolescent girls, aiming to enhance their
employability and transition to formal education or skill training.
6. Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013: Implementation has
been strengthened through digital grievance redressal platforms, mandatory awareness programs in all organizations
(including the gig and platform economy), and periodic government audits to ensure compliance.
7. Enhanced Maternity Benefits: Paid maternity leave remains at 26 weeks for women in the organized sector. The
government has expanded incentives for employers to provide mandatory crèche facilities in establishments with 50
or more employees and has issued guidelines for flexible work arrangements and night shifts with adequate safety
measures.
8. Stand Up India and Mudra Yojana: Enhanced credit support and mentorship for women entrepreneurs.

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9. Digital Literacy and STEM Promotion: National campaigns to encourage girls’ participation in STEM fields and
digital skills, with scholarships and mentorship programs.
10. Gender Budgeting: Ministries are mandated to allocate specific budgets for women’s employment and empowerment.
™ The gender budget by the Himachal Government for FY2024-25 (BE) is estimated to be ₹3065 crore.
11. Support for Women in the Gig Economy: New codes under labour law reforms recognize and extend social security
benefits to gig and platform workers, many of whom are women.
12. Women Representation Bill 2023: Officially titled the Constitution (One Hundred and Sixth Amendment) Act,
2023, or “Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam,” aims to reserve one-third of the seats in the Lok Sabha, state legislative
assemblies, and the Delhi Legislative Assembly for women.

Way forward:
1. Need to Integrate Policy of Work, Livelihoods, Earnings and Poverty, Re‐think and Integrate macroeconomic
Policy with Social Policy.
2. Convergence with programs for adult education, literacy, and advanced skill training and higher education.
3. Using tax policies to incentivize women into the labor market on both the demand and supply side.
4. The gender-sensitive infrastructure included full-time creches for children, affordable and safe working women’s
hostels, and basic public provisions such as piped water, hygienic washrooms at public places and safe public
transport for enabling women to access decent and dignified livelihood opportunities.
5. Improve women’s access to Credit, skills, marketing.
6. Secure and uphold women’s ownership rights over basic productive resources like land - Create equal rights to property.
7. A minimum social security package available to all citizens that include life insurance, disability insurance, health
insurance, and pensions offered through multiple distribution channels.

Covid and Patriarchy

COVID 19 pandemic has brought great disruptions in multiple sectors. Economy, healthcare, working patterns,
education etc are adapting to movement restrictions and lockdowns. This disruption induced adaptations have a
great impact on women.

Evidence shows that patriarchal gender roles are deepening due to disruptions. This is resulting in setbacks to progress
made in gender equality.

1. Rising violence against violence: There has been a rise in instances of violence, sexual, physical and mental
against women. The National Commission for Women (NCW) has recorded a more than twofold rise in gender-
based violence.
2. Increased work pressure on women:(a) For instance, the online education demands that mothers should be
available uninterruptedly for long hours to help the children familiarize with the nuances and demands of online
classes, assignments and assessments.

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™ Also, the onus of protecting the children and elderly from possible coronavirus infections and caring for
home-quarantined members who are exposed to the virus falls heavily on women.
3. Contraction of women employment opportunities in various sectors: Some of the sectors which are hard-hit by
COVID are the ones which employ women in large numbers, such as tourism, hospitality and retail.
™ Women were more affected than men by employment issues. Women made up just 24% of those working before
the pandemic, yet accounted for 28% of all those who lost their jobs.
4. Women and Education: It is pertinent to note that there exists a 50% gender gap in mobile internet users in India
where 21% of women and 42% of men use mobile internet. As education shifted online families preferred to provide
cell phones to the males and female education suffered.
5. Issues of Reproductive Health: About 16% of women (an estimated 17 million if extrapolated) had to stop using
menstrual pads, and more than one in three married women were unable to access contraceptives.
6. Shrinking of social circle: This could be due to the increased workload in the houses unlimited opportunities
for employment outside then home premises.

Suggestive measures
1. Expansion of economic activities where women are predominant (healthcare services, textiles etc) must be
undertaken.
2. Further, health services must be delivered to women on priority basis.
3. In addition, communities must be sensitized on the principle of sharing of domestic work.
4. Expanding PDS beyond food as it’s a far-reaching delivery channel. For instance, women’s access to menstrual pads
could be revolutionized in this fashion for the short term, improving reach considerably.
5. Focus on the inclusion of single, divorced/separated women in the One Nation One Ration Card rollout, and
build social assistance Programmes for informal workers, specifically domestic workers and casual labourers.

Only by taking such steps can we maintain the progress in achieving SDG (Sustainable Development Goal) – 5 of
gender equality.

Rising crimes against women

Violence against women is a major public problem in the country, recently, a steady increase is being seen in the
number of crimes against women; Especially extremely serious cases like gang rape. These incidents have shaken the
conscience of the people. One wonders how this can be possible in a society moving towards higher education, economic
and technological development.

Some statistics related to violence against women in India:

1. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report, 3,71,503 lakh cases of violence against women were
registered in the year 2020. The most recent NCRB data shows that in 2022, the number of reported cases further rose
to 4,45,256—equivalent to nearly 51 FIRs being filed every hour across the country.
2. The NCRB’s findings unveiled a crime rate of 66.4 per lakh population, with a charge sheeting rate of 75.8 in such
cases. Shockingly, the majority of crimes against women were categorized as cruelty by the husband or his relatives
(31.4%), followed by kidnapping and abduction (19.2%), assault with intent to outrage modesty (18.7%), and rape
(7.1%).

Nature of violence against women:

1. Domestic violence like dowry related violence, wife beating, sexual abuse, abuse of widows and elderly Women.
2. Criminal violence such as rape, kidnapping, murder
3. Forcing wife/daughter-in-law to commit female foeticide, molestation of women, denying women share in property,
dowry harassment, cyber harassment etc.

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REASONS FOR CRIME PROBLEM IN INDIA:
¾ Social Inequality and Discrimination
™ Caste, religion, and gender-based discrimination cause resentment and social unrest. People from marginalized
communities often face injustice, which may push some toward violence or crime as a form of retaliation.
¾ Lack of Education and Unemployment
™ When people don’t have enough money or jobs, they may commit crimes like theft, robbery, or even join criminal
gangs to survive. Poverty creates desperation, especially among youth with no source of income.
¾ Delay and Inefficiency in Criminal Justice System
™ High pendency of cases (over 4.5 crore in courts as of 2025) results in delayed justice and encourages impunity.
9 Example: The Hathras gangrape (2020) trial faced significant delays, eroding public faith in the system.
¾ Rise of Technology and Cybercrime
™ With digital adoption, tech-enabled crimes like identity theft, online fraud, and cyberstalking have surged.
9 Example: In 2024, India reported a 25% increase in cyber fraud cases, especially targeting senior citizens
and digital illiterates (MHA Report 2024).
¾ Political-criminal Nexus and Corruption
™ Politicians with criminal backgrounds often escape accountability due to their influence, weakening deterrence.
9 Example: ADR (2024) found that 43% of sitting MPs have criminal cases, some involving serious crimes like
murder or kidnapping.
¾ Weak Police Reforms and Understaffing
™ India’s police-to-population ratio (~152 per lakh) is below the UN standard (222), leading to poor crime prevention
and investigation.
¾ Family and Social Breakdown
™ Unstable homes, abusive relationships, or peer pressure can affect emotional development, especially among
children and teenagers. Without proper guidance, they may turn to crime for attention or acceptance.
9 Example: Juvenile crimes such as vandalism, theft, and gang violence rising in urban centres write in easy
language
¾ Drug and Alcohol Abuse
™ Substance abuse is closely linked with violent crimes like assault, rape, and domestic abuse.
9 Example: Punjab has witnessed a sharp rise in drug-related offenses, leading to thefts, gang violence, and
murders.
¾ Migration and Urban Overcrowding
™ Unregulated urbanisation and slum development create anonymity and law enforcement gaps.
9 Example: High crime pockets in megacities like Delhi (e.g., Jahangirpuri, Seelampur) see frequent clashes
and thefts, often involving migrants.
¾ Rise in Reporting and Awareness
™ MeToo and Increased Reporting
9 Movements like #MeToo have empowered many women to speak out, leading to an increase in reported
crimes.
9 Example: NCRB data shows a sharp rise in cases post-2018, reflecting greater awareness and reporting rather
than just a rise in actual crimes.
¾ Digital Platforms and Helplines
™ Online platforms, helplines, and social media have enabled quicker reporting and support, though follow-up
action often remains weak.

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Govt Initiatives:
¾ The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act: The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences
(POCSO) Act, 2012 was enacted to provide a robust legal framework for the protection of children from offences of
sexual assault, sexual harassment and pornography.
¾ Section 354 of the IPC: It criminalizes any act by a person that assaults or uses criminal force against a woman with
the intention or knowledge that it will outrage her modesty.
¾ Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013: To ensure
women’s safety at workplace, this Act seeks to protect them from sexual harassment at their place of work. 36 % of
Indian companies and 25% among MNC’s are not complaint with the Sexual Harassment Act according to a FICCI
report.
¾ National Database on Sexual Offenders (NDSO): The government in 2018 launched the National Database on
Sexual Offenders (NDSO). The database contains entries of offenders convicted under charges of rape, gang rape,
POCSO and eve teasing. The portal as of now contains 440,000 entries of cases that have been reported since 2008.
¾ Fast track courts: As a result of the 2012 Delhi gang rape case, the Indian government implemented a fast-track court
system to rapidly prosecute rape cases.
¾ Marital rape: Forced sex by husbands upon wives does have legal consequences in Indian matrimonial law, in that it
can be treated as a matrimonial fault, resulting in dissolution of the marriage.

Way forward:
1. Civil society participation: Active participation of civil society against such crimes and helping state and law
enforcement agencies in nabbing the criminal is critical.
2. State action: State should be more proactive in police reforms. Strict action should be taken against any police
officials who do not record such incidents in criminal records.
3. Police reforms: The government should carry a recruitment drive for women and should focus on gender focused
training in police and judiciary. There is a need to create women police stations and more women should be taken
as judges.
4. Judicial reforms: The court dealing with rape cases should be sensitive towards the conditions of rape victims and
award punishments to rapists with great seriousness towards women conditions in the Indian society.
5. Compensation: The need of the hour is the creation of state sponsored victim compensatory fund particularly for
heinous offences including rape. This award should be totally free from the result of the prosecution that
is conviction or acquittal and should come into action the moment FIR is registered or cognizance is taken of a
complaint.
6. Media: The media must be sensitive to the plight of the rape victim and must not highlight the name or any
inference leading to the identification of the victim, as it will be counterproductive. The media must invariably
highlight those cases where the offender has been convicted, as it will infuse the feeling of deterrence among the
people.
7. Crisis centre: Rape Crisis Centres are set up in countries like Australia, Canada, America, United Kingdom, etc.
These centres provide their help through their telephonic help lines also. These centres provide the rape victims
with medical help, counselling, and financial help by way of providing job opportunities etc. Such centres should be
set up in India to provide for medical aid and counselling to the rape victims.

CHILDREN AND THIER ISSUES

Globalization and Children

Globalization is a process of increasing interdependence, interconnectedness and integration of economies and
societies to such an extent that an event in one part of the globe affects people in other parts of the world.

Positive impacts:
1. Broadened access: to goods and services e.g., childcare products.
2. Infused multiculturism: Increasing respect and tolerance for other cultures and ethnicities.
3. Enhanced avenues for learning: e.g., Student exchange programs have broadened student exposure.

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4. Internet as an equalizer has opened a window of opportunities for kids belonging to all classes of society.
5. Awareness due to the ease of access to the internet and related technologies.

Negative impact:
1. The exploitation of the environment: e.g., the dumping of e-waste by developed nations into poor developing
countries has exposed kids to the problems of toxic air and water.
2. Fast food culture: e.g., McDonaldization has tilted children’s dietary preferences towards unhealthy junk food
over home-cook food.
3. Enhanced unproductive time: being spent on social networking and online gaming like PubG.
4. Exuberated problem of child labour: e.g., due to huge global demand an estimated 300,000 children work in
India’s hand-knotted carpet industry.

Thus, although globalization has made Indian children are now more future ready. But its dark side as seen,
presents a word of caution.

RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT

Right to Education Act (RTE) provided free and compulsory education to children in 2009 and enforced it as a
fundamental right under Article 21-A.

Key Features:
¾ Covers ages 6–14; mandates 25% reservation in private schools for EWS.
¾ Prohibits physical punishment, capitation fees, and unrecognized schools.
¾ Fixed norms: Pupil-teacher ratios, infrastructure, school days.
¾ “No Detention Policy” removed in 2019 for Classes 5 & 8; reintroduced retake policy per NEP 2020 since December
2024

Achievements:
¾ Uttar Pradesh RTE admissions rose to 185,664 in 2025, boosting inclusion.
¾ Nationwide, improved infrastructure and learning from class 6–8, and increased EWS enrolments.
¾ Removal of no-detention policy has reintroduced grade-based accountability.

Limitations:
¾ Age cap ends at 14—exclusion of secondary.
¾ Focus on inputs, not learning outcomes
¾ Some states (Goa, Telangana, etc.) non-compliant with 25% reservation.
¾ Teacher shortages, unclear reporting mechanisms, and dependence on central funding (e.g., Tamil Nadu fund delays)

Recommended Reforms:
¾ Extend coverage to age 18, align with NEP 2020 and ECCE.
¾ Fix teacher shortages via training and recruitment.
¾ Prioritize learning quality with curriculum reform.
¾ Make teaching a desirable profession.
¾ Strengthen state and private school compliance.

Child labour

The term “child labour” is defined by ILO as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their
dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development.

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Child labour in India:
1. According to the last available Census 2011, there were 10.1 million child labourers in India.
2. As per the National Crime Records Bureau Report 2022, in 2021, around 982 cases were registered under
the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, with the highest number of cases registered in Telangana,
followed by Assam.

Nature of Child Labour in India:

1. Change in Location of work: There has been an increasing involvement of children in home-based works and in
the informal sector. The change in type of child labour mainly attributes to enforcement of legislation and awareness
amongst buyers about child exploitation.
2. Nature of work in Rural-Urban Areas: In urban areas, a large number of children are engaged in manual domestic
work, rag picking, restaurants, motor repair shops etc.
In rural sector children are engaged in the agricultural sector including cotton growing, at glass, match box and brass
and lock-making factories, in embroidery, rag-picking, beedi-rolling, in the carpet-making industry, in mining
and stone quarrying, brick kilns and tea gardens amongst others.
3. Gender: The division of labour is gender-specific with girls being engaged in more domestic and home-based
work, and boys working as wage labourers.
4. Bonded child labour: Bonded labour means the employment of a person against a loan or debt or social obligation by
the family of the child or family as a whole. Bonded child labourers are often found in agriculture sector or assisting
their families in brick kilns, and stone quarries. The Bonded Labour Liberation
Front estimates 10 million bonded children in India.
5. Migrant children: Migrant children are often forced to drop-out schools and are inevitably put to work at
work-sites.

Reasons for Child labour

1. Poverty:

2. Social norms: Some communities and families have a tradition of making their children work in certain
occupations, such as agriculture, carpet weaving, or domestic service. Some also believe that education is not
important or suitable for girls.
3. Lack of decent work opportunities for adults and adolescents: Due to the high unemployment rate and low
wages, many adults and young people are unable to find decent and dignified work. This leads them to engage in
informal and hazardous work or push their children into labour.

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4. Poor School Infrastructure: Many schools in India lack adequate facilities, teachers, and quality education. Some
schools also charge fees or other expenses that are unaffordable for poor families. These factors discourage parents
from sending their children to school and make them drop out.
5. Emergencies: Natural disasters, conflicts, and pandemics can disrupt the normal functioning of society and
increase the vulnerability of children. Some children may lose their parents, homes, or access to basic services.
They may be forced to work for survival or be exploited by traffickers and other perpetrators.

Impacts of child labour:

Steps taken by government:

1. National Child Labour Project (NCLP):
™ Under this Scheme, the children in the age group of 9-14 years are withdrawn from work and put into
NCLP Special Training Centres.
™ They are provided with bridge education, vocational training, mid-day meal, stipend, health care etc. before
being mainstreamed into formal education system.
2. Pencil portal (Platform for Effective Enforcement for No Child Labour (PENCIL): It is a separate online portal to
ensure effective enforcement of the provisions of the Child Labour Act and smooth implementation of the National
Child Labour Project (NCLP) Scheme.
3. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act (1986) to prohibit the engagement of children in certain
employments and to regulate the conditions of work of children in certain other employments
4. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016: The Amendment Act completely prohibits the
employment of children below 14 years.
5. On World Day Against Child Labour (June 12) in 2017, India ratified two core conventions of the International
Labour Organization on child labour.
6. Many NGOs like Bachpan Bachao Andolan, CARE India, Child Rights and You, Global march against child
labour, RIDE India, Child line etc. have been working to eradicate child labour in India.

Way forward: Eliminating child labour is firmly placed within Goal 8 of the SDGs.

Following steps should be taken.

1. Abolition of child trafficking, elimination of poverty, free and compulsory education, and basic standards of
living can reduce the problem to a great extent.
2. Strict implementation of labour laws is also essential in order to prevent exploitation by parties or multinational
companies.
3. The single most effective way to stem the flow of school-aged children into child labour is to improve access to and
quality of schooling.

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4. Accelerating progress towards universal social protection is key, as social protection helps prevent poor
households from having to rely on child labour as a coping mechanism.
5. Special efforts should be taken to identify children orphaned due to COVID-19, and arrangements of shelter and
foster care for them should be made on a priority basis.

Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016

Key Provisions
1. Complete Ban on Child Labour (Below 14 Years)
™ Prohibits employment of children under 14 years in all occupations and processes, except for work in family
enterprises and the entertainment industry, provided it does not hamper the child’s education.
2. Regulation of Adolescent Labour (14–18 Years)
™ Prohibits employment of adolescents (14–18 years) in hazardous occupations and processes (e.g., mining, handling
inflammable substances, hazardous manufacturing).
™ The central government retains the power to modify the list of hazardous occupations.
3. Stricter Penalties
™ First-time offenders face a fine of ₹20,000–₹50,000 and imprisonment of 6 months to 2 years.
™ Repeat offences are cognizable with imprisonment of 1–3 years.
™ Parents are exempt from punishment for the first offence; repeat offences attract a fine of ₹10,000.
4. Inspection and Enforcement
™ Empowers the government to conduct regular inspections of workplaces to ensure compliance.
5. Rehabilitation Fund
™ Establishes a Child and Adolescent Labour Rehabilitation Fund in every district for the welfare and rehabilitation
of rescued children and adolescents.

Recent Developments
¾ Digital Monitoring:
The Ministry of Labour & Employment has launched digital platforms and mobile apps for real-time reporting and
monitoring of child labour cases.
¾ Awareness Campaigns:
National campaigns in collaboration with UNICEF and NGOs have increased awareness and reporting, especially after
the COVID-19 pandemic, which saw a spike in child labour due to school closures and economic hardship.
¾ Rehabilitation Improvements:
The government has strengthened linkages between the Rehabilitation Fund and educational/vocational training
programs, with a focus on reintegrating rescued children into mainstream education.

Arguments in Favour
¾ Preservation of Traditional Skills: Allows children to learn family trades and crafts, supporting cultural continuity.
¾ Stronger Penalties: Harsher punishments act as a deterrent to violators, with non-bailable offences for repeat offenders.
¾ Rehabilitation Focus: The dedicated fund supports the education and welfare of rescued children.
¾ Institutional Empowerment: Regular inspections and digital monitoring empower authorities to enforce the law
more effectively.

Arguments Against
¾ Dilution of Hazardous Occupations List: The reduction of hazardous occupations from 83 (in the 1986 Act) to a
handful (mining, inflammables, explosives) is seen as a step backward.
¾ Government Discretion: The central government can alter the hazardous list without parliamentary oversight, risking
arbitrary changes.

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¾ Promotion of Family Labour: Exemptions for family enterprises may legitimize hidden child labour, especially in
agriculture, small workshops, and home-based industries.
¾ Non-Uniform Implementation: State governments can amend hazardous lists, leading to inconsistent enforcement
across states.
¾ Legalization of Previously Unlawful Work: Allowing children to work after school or during vacations could
normalize child labour.
¾ Ambiguity in Rehabilitation Fund Usage: The fund’s objectives are vaguely defined, with no clear mandate for direct
educational support.

Way Forward
¾ Enhanced Social Protection: Expand direct cash transfers, scholarships, and nutrition programs for vulnerable
families to reduce reliance on child labour.
¾ Crisis Response Mechanisms: Build robust systems to protect children during emergencies (pandemics, disasters,
economic shocks), as seen during COVID-19.
¾ Uniform Implementation: Strengthen monitoring and ensure uniform application of the law across all states.
¾ Clearer Rehabilitation Mandate: Specify that funds must be used for education, vocational training, and psychological
support for rescued children.
¾ Community Engagement: Deepen collaboration with local communities, NGOs, and schools to identify and prevent
child labour.
¾ Commitment to SDG 8.7: Reinforce India’s commitment to ending child labour in all its forms by 2025, in line with
the Sustainable Development Goals.

While the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016, marked a significant step forward, gaps in
implementation and legal loopholes remain. Continued vigilance, social protection, and clear rehabilitation strategies are
essential to eradicate child labour and protect India’s children

RISING REGIONALISM IN INDIA

Regionalism refers to the strong identification of people with their region, based on shared language, culture, history, and
economic interests. It shapes local identities and influences political, economic, and social dynamics across India.

Factors that lead to Regionalism in India

1. Geographical Factors
™ Linguistic reorganization of states, diverse topography, and climate continue to shape strong territorial identities.
9 Example: The demand for separate statehood in regions like Gorkhaland (West Bengal) and Vidarbha
(Maharashtra) persists due to unique geographical and cultural characteristics.
2. Historical and Cultural Factors
™ Revival of regional festivals, languages, folklores and cultural symbols has intensified post-pandemic, with
states like Tamil Nadu and West Bengal promoting their own histories and heroes.
9 Example: Increased assertion of Dravidian identity in Tamil Nadu and promotion of local languages in the
North-East.
3. Economic Factors
™ Persistent economic disparities between regions remain a major driver. Southern and western states outpace
others in GDP, while states like Bihar and Odisha lag behind.
9 Example: Demands for special status by Andhra Pradesh and Bihar; continued push for economic packages
in North-Eastern states.
4. Politico-Administrative Factors
™ Regional parties and leaders leverage local issues for electoral gains, often advocating for more autonomy or
special rights.

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9 Example: The rise of regional parties like AAP in Delhi-Punjab, BRS in Telangana, and TMC in West Bengal.

Recent Manifestations of Regionalism

1. Creation of New States and Demands
™ While no new states have been created since Telangana (2014), demands for Gorkhaland, Vidarbha, and
Bundelkhand have gained momentum, with renewed protests and political mobilization.
2. State-Specific Movements
™ Local identity movements, such as those in Ladakh (post-UT status), Bodoland (Assam), Khalistan (Punjab) and
Saurashtra (Gujarat), have intensified, seeking more autonomy or recognition.
3. Language and Cultural Assertion
™ States like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have passed laws to promote local languages in administration and education.
9 Example: Karnataka’s push for Kannada in official communication; West Bengal’s emphasis on Bengali in
schools.
4. Locals First Policies
™ More states have adopted “locals first” employment policies. Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra have
implemented or expanded job reservations for local youth in the private sector.
5. Inter-State Disputes
™ Border and river water disputes continue, with recent flashpoints:
9 Assam-Meghalaya and Assam-Mizoram border skirmishes (2021–2023).
9 Ongoing Cauvery and Krishna River water disputes, with Supreme Court interventions.
9 Renewed Belagavi (Belgaum) dispute between Karnataka and Maharashtra.
6. Regionalism in the North-East
™ Ethnic and identity-based movements remain strong, with incidents of violence and demands for greater autonomy
or separate states (e.g., Kuki-Zo and Meitei tensions in Manipur, 2023).
7. International Dimensions
™ Regional issues impacting foreign relations, such as West Bengal’s stance on the Teesta River with Bangladesh and
Tamil Nadu’s concerns about Sri Lankan Tamils, have influenced India’s diplomatic engagements.

Positive Impacts of Regionalism

¾ Cultural Preservation: States have revived and promoted regional languages, festivals, and arts.
¾ Economic Development: Local economies benefit from targeted policies and investments.
¾ Political Empowerment: Regional parties give voice to local aspirations and ensure representation.
¾ Promotion of Diversity: India’s pluralism is strengthened by the recognition of regional identities.

Negative Impacts of Regionalism

¾ Tensions and Conflicts: Inter-state disputes and local agitations disrupt harmony.
¾ Marginalization: Minority groups within regions may face exclusion.
¾ Divisive Politics: Identity-based politics can undermine national unity and development.
¾ Impact on International Relations: Regional interests sometimes complicate India’s foreign policy and cross-border
cooperation.

Way Forward
¾ Strengthen Unity in Diversity: Foster a national identity that respects and celebrates regional identities, ensuring
pluralism remains central to India’s ethos.
¾ Balanced Regional Development: Enhance social expenditure on health, education, and infrastructure in lagging
regions. Effective implementation of centrally sponsored schemes and NITI Aayog’s “Aspirational Districts Programme”
is crucial.

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¾ Cooperative Federalism: NITI Aayog’s bottom-up approach and the Inter-State Council should be further empowered
to resolve disputes and promote consensus.
¾ Inclusive Education: National education curricula should emphasize both regional and national histories, promoting
respect for all identities and discouraging parochialism.
¾ Effective Governance and Dialogue: Regular dialogue between the Centre and states, and between states themselves,
is essential to address grievances and prevent escalation of regional tensions.
¾ Digital and Economic Integration: Use digital platforms to promote inter-regional exchange and economic integration,
reducing disparities and fostering a sense of shared destiny.

Regionalism in India, while a sign of vibrant democracy and diversity, needs careful management to ensure it strengthens
rather than weakens the nation. The focus must be on inclusive development, cooperative federalism, and respect for all
identities within the framework of a united India.

MODERNITY AND WESTERNIZATION

Modernization:

Modernity refers to the broad process of social, economic, political, and cultural transformation that societies undergo as
they move from traditional or pre-modern systems to more contemporary modern forms.

It is characterized by:
¾ Industrialization and Urbanization: Shift from agrarian economies to industrial and urban societies.
¾ Rationality and Scientific Temper: Emphasis on reason, scientific inquiry, and empirical knowledge.
¾ Secularism: Separation of religion from state and public life.
¾ Individualism: Rise of personal autonomy, rights, and freedoms.
¾ Social Mobility: Breakdown of rigid social hierarchies (such as caste or feudal systems) and increased opportunities
for movement and change.
¾ Democracy and Equality: Promotion of democratic institutions, rule of law, and equal rights for all citizens.

Modernity is not uniform; it takes different forms in different societies, shaped by local histories and cultures. In India,
modernity has involved both indigenous reform movements and the adoption of new ideas and technologies, often in
response to colonialism and globalization.

Westernization:

Westernization refers specifically to the adoption or imitation of cultural, social, political, or economic practices that
originated in Western Europe or North America.

It often involves:
¾ Imitating Western Lifestyles: Adoption of Western dress, food, language (especially English), and popular culture.
¾ Institutional Borrowing: Introduction of Western systems of education, law, governance, and business.
¾ Cultural Influence: Embracing Western values such as individualism, consumerism, and certain forms of secularism.
¾ Social Change: Changes in family structure, gender roles, and attitudes toward authority, often modeled after Western
societies.

Westernization is a subset of modernity, but not all aspects of modernity are Western. Societies can modernize by developing
their own institutions and values without necessarily adopting those of the West

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Key Differences Between Modernity and Westernization
Aspect Modernity Westernization
Definition Broad process of transformation towards Adoption of Western (European/North American)
contemporary, rational, and progressive systems cultural, social, political, or economic practices

Scope Global, can be indigenous or locally adapted Specific to Western influence and imitation

Examples Industrialization, democracy, scientific thinking Wearing Western clothes, eating fast food, using
English, following Hollywood trends

Cultural Can be rooted in local traditions and reforms Originates from Western societies
Roots

Outcome May lead to unique, hybrid forms of modern Often leads to cultural homogenization
society

Indian Social reforms, constitutional democracy, British education system, legal codes, English
Context economic planning, scientific temper language, Western dress and pop culture

Summary
¾ Modernity is a universal process involving rationalization, scientific progress, and social change, which can be shaped
by local histories and cultures.
¾ Westernization is the process of adopting Western ways, often as a result of colonial influence or globalization, and is
just one possible path to modernity.
¾ In India, both processes have been influential: modernity has led to social reforms and democratization, while
Westernization has influenced language, education, and lifestyle.

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN INDIAN SOCIETY

Continuity: Enduring Traditional Values

Certain core Indian Traditional values—such as tolerance, collectivism, spiritualism, and non-violence—continue to shape
Indian society, despite rapid social and technological changes.

The following factors help maintain this continuity:

1. Family as a Pillar of Tradition
™ The family remains central to Indian life, with both joint and nuclear families acting as vehicles for transmitting
traditional values, customs, and rituals through socialization.
™ Even with urbanization, family gatherings during festivals and life events reinforce cultural continuity.
2. Collective Celebrations
™ National and regional festivals (e.g., Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Pongal, Onam) are celebrated across communities,
promoting unity, brotherhood, and the triumph of good over evil.
™ The growing popularity of interfaith and community festivals reflects India’s pluralistic ethos.
3. Social Gatherings and Rituals
™ Functions, religious gatherings, satsangs, and bhajan-kirtans continue to provide platforms for sharing values,
fostering community spirit, and preserving oral traditions.
4. Marriage Traditions
™ While inter-caste and interfaith marriages are slowly increasing, traditional marriage customs, rituals, and family
involvement remain strong, helping preserve community values.

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5. Flexibility and Adaptability
™ Indian culture’s inherent flexibility allows it to accommodate diverse viewpoints, beliefs, and practices, ensuring
its resilience and relevance in changing times.
6. Evolution Through Reform
™ Indian society has a history of evolving by adopting progressive elements and discarding regressive practices,
as seen in the impact of socio-religious reform movements and recent legal changes (e.g., decriminalization of
Section 377, advances in women’s rights).
7. Cultural Assimilation
™ India’s ability to assimilate external influences—whether from invaders, traders, or migrants—has enriched its
cultural fabric. Recent waves of globalization have further diversified Indian culture without erasing its core values.

Change: Forces Transforming Indian Society

Despite this continuity, Indian society is undergoing significant transformation due to technological, political, economic,
and cultural forces:
1. Rising Intolerance and Polarization
™ Incidents of communal tensions, hate crimes, and social media-driven polarization (e.g., debates over places of
worship, digital hate campaigns) point to a decline in traditional tolerance.
™ However, there are also strong counter-movements advocating harmony and pluralism.
2. Rise of Individualism
™ Urbanization, economic liberalization, and exposure to global cultures have led to increased individualism,
materialism, and pursuit of personal success, sometimes at the expense of collective welfare.
3. Nuclearization of Families
™ The shift toward nuclear families is now more pronounced, especially in urban areas, driven by mobility, career
opportunities, and changing aspirations. This has implications for elder care and child socialization.
4. Progressive Social Values
™ Modern education and legal reforms have promoted values like gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and anti-
caste discrimination. Movements such as #MeToo and campaigns for women’s reservation in Parliament reflect
changing attitudes.
5. Digital Revolution and Socialization
™ The rapid spread of smartphones, internet, and social media has transformed traditional modes of socialization.
Online platforms now shape opinions, mobilize movements (e.g., farmers’ protests, climate activism), and
influence youth culture.
™ Both positive (awareness, empowerment) and negative (cyberbullying, misinformation) impacts are evident, as
seen in cases like the “Bulli Bai” and “Sulli Deals” targeting minority women.
6. Globalization and Hybrid Identities
™ Exposure to global trends has led to hybrid cultural identities, with youth blending traditional and modern
practices in fashion, food, and lifestyle.
7. Legal and Policy Changes
™ Recent laws promoting gender justice, digital privacy, and anti-discrimination reflect a society in transition,
balancing tradition with modern values.

Dynamic Interaction: Tradition Meets Modernity

¾ The interaction between tradition and modernity in India is ongoing and dynamic. Traditional values like Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam (“the world is one family”) continue to inspire global dialogues on peace and harmony.
¾ At the same time, Indian society is adapting to new realities, ensuring that both continuity and change coexist, enriching
its pluralistic character.

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Conclusion

Indian society in 2025 stands at the crossroads of tradition and modernity. While core values endure, rapid changes are
reshaping social norms, relationships, and identities. The challenge and opportunity lie in harmonizing these forces to build
an inclusive, progressive, and culturally vibrant nation.

MODEL ANSWERS
1. Critically examine how the concept of “Unity in Diversity” is being challenged and reinforced in contemporary
India, especially in the context of increasing regional, linguistic, and religious assertions.

India’s celebrated concept of “Unity in Diversity” is rooted in its vast varieties of religions, languages, and regional identities,
all coexisting under a democratic and constitutional framework. However, contemporary India faces both challenges and
reinforcements to this unity, especially amidst increasing regional, linguistic, and religious assertions.

Challenges to Unity in Diversity

¾ Religious Divides: India’s religious harmony is facing strain due to communal violence, hate speeches, and rising
majoritarian attitudes. This creates fear and alienation among minority communities and weakens the secular fabric.
™ Example: Policies such as the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and anti-conversion laws have raised
concerns about the protection of minority rights.
9 Further, The Manipur ethnic conflict (2023–24) between Meiteis and Kukis showcased how religion
intertwined with ethnicity can rupture inter-community harmony.
¾ Caste-Based Discrimination: Despite laws against untouchability, Dalits and backward castes still face exclusion,
violence, and prejudice in daily life. This prevents real equality and social unity.
™ Example: The Hathras gang rape (2020) showed how caste continues to shape social injustice and violence.
¾ Economic Inequality: Different castes and regions experience huge economic gaps in income, education, and land
ownership. Socially backward groups remain economically disadvantaged, which fuels resentment and divides.
™ Example: NSSO data shows that SCs and STs have lower literacy rates and land ownership compared to upper
castes.
¾ Politicisation of Diversity: Political parties often use religion, caste, or language to gain votes. This turns India’s rich
diversity into an electoral tool, creating identity-based divisions instead of promoting common citizenship.
™ Example: Vote-bank politics based on caste and religion in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar sidelines national
development priorities.
¾ Regional Identity Conflicts: Some states strongly assert their regional identity and culture, sometimes opposing
national policies or the Hindi language, which raises tensions between the Centre and States.
™ Example: Movements such as the demand for Gorkhaland, Kuki homeland, and Bodoland showcase regional
discontent
9 Further, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu’s opposition to Hindi imposition and the NEP language formula
highlights regional resistance.
¾ Caste in Electoral Politics: Caste-based political mobilisations and reservation movements have made caste a
dominant force in Indian politics. This often increases social tension and undermines national integration.
™ Example: The Patidar agitation in Gujarat and Jat protests in Haryana are examples of caste influencing power
demands.

Reinforcement of Unity in Diversity

¾ Constitutional Safeguards: The Indian Constitution provides a strong framework that protects diversity while
promoting unity.
™ Fundamental Rights ensure freedom of religion, language, and equality before law for all.

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™ Federalism balances regional autonomy with national unity.
9 Example: Article 29 and 30 protect minority communities’ rights to conserve their culture and manage
educational institutions.
¾ Role of Democratic Institutions: India’s Parliament, judiciary, and Election Commission promote unity by representing
all sections of society through democratic processes.
™ Regular elections provide a platform for diverse voices to be heard peacefully.
™ Judiciary ensures protection of minority rights and upholds constitutional morality.
9 Example: The Supreme Court’s intervention in the Sabarimala case and triple talaq showcased legal protection
of gender and religious rights.
¾ Cultural Integration Through Festivals and Media: Shared celebrations, films, sports, and music help create a sense
of common identity beyond regional or religious lines.
™ National festivals like Independence Day and Republic Day unite people in patriotic spirit.
™ Bollywood films and Indian cricket team serve as pan-Indian cultural symbols.
9 Example: The widespread celebration of Diwali, Eid, Christmas, and Pongal across regions fosters mutual
respect and shared joy.
¾ Civil Society and Youth Engagement: NGOs, student groups, and youth-led campaigns are actively promoting values
of inclusivity, equality, and human rights.
™ Movements for environment, gender rights, and communal harmony often cut across identity divisions.
™ Youth are using social media to spread messages of solidarity and cultural understanding.
9 Example: Initiatives like “India Against Hate” and student solidarity protests after communal violence show
civic unity.
¾ Education and National Symbols: Schools teach children about national integration, diversity, and shared history
through common curriculum and symbols.
™ National anthem, pledge, and common history create emotional unity from a young age.
™ Programs like “Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat” aim to connect students across states.
9 Example: Mass campaigns such as the Har Ghar Tiranga and Swachh Bharat Abhiyan promote national
unity

While the concept of “Unity in Diversity” in India is being tested by rising religious, linguistic, and regional assertions, it
is simultaneously reinforced by constitutional safeguards, grassroots integration, and inclusive policies. The path forward
requires vigilant protection of minority rights, responsible governance, and a reaffirmation of pluralistic values to ensure
that India’s diversity remains a source of strength rather than division.

2. Discuss the role of digital media and technology in shaping new forms of social cohesion and division in Indian
society.

In the 21st century, digital media and technology have become powerful instruments of social transformation. In India,
a society marked by diversity in caste, class, religion, and language, these tools have enabled new forms of social cohesion
through communication, awareness, and empowerment. However, they have also created new axes of division, polarization,
and exclusion.

Role of Digital Media and Technology in Strengthening Social Cohesion

¾ Enhancing Communication and Connectivity Digital technology has made communication faster, affordable, and
widespread. It bridges rural-urban and socio-economic divides by connecting individuals through mobile phones,
social media, and government portals.
™ Example: The Digital India initiative has expanded internet connectivity in rural areas, enabling people to access
schemes, information, and services that were previously out of reach.

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¾ Empowering Marginalized Communities Digital platforms provide space for historically marginalized groups (Dalits,
women, LGBTQ+, etc.) to express themselves, form networks, and build solidarity—often bypassing traditional media
and institutions.
™ Example: The #DalitLivesMatter and #MeTooIndia movements allowed people from marginalized sections to
raise awareness, mobilize support, and demand justice through viral campaigns.
¾ Facilitating Collective Action and Mutual Aid Technology enables quick coordination during emergencies, building
a sense of collective responsibility and mutual support that transcends regional or religious identities.
™ Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, digital platforms like Twitter and WhatsApp were widely used to
arrange oxygen supplies, hospital beds, and food delivery, reinforcing pan-Indian solidarity.
¾ Promoting Cultural Integration Social media, OTT platforms, and digital creators promote intercultural exchange by
making regional languages, festivals, music, and films accessible to national and international audiences.
™ Example: Regional movies like Kantara (Kannada), Jallikattu (Malayalam), and Bhojpuri folk music gained pan-
Indian popularity via YouTube and Netflix, helping in cultural blending.
¾ Democratizing Education and Knowledge Access EdTech platforms and digital classrooms help bridge education
gaps across income and geographic lines, creating equal learning opportunities for millions of students.
™ Example: Government platforms like DIKSHA and SWAYAM, and private apps like Byju’s, helped deliver
learning during school closures in the pandemic, especially to underprivileged students.

Role of Digital Media and Technology in Creating New Divisions

¾ Spread of Misinformation and Hate Speech: Social media can rapidly disseminate false or inflammatory content,
incite violence and deepen social mistrust among communities.
™ Example: The Delhi riots of 2020 and the Manipur ethnic conflict (2023–24) saw widespread misinformation
through WhatsApp and Facebook, fueling tensions between religious and ethnic groups.
¾ Deepening the Digital Divide: Not all communities have equal access to the internet, smartphones, or digital literacy.
This unequal access widens existing socio-economic gaps and creates new forms of exclusion.
™ Example: As per NSS data, only around 42% of rural households had internet access in 2022–23. Girls, Dalits,
and tribal children in remote areas often remain outside the digital ecosystem.
¾ Creation of Echo Chambers and Polarization: Algorithms on social media platforms often promote content that
aligns with a user’s existing beliefs, reinforcing biases and deepening ideological divisions.
™ Example: Increased ideological polarization during elections is evident on platforms like Twitter and YouTube,
where users are exposed only to one-sided political content, leading to fragmented public opinion.
¾ Online Harassment and Cyberbullying: Women, journalists, activists, and minority groups are frequently targeted
with threats, abuse, and doxing on digital platforms, silencing dissent and free expression.
™ Example: Prominent journalists and several women politicians have faced targeted trolling and cyber
harassment, pushing some to exit public discourse online.
¾ Surveillance and Erosion of Privacy: Technological tools are increasingly used by the state and private entities to
monitor citizens, raising concerns about privacy, freedom of speech, and democratic accountability.
™ Example: The Pegasus spyware case revealed surveillance on journalists and activists, sparking debates over the
misuse of technology to suppress opposition voices.

Suggestive Measures:
¾ Promote digital and media literacy in schools to build critical thinking and resilience against misinformation.
¾ Bridge the rural-urban digital divide by expanding internet access and providing affordable devices.
¾ Enforce strict content moderation and fact-checking on social media to curb hate speech and fake news.
¾ Enact a strong data protection and privacy law to safeguard citizen rights in the digital space.
¾ Encourage inclusive digital content and regional cultural representation to foster unity in diversity.

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Digital media and technology are powerful tools that can either unify or fragment Indian society. While they offer
unprecedented opportunities for inclusivity, empowerment, and national integration, their unregulated and exploitative use
can lead to polarization, exclusion, and mistrust. The need of the hour is responsible innovation, digital literacy, stronger
platform accountability, and equitable access, ensuring that digital India is both inclusive and harmonious.

3. Examine the various factors influencing the persistence of the caste system in India. Discuss how these factors
have impacted the social-economic, political and cultural fabric of India.

The caste system, an ancient social hierarchy rooted in India’s history, continues to influence the nation’s social, economic,
political, and cultural life despite constitutional guarantees of equality and decades of reform efforts. While legal measures
have sought to dismantle caste-based discrimination, the system persists in both overt and subtle forms, shaping
opportunities, identities, and power structures in contemporary India.

Factors Influencing the Persistence of the Caste System

1. Socio-Religious and Cultural Roots
™ The caste system is historically embedded in Hindu religious texts like Manusmriti, which stratified society into
varnas and justified hierarchy.
™ Practices like endogamy, purity-pollution norms, and caste-based rituals continue in many communities,
especially in rural areas.
2. Socialization and Family Structures
™ Caste consciousness is reproduced through socialization in families, schools, and communities where children
grow up learning norms about ‘their’ caste and ‘others’.
™ Marriage patterns remain largely endogamous even in urban areas, indicating strong caste identity.
3. Economic Stratification and Occupational Continuity
™ While economic mobility has increased, many lower castes remain trapped in traditional, low-income
occupations (e.g., sanitation work, agricultural labour).
9 The informal sector, which employs over 90% of India’s workforce, is often segregated along caste lines.
4. Caste-based Political Mobilization
™ Political parties use caste identities as vote banks, especially in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, leading to
caste-based electoral alliances (e.g., Yadavs, Dalits, Patels).
9 Emergence of dominant castes (e.g., Marathas in Maharashtra, Jats in Haryana) has led to renewed caste-
based agitations for reservations.
5. Educational and Institutional Disparities
™ While affirmative action exists, access to quality education and elite institutions still reflects caste inequalities.
9 Discrimination in higher education institutions, as seen in cases like the suicide of Rohith Vemula (2016),
highlights the persistence of caste bias.
6. Persistence in Rural Social Structure
™ In villages, caste often determines land ownership, social status, and access to resources.
9 Untouchability practices, though illegal under Article 17, continue in forms like denial of temple entry,
segregation in dining, and water access.
7. Modern Reassertion through Identity Politics
™ Instead of disappearing, caste has re-emerged in new forms—as a tool of assertion and empowerment.
9 Movements like Dalit Panthers, Bhim Army, and Ambedkarite mobilization reflect how caste is now both a
site of oppression and resistance.

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8. Weak Law Enforcement and Loopholes
™ Although laws like the SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act (1989) exist, poor implementation, police apathy, and
slow judicial processes reduce their effectiveness.

Impact on the Socio-Economic, Political, and Cultural Fabric of India

¾ Socio-Cultural Impact
™ Inequality and Marginalization: Caste-based discrimination leads to unequal access to education, healthcare,
employment, and basic services. Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) remain among the most
socio-economically deprived groups in India.
™ Poverty and Social Exclusion: The caste system reinforces intergenerational poverty by denying opportunities
and upward mobility, especially in rural India.
™ Violence and Atrocities: Caste-related violence and atrocities against Dalits still occur, particularly in rural areas
where traditional hierarchies remain strong.
™ Endogamy and Social Norms: Caste endogamy continues to be a dominant feature in marriage, limiting social
integration. Inter-caste marriages are still stigmatized and in some cases result in honour killings.
™ Mental Health and Dignity: Experiences of caste-based humiliation, discrimination, and exclusion deeply
affect the psychological well-being and confidence of individuals, especially youth from marginalized castes.
™ Perpetuation of Cultural Segregation: Despite modernization, caste continues to shape cultural boundaries.
Ritual purity norms still influence daily interactions, especially in rural areas, sustaining social distancing between
castes in festivals, dining, and religious practices.
¾ Economic Impact
™ Economic Marginalization: SCs and STs continue to lag in ownership of productive assets, access to credit, and
employment in high-paying jobs.
9 As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS 2022-23), unemployment and underemployment are
significantly higher among SC/ST youth.
™ Occupational Stratification: Lower castes are often confined to low-paying, menial, or stigmatized jobs like
sanitation work, manual scavenging, or agricultural labour.
™ Landlessness and Asset Deprivation: A large proportion of Dalits remain landless or possess marginal
landholdings. Historical denial of land rights and continued discrimination in land redistribution policies have
left them economically vulnerable.
™ Intergenerational Poverty: Due to structural inequalities and lack of access to quality education, healthcare, and
capital, lower castes often remain trapped in a cycle of poverty — with fewer chances of economic advancement
across generations.
¾ Political Impact
™ Caste-Based Politics: Political mobilization around caste identities is a dominant feature in Indian elections.
Many political parties strategically use caste arithmetic to form vote banks, often at the expense of broader
developmental agendas.
™ Reservations and Backlash: While caste-based reservations have enabled social upliftment, they have also led to
resentment among upper castes, sometimes resulting in social tensions or demands for similar benefits by other
groups (e.g., Patidar or Maratha agitations).
™ Lack of Political Representation: Despite constitutional safeguards, lower caste communities, especially Dalits
and Adivasis continue to face systemic discrimination that hinders their meaningful political participation.
9 They often lack access to party tickets, campaign funding, and support networks, especially at grassroot
governance.

Measures to Address the Persistence of Caste System in India

¾ Ensure strict enforcement of anti-discrimination laws like the SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act with fast-track
courts and victim protection.

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¾ Promote inclusive, value-based education that teaches equality, dismantles caste stereotypes, and highlights
contributions of marginalized communities.
¾ Improve access to quality education and economic opportunities for lower castes through targeted scholarships,
skill training, and entrepreneurship support.
¾ Encourage inter-caste marriages and social integration through state incentives and awareness campaigns.
¾ Curb caste-based political polarization by promoting issue-based politics and ensuring fair representation without
appeasement.

The caste system continues to hinder India’s goal of an equal and inclusive society. Despite legal protections and reforms,
caste-based discrimination and inequality persist due to deep-rooted social mindsets and political misuse. Real change
requires not just laws but also education, awareness, and grassroots efforts to promote dignity and equality for all.

4. Even though globalization has led to increased employment opportunities for women, it has also created a new set
of challenges for women workers. Discuss with examples.

Globalization is a process in which people and countries are getting integrated economically and culturally, through trade,
labor, information technology, travel, cultural exchanges, and mass media. Besides other sections of Indian society, the wave
of globalization has also touched economic and social lives of women profoundly.

It has opened up various avenues for women workers.

1. Formal sector- Various MNCs have opened up multiple economic pathways for women, thus making them more
mobile and economically independent.
2. Informal sector- Due to strengthened trade and export flows, absorption of women in main economic fold has grown
significantly. Kutchcraft, an association of 110 craftswomen’s groups has generated over 6,000 job opportunities since
India embarked on the path of globalization.
3. New jobs and higher pays, raise self–confidence, economic independence, and en-hanced decision making power in
financial and family settings. It has promoted equality between sexes, and challenged gender stereotypes.

Globalization has a darker side as well as seen from following challenges

1. Gender inequalities in form of wage differentials and lesser career mobility in formal sector of economy. Unemployment,
underemployment and temporary work are more common among women than among men.
2. Health Hazards-Since availability or work is irregular particularly in unorganized sector, women are forced to work
for 12 hours which gives rise to respiratory problems, pelvic inflammatory disease etc.
3. Patriarchal attitude and cultural norms-Challenged by globalization often manifested in the form of violence, sexual
offences, glass ceiling, domestic and workplace harassment etc.
4. Gender insensitivity- Maternity benefits and minimum wages provisions are rarely enforced.
5. Working in Nights-Inadequate transport facilities and security for women working with call centers and EPZs makes
them more vulnerable to crimes.
6. Mechanization- Several traditional industries where women work in large numbers like handloom and food processing
have undergone changes in the forms of production with introduction of machines, power looms etc.
7. In formalization: 95% of female workers are in unorganized sector. Globalization has led to many MNCs outsourcing
their production to cheap labor countries like India. For ex: sports, apparel etc. These women don’t have protection
from labor laws or unions to articulate their problems.

In India, GDP could rise by 8% if the female/male ratio of workers went up by 10%.

In the long run, it is necessary to mitigate the negative consequence of globalization by enhancing women’s skills, innovations,
developing policies and insurance products to minimize risks, so as to create an enduring environment for their economic
and social empowerment.

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5. Critically evaluate the significance of steps taken to empower Indian women and weaken the grip of
patriarchy around them.

Women empowerment is the process of accepting and allowing women who are on the outside of the decision-making
process into it. Women empowerment is the most crucial aspect for the overall development of a country.

India has witnessed several constitutional, legal, policy, and social interventions aimed at empowering women and
dismantling entrenched patriarchal norms. While these measures have brought tangible gains in education, employment,
and political participation, patriarchy still manifests in deep-rooted cultural, economic, and institutional barriers,
limiting the full realization of gender equality.

Successes of steps taken in bringing change in institution of patriarchy

¾ Constitutional and Legal Safeguards: These laws have provided legal recourse and protections, enhancing women’s
dignity, autonomy, and workplace security.
™ Fundamental Rights (Article 14, 15, 16): Guarantee equality and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex.
™ Legislations like:
9 Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005)
9 Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2013)
9 Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act (2017) – increased maternity leave to 26 weeks.
9 National Commission for Women (NCW)- 1992
¾ Political Empowerment: Political representation is helping challenge gender stereotypes and giving women decision-
making authority at local levels.
™ 33% reservation in Panchayati Raj Institutions under the 73rd and 74th Amendments has brought over 1.4
million women into grassroots leadership.
9 Women’s Reservation Bill -106th CAA (2023): Proposes 33% reservation in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies,
a landmark step (implementation expected post-2029 census and delimitation).
¾ Economic Empowerment Initiatives: Schemes like MUDRA, Stand-Up India, and SHGs under DAY-NRLM have
encouraged entrepreneurship and financial independence.
™ Digital India and Jan Dhan Yojana have expanded women’s access to banking, credit, and direct benefit
transfers.
9 According to the World Bank (2024), over 56% of Jan Dhan accounts are now held by women.
¾ Education and Skill Development: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas, and Sukanya
Samriddhi Yojana have promoted girls’ education and savings.
™ Skill India and Digital Literacy programs have targeted young women and housewives. Female literacy rose to
70.3% (NFHS-5) and female gross enrolment in higher education crossed 27% (AISHE 2022).
¾ Judicial Interventions and Awareness Campaigns: Media representation, awareness programs, and grassroots
activism have challenged patriarchal norms, promoted gender equality, and encouraged women’s leadership at the
community level.
™ E.g. Recognition of women’s reproductive rights (Right to Abortion till 24 weeks), SC ruling that sex work is not
illegal, and triple talaq ban (2019).
9 MeToo and Digital Activism: Empowered urban women to raise voice against sexual harassment.

Limitations of steps taken

¾ Cultural and Social Norms
™ Son preference, dowry, and honour killings still dominate rural and even urban mindsets.
9 Example: NFHS-5 shows 30% women still justify wife-beating under certain circumstances.
¾ Implementation Gaps: Despite policy intent, execution remains weak, many schemes suffer from underfunding, poor
monitoring, and limited reach, especially for marginalized groups like rural, urban poor, and trans women.

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¾ Economic Barriers: Women remain overrepresented in informal, low-paid work; only 19% have regular salaried jobs,
and wage gaps persist.
™ Moreover, only a small proportion of women own property or have inheritance rights in their name.
9 E.g., Only 13% of women (15 – 49 years) in India owns a house alone, while another 29% owns it jointly with
someone else
¾ Social Resistance: Deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes, cultural norms, and violence against women continue to limit
the transformative potential of empowerment initiatives.
™ According to the National Crime Records Bureau (2021), the crime rate per lakh female population stood at
64.5 in 2021, up from 56.5 in 2020.
¾ Intersectionality Overlooked: Policies often fail to address the unique needs of women from different caste, class, and
gender identities, leading to uneven benefits
¾ Digital and Economic Divide
™ According to GSMA’s Mobile Gender Gap Report 2025, 84% of adult males in India have a mobile but only 71%
of females have one.
9 Women-owned MSMEs still face credit and market access barriers.

Way Forward
¾ Expand Women’s Education and Digital Literacy: Focus on STEM education, digital skills, and financial literacy to
increase workforce readiness and self-reliance.
¾ Ensure Effective Law Implementation: Strengthen monitoring and strict enforcement of gender laws like the POSH
Act, Domestic Violence Act, and Dowry Prohibition Act at the grassroots level.
¾ Promote Economic Empowerment: Encourage women-led MSMEs, expand credit access, and invest in women-
specific skilling and entrepreneurship programs like Stand-Up India and PM Vishwakarma Yojana.
¾ Bridge the Gender Gap in Labour Force: Provide safe workplaces, flexible working hours, maternity benefits, and
creche facilities to boost women’s employment.
¾ Sensitize Society and Institutions: Conduct mass awareness campaigns and gender-sensitization training for
judiciary, police, teachers, and panchayat leaders to change patriarchal attitudes.
¾ Support Political Representation and Leadership: Implement the Women’s Reservation Act swiftly and ensure
capacity building for women leaders at all levels.
¾ Tackle Unpaid Work and Care Economy: Recognize and redistribute unpaid domestic work through policies like
paternity leave and community childcare services.

India has made noteworthy progress in dismantling patriarchy through legal reforms, economic schemes, and affirmative
action. However, structural patriarchy remains deeply embedded in institutions, mindsets, and socio-economic systems.
Real transformation requires not just state action, but societal evolution — one that values women’s autonomy, choices,
and leadership. Only when gender equality is internalized beyond policy can the hold of patriarchy truly be broken.

6. “Indian society has witnessed a breakdown of the joint family system.” Discuss the reasons behind it. Analyze the
emerging trends that can be seen in the institution of family in recent times.

A joint family is an extended family arrangement consisting of many generations living in the same household, bound by
common relationships. Joint family in India, has been regarded more as a value than a mere practice.

However various changes in society and the social mindset have led to a decline in the incidence of joint families.

Reasons behind breakdown of the joint family system.

1 Legal Factors: The enactment of the Land Ceiling Act meant that people had to register family lands in the name of
family members to retain their hold on the land. Earlier sole control lay in the hands of the ‘karta’.
Consequently, family feuds now could lead to breakdown of the family, earlier held together by economic dependence.
Property inheritance rights also made it easy for family members to demand their share and leave as opposed to earlier
control of the head of the family.

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2 Economic factors: New occupations demanding higher mobility have also been a very important cause for Joint
families disintegrating into nuclear units.
™ Increasing incomes have also made it possible to have separate households now.
™ Industrialization and Urbanization have necessitated smaller more mobile units of family than the large joint
family. High cost of living in urban areas.
3 Cultural Factors: Growing individualism has made living in smaller families more convenient to new goals of self-
growth and progress.
4 With consumerism as a guiding ideology, quest to earn more and more make mobility of prime importance.
Moving nuclear families is much simpler than moving the entire joint family.
5 Increasing secularization of society has made relations more for personal convenience and commitment than as a
religious duty.
6 Role of State and modern institutions: Many of the functions of the joint family- providing economic security in case
of losses, care for the aged, child care, etc are now performed by social security and pensions, old age homes, schools
and child care homes.

But this situation is not universal as there are in-stances of increasing joint families in urban areas. Also, the families have
shown “functional jointness” wherein they come together in times of need despite living at different places.

Emerging trends seen in the institution of family in recent times. Structural changes:
1 The traditional authority held by elders has become more democratized.
2 Patriarchal make-up of the family is witnessing a decline. Even the earlier subordinate women in the family, have come
to occupy an important role in the decision making in the family.
3 Both husband and wife now play instrumental and effective roles from the earlier rigid role differentiation (Both
working parents).
4 Relations have become more individualistic and collective. There is a growing emphasis on understanding in the
family than on obligations.
5 Newer forms of families like live-in families, single-parent families and gay-parent families have also started to
make an appearance.

Functional changes:
1 Alternate institutions like hospitals, creches, old-age homes etc. are taking up the traditional functions of joint
family.
2 Due to working parents, children are relying more on their peer groups for emotional support.
3 Schools and educational institutions play an important role in socialization and in placement of individuals in
society.
4 New means of entertainment like cinemas, malls, etc. have reduced the reliance of individual on family for
entertainment.

Despite the emerging new trends, what remains the same is that family continues to be an important social institution
in our society where individuals resort for peace and happiness in their fast-paced lifestyles.

7. How does Indian society maintain continuity in traditional social values? Enumerate the changes taking place
in it.

The essence of Indian society lies in harbouring diverse and distinct identities, ethnicities, languages, religions, and culinary
preferences. History stands witness to the fact that the societies that have struggled to hold differences were shattered in
such an attempt.
1 Tolerance: In India, tolerance and liberalism are found for all religions, castes, communities, etc. Indian society
accepted and respected various religions and ensured that there is a peaceful co-existence of religions.
2 Sense of Harmony: Indian philosophy and culture try to achieve innate harmony and order in society.
3 Continuity and Stability: The light of ancient Indian culture life is yet glowing. Many invasions occurred,
many rulers changed, many laws were passed but even today, the traditional institutions, religion, epics, literature,
philosophy, traditions, etc. are alive.

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4 Adaptability: Adaptability is the process of changing according to time, place, and period. Indian society has
shown fluidity and has adjusted itself with changing times.
5 Caste System and Hierarchy: Indian Society has evolved systems of social stratification, which in the past helped in
accommodating outsiders, but concomitantly it has also been the reason for discrimination and prejudice.
6 Unity in diversity: Despite inherent differences, Indian society celebrates unity in diversity which reflects in modern
India’s founding principles and constitutional ideals. In recent times, Indian society has seen a surge in multiple divisive
issues like
7 Casteism: Caste-based discrimination leads society to divide into artificial groups which sometimes even led to
violence. No country can make real progress unless this system is uprooted completely.
8 Communalism: The aggressive attitude of one community towards the other creates tension and clashes between two
religious communities. It poses a great challenge to democracy and the unity of our country.
9 Nuclear Families: A new trend of nuclear families with one or a maximum of two children has emerged in India. Due
to this child are not able to get the presence of the elderly who plays a major role in instilling values among the
younger ones.
10 Gender Discrimination: There is a need for India to closely examine the norms that allow violence and a broader
pattern of gender discrimination to continue. Any society that does not value women as much as men are not reaching
its full potential.

Despite all these reasons, India remains a diverse country, a bewildering mosaic of communities of all kinds; our peculiar
societal genius is to fashion a form of coexistence where diversity can flourish and find its place. The principle of Sarva
Dharma Sambhava (equal respect for all religions) is rooted in India’s tradition and culture.

8. Discuss the significance of traditional kinship structures in shaping Indian society.”

Kinship refers to the social bonds formed through blood relations, marriage, or adoption.
¾ In India, traditional kinship structures like joint families, clans (gotras), and caste-based affiliations have played a
major role in shaping social, economic, and cultural life. These structures have not only maintained familial ties but
also influenced how communities function and interact.

Significance of traditional kinship structures

1. Foundation of Social Organization: Kinship provides the basic framework for social relationships and identity. It
determines roles, responsibilities, and the place of an individual in society.
™ Example: In a joint family, elders are respected decision-makers, and younger members are expected to follow
their guidance.
2. Support System for Economic Life: Traditional kinship groups often functioned as units of economic cooperation,
especially in agrarian settings, by pooling resources and sharing labour.
™ Example: In rural areas, extended families often farm collectively and share earnings, reducing individual financial
risk.
3. Role in Marriage and Alliances: Kinship norms dictate marriage rules, such as whom one can or cannot marry,
helping maintain community boundaries and social harmony.
™ Example: The concept of gotra prohibits marriage within the same clan among many Hindu communities to
avoid inbreeding.
4. Preservation of Traditions and Customs: Families and kin groups pass down religious rituals, ceremonies, and
customs, helping preserve cultural identity over generations.
™ Example: Wedding customs like ‘kanyadaan’ or ‘mehendi’ are preserved within kin groups and taught to younger
generations.
5. Community Governance and Conflict Resolution: Kin-based groups often acted as informal governance structures,
settling disputes and maintaining order within communities.
™ Example: Khap Panchayats in North India are clan-based bodies that handle social disputes, though they are
now controversial for outdated norms.

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6. Emotional and Social Security: Kinship ties offer emotional support during crises like illness, death, or
unemployment, reinforcing social cohesion.
™ Example: In times of bereavement, entire extended families come together to provide psychological and logistical
support.
7. Political and Caste Mobilization: Kinship networks have been used to organize caste-based or community-based
political movements and assert social identity.
™ Example: Caste associations often use kin ties to mobilize people for political demands like reservations or local
leadership.

Traditional kinship structures have played a foundational role in shaping Indian society by binding individuals through
shared responsibilities, customs, and mutual support. While urbanization and modernization have altered some of these
structures, kinship continues to influence identity, behaviour, and social life in both rural and urban India. Strengthening
positive aspects of kinship while discouraging regressive practices can help India preserve its cultural fabric while ensuring
social progress.

9. Examine how families serve as the foundation for preserving and continuing cultural identity in India.”

“Family is the vessel that carries culture across generations, preserving traditions, values, and stories that shape our identity.”

Families form the bedrock of cultural continuity, playing a pivotal role in transmitting traditions, languages, values, and
historical knowledge across generations. By nurturing cultural practices within intimate and familiar settings, families
become primary agents of cultural preservation, fostering a sense of belonging and identity that transcends time and
space.

Families: The Cornerstone of Cultural Preservation

1. Transmission of Rituals and Customs: Families ensure that cultural traditions, such as religious festivals, wedding
customs, and daily rituals, are preserved through active participation and shared understanding at home. These rituals
give individuals a sense of belonging and identity from early childhood.
™ Example: During Diwali, Indian families teach children how to perform Lakshmi Puja, decorate the house with
diyas, and prepare traditional sweets.
2. Language Preservation: The home is the first space where children are introduced to language. Families that
consciously speak their mother tongue at home help preserve regional languages, especially those under threat from
linguistic homogenization.
™ Example: In many Marathi households, even if children study in English-medium schools, parents and
grandparents ensure Marathi is spoken at home, keeping the language alive across generations.
3. Oral History and Storytelling: Families play a critical role in passing on oral histories including family experiences,
folklore, and local legends, which may not be recorded in textbooks but are crucial to community memory and identity.
™ Example: In many Northeast Indian tribal communities, elders narrate stories about clan migrations, tribal
heroes, and natural phenomena, helping children understand their ancestral roots and worldview.
4. Teaching of Values and Ethics: Families shape character and behaviour by teaching cultural values such as respect for
elders, hospitality, honesty, and social responsibility. These values are often instilled through both words and actions.
™ Example: In most Indian homes, children are taught to greet elders with folded hands and seek blessings, a
small but powerful gesture reinforcing respect and humility.
5. Preservation of Artefacts and Symbols: Many families protect religious artefacts, heirlooms, traditional clothes, and
sacred texts as symbols of cultural identity. These material objects serve as visible, tangible links to the past.
™ Example: In Tamil Brahmin households, generations preserve items like copper Kalash (ritual pots), silk
wedding sarees, or handwritten family horoscopes, each holding spiritual and historical meaning.
6. Passing Down Traditional Knowledge and Skills: Cultural skills such as folk art, regional cuisine, handloom weaving,
music, and farming practices are often taught informally within the family through observation and practice.

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™ Example: In Madhubani (Bihar), painting styles and techniques are passed down from mothers to daughters,
keeping the indigenous art form alive through household learning.
7. Everyday Cultural Behaviour: Children absorb cultural habits not just through instruction but by observing daily
routines, such as the way food is served, prayers are performed, or elders are addressed.
™ Example: In Jain families, children naturally learn to follow food restrictions and daily morning prayers
simply by observing their parents’ daily conduct.

Families are not only units of emotional and social bonding but also powerful institutions for cultural transmission. They
pass down both the visible aspects of culture, language, art, rituals and the intangible values, identity, and memory. In a
fast-globalizing world, where cultural dilution is a growing concern, the family remains the most resilient structure for
preserving India’s civilizational richness and diversity.

10. Examine the key challenges to the protection and realization of child rights in India. Propose effective measures
to overcome them.

Children represent the future of a nation, and ensuring their rights is essential for a just and equitable society. India has
committed to child rights through its Constitution, laws like the Juvenile Justice Act, and global conventions like the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child. However, the realization of these rights faces several persistent challenges.

Key Challenges to Child Rights in India

1. Child Labour: Despite legal prohibition, economic necessity and poverty force millions of children into exploitative
labour, depriving them of education and a healthy childhood.
™ Example: As per Census trends, around 7.8 million child labourers are there in India in 2023.
2. Child Trafficking and Exploitation: Children are trafficked for forced labour, sexual exploitation, and begging. Weak
enforcement and porous borders worsen the issue.
™ Example: NCRB (2022) data shows thousands of children trafficked annually, with many cases undetected or
underreported.
3. Malnutrition and Health Inequality: Large numbers of Indian children suffer from malnutrition, stunting, and
inadequate access to healthcare, affecting their right to survival and development.
™ Example: NFHS-5 (2019–21) revealed that 35% of children under five are stunted and 32% underweight.
4. Gaps in Education Access and Quality: Despite schemes like RTE and mid-day meals, dropout rates remain high,
especially among girls, SC/ST, and rural children. Poor infrastructure and teacher shortages weaken learning outcomes.
™ Example: ASER 2023 report shows significant learning losses in foundational reading and arithmetic post-
COVID.
5. Digital Divide and Online Vulnerability: While digital learning grows, children from poor or rural backgrounds face
lack of devices or connectivity. Those with access face online threats like cyberbullying or exploitation.
™ Example: Reports show increasing cases of online abuse and children’s exposure to inappropriate content on
social media platforms.
6. Child Marriage and Gender Discrimination: Social norms, poverty, and lack of awareness contribute to early
marriage, especially among girls, violating their right to education, health, and autonomy.
™ Example: Despite being illegal, child marriage remains common in states like Bihar and Rajasthan, particularly
during festivals or crises.
7. Weak Implementation of Laws and Schemes: Though India has progressive child protection laws, weak coordination,
corruption, and overburdened child welfare systems reduce their effectiveness.
™ Example: The Child Welfare Committees (CWCs) often lack staff, training, and resources to act swiftly in crisis
situations.
9 Further, only 613 cases were registered under the Child Labour Act in 2021, and many rescued children are
re-employed due to lack of deterrence and weak rehabilitation.

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Effective Measures to Overcome These Challenges
1. Strengthening Law Enforcement and Monitoring: Ensure strict implementation of laws like POCSO, JJ Act, and
Child Labour Act with better coordination between police, NGOs, and child protection units.
™ Example: Use real-time tracking tools like the “TrackChild” portal for monitoring missing or rescued children.
2. Improve Access to Quality Education: Focus on inclusive and affordable education with trained teachers, better
infrastructure, and digital tools to reduce dropouts and learning gaps.
™ Example: Expand the PM SHRI schools model to rural and underserved areas.
3. Combat Malnutrition through Integrated Programs
™ Strengthen schemes like POSHAN 2.0 and ICDS with community-level monitoring, nutrition education, and
regular growth tracking.
9 Example: Anganwadi centers can be equipped with smart devices for growth monitoring and parental
engagement.
4. Bridge the Digital Divide Safely
™ Distribute digital devices in low-income areas and train both students and parents on online safety practices.
9 Example: State-led programs like Delhi’s “Happiness Curriculum” now include digital literacy and emotional
well-being.
5. Community-Based Awareness Campaigns
™ Mobilize local leaders, teachers, and health workers to change social attitudes towards child labour, early marriage,
and gender bias.
9 Example: UNICEF and state governments run child rights campaigns through village-level “child protection
committees.”
6. Strengthen Child Protection Institutions
™ Increase funding, training, and accountability for CWCs, Juvenile Justice Boards, and shelter homes to ensure
quick and sensitive action.
9 Example: Periodic audits and capacity-building workshops for child protection officers can improve
responsiveness.

The protection and realization of child rights in India is both a legal obligation and a moral duty. While significant progress
has been made, persistent structural and social barriers continue to deprive children of a safe, healthy, and empowering
childhood. A child-centric approach backed by strong institutions, inclusive policies, and active community participation
is essential to ensure every child grows with dignity and opportunity.

11. Analyze the effectiveness of Indian government initiatives aimed at employment, education, and social integration
of differently-abled persons.

India is home to approximately 2.68 crore differently-abled persons, constituting 2.21% of the population (Census 2011).
Recognizing their marginalization, the Indian state has adopted a rights-based approach through constitutional mandates
(Article 41, 46), the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016, and targeted schemes across employment,
education, and social inclusion. Despite notable efforts, a significant gap remains between legislation and lived reality,
raising questions about the actual effectiveness of these interventions.

Legislative and Policy Framework

¾ The RPwD Act, 2016 expanded disability categories to 21 and mandated 4% job and higher education reservations.
¾ India’s commitment to UNCRPD has shaped inclusive policies with a focus on accessibility, equality, and non-
discrimination.

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Key Government Initiatives
¾ Employment and Skill Development
™ National Action Plan for Skill Development of Persons with Disabilities (NAP-SDP) under SIPDA offers
vocational training and post-placement support.
™ Skill India Mission (PMKVY)
9 Dedicated sector council (SCPwD) for tailored training.
9 Accessible training centers and courses in high-demand sectors
™ Project LearnAbled (2025) upskills youth in AI, robotics, and connects them to corporate jobs.
™ Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS) funds NGOs for rehabilitation and vocational training.
¾ Education
™ Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS): Special educators, assistive devices, and inclusive
curriculum for secondary students.
™ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): Free, quality elementary education for children with disabilities.
™ Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan): Focuses on making schools, colleges, and public
infrastructure accessible.
9 Distribution of Braille books, speech-to-text software, and AI-powered adaptive learning platforms
™ Scholarships and Financial Aid: Covers tuition, hostel, and books for students with disabilities.
¾ Social Integration and Awareness
™ Accessible India Campaign: Targets barrier-free access in government buildings, transport, and digital services4.
™ Inclusive India Initiative: Promotes inclusive education, employment, and community life through awareness
campaigns and stakeholder engagement.
™ International Wheelchair Day: Nationwide programs for accessibility, sports participation, and technological
empowerment for mobility-impaired individuals

Achievements and Positive Outcomes

¾ Rising Awareness and Community Involvement: Parents, NGOs, and communities increasingly advocate for rights
and inclusion, influencing policy and school practices.
™ Example: In 2023, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu involved over 300 local NGOs and parent groups during the
drafting of their State Policy on Disability.
¾ Technology as an Enabler: Speech-to-text, text-to-audio, and offline accessible learning tools bridge educational gaps,
especially in low-connectivity areas.
™ Example: In Jharkhand, the NGO Enable India distributed offline audio tablets to over 4,000 visually impaired
students in tribal districts, significantly improving learning outcomes in 2023–24.
¾ Corporate Partnerships: Programs like LearnAbled foster industry collaboration, creating pathways to mainstream
employment for PwDs.
™ Example: In 2023, Accenture India’s Disability Inclusion Drive employed over 500 PwDs, providing digital training
and ergonomic work environments.
¾ Increased Accessibility: More public spaces, educational institutions, and transport systems are becoming accessible,
though progress is uneven.
™ Example: Delhi Metro now provides Braille lift buttons and wheelchair accessibility at 100% of its stations,
serving as a national model.

Challenges and Limitations

¾ Despite policy mandates, many schools and public institutions remain physically inaccessible to persons with
disabilities.

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™ Example: According to UDISE+ 2023–24, only 61% of government schools have basic infrastructure like ramps;
less than 15% have tactile signage or Braille-enabled resources.
¾ Shortage of Qualified Educators: Acute in rural and low-income areas, affecting quality of inclusive education.
™ Example: In Madhya Pradesh, nearly 80% of block-level schools in tribal areas operate without a single certified
special educator (2024 State SSA Report).
¾ Social Stigma and Low Awareness: Families often hesitate to send children to school due to fear of neglect or
discrimination.
¾ Funding and Implementation Issues: Disability sector funding remains low; many schemes underfunded or
inconsistently implemented, especially at state/district levels.
™ Example: In 2024, Tamil Nadu reported a 43% shortfall in grants for assistive devices under the ADIP scheme,
leading to long waiting lists for wheelchairs and hearing aids.
¾ Limited Private Sector Involvement: Most job reservations and incentives focus on the public sector; private sector
participation is largely voluntary and insufficient.
¾ Urban-Rural Divide: Rural Pod’s face greater isolation from markets, training, and employment opportunities;
individualized approaches are lacking.
™ Example: In Himachal Pradesh and Northeast hill districts, terrain challenges and low connectivity have led to
isolation of over 60% of registered PwDs from skill training schemes like PMKVY.

Way Forward and Recommendations

¾ Transition from Welfare to Empowerment: Shift policy focus to empower PwDs as active contributors, not just
recipients of welfare.
¾ Increase Funding and Monitoring: Boost budgetary allocations, set measurable targets for accessibility, and enforce
regular audits.
¾ Strengthen Grassroots Outreach: Use local languages, community networks, and technology to improve awareness
and scheme uptake.
¾ Expand and Modernize Skill Training: Include high-growth and digital sectors; ensure training centers are fully
accessible and tailored to diverse disabilities.
¾ Mandate Private Sector Inclusion: Incentivize and, where feasible, mandate hiring and reasonable accommodations
in private companies.
¾ Enhance Accessibility Standards: Strictly enforce accessibility norms for all public and private infrastructure and
digital platforms.
¾ Combat Social Stigma: Integrate disability awareness in school curricula and public campaigns; support peer and
community advocacy.
¾ Promote Research and Data Collection: Regularly update data on disability prevalence and outcomes to inform
policy and measure progress.

India’s policy and programmatic landscape for differently-abled persons has evolved significantly, with a clear shift toward
inclusion and empowerment. However, persistent gaps in infrastructure, funding, awareness, and private sector engagement
must be addressed. A holistic, rights-based approach—backed by robust implementation, community participation, and
technological innovation—is essential to ensure that differently-abled citizens can fully participate in and contribute to
India’s growth story.

12. Regionalism is a threat to maintaining ‘unity in diversity’ in India.” Critically analyse the given statement.

India’s identity as a nation rest on its principle of “unity in diversity”, where diverse linguistic, cultural, ethnic, and religious
communities coexist within a democratic framework. However, regionalism, defined as the assertion of distinct regional
identities and aspirations, has occasionally posed challenges to national unity. While some forms of regionalism have
strengthened federalism, others have strained national integration.

JOKTA ACADEMY SCO 22 SECTOR 15-C, CHANDIGARH PH 9779464470 56

 AWSM NOTES
Understanding Regionalism in India
¾ Regionalism refers to the loyalty or identification with a particular region in preference to the nation as a whole.
¾ It manifests through demands for autonomy, separate statehood, recognition of language, or cultural preservation.
¾ It includes positive regionalism (demand for development) and negative regionalism (secessionism or exclusionary
identity politics).

Impacts of Regionalism on Unity in Diversity in India

¾ Negative Impacts
1. Rise of Insurgency: Regionalism is a threat to the development and unity of the nation as it creates internal
security challenges by the insurgent groups (Khalistan movement in Punjab), who propagate the feelings of
regionalism against the mainstream politico administrative setup of the country.
2. Asymmetrical Development: Regional demands undermine national demands as Developmental plans are
implemented unevenly focusing on regions to which important leaders belong; hence unrest is generated among
the rest of the regions.
3. Challenge to Foreign Policy: Regionalism creates hurdles in international diplomacy, for example in case of
Mamata Banerjee not agreeing to Land Boundary agreement and Teesta River Water sharing, when the leaders at
centre level were ready to do it.
4. Restricting Fundamental Rights: Restricts freedom of movement and profession, defeating Article 19 of the
constitution, as non-natives are exploited and mistreated leading to vulnerability of the migrant population. For
ex: recent Gujarat migrant crisis.
5. Against Constitutional Ethos: It goes against ethos, culture and constitutional ideals of India which are syncretic,
democratic, federal polity.
¾ Positive Impacts
1. Symmetrical Development: Regional aspirations have a positive impact on balanced regional development as
concerns are voiced and heard by central authority which then tries to minimize the disparities.
2. Competitive Federalism: It helps in the development of a spirit of competitive federalism, thereby lifting the
underdeveloped regions on par with national growth.
3. Promotes Democratic Ethos: Regionalism helps in promoting the democratic culture of society by discussion,
debate and action on regional issues.
4. Safety Valve: It provides an outlet to the diverse discourse and concerns of society and their timely redressal,
which helps in releasing tension/ stress that may arise in a diverse society thereby acting as a safety valve.

Thus, regionalism is a natural phenomenon in a federal polity like India where diversities are territorially grouped, largely
on political, ethnic, cultural and linguistic basis. The federal system of polity has indeed made regionalism feasible and
vice-versa.

JOKTA ACADEMY SCO 22 SECTOR 15-C, CHANDIGARH PH 9779464470 57