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PLANT DISTURBANCE ECOLOGY
THE PROCESS AND THE RESPONSE
This page intentionally left blank
PLANT DISTURBANCE
ECOLOGY
THE PROCESS AND THE
RESPONSE

Edited by

Edward A. Johnson
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Kiyoko Miyanishi
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Front cover photos (clockwise from top left): Fire in Manuka heath in the foothills of the New
Zealand Alps west of the Canterbury Plains (courtesy Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre);
parabolic dune field advancing over vegetation in the Newcastle Bight, New South Wales,
Australia (R. G. Davidson-Arnott); iced tree near Fort Drum, New York, March 1991 (David
Fisk); and wind-snapped tree at Tarn Hows, Lake District, England (C. P. Quine).

Back cover photo: Mountain pine beetle outbreak, view from Avalanche Peak near the eastern
boundary of Yellowstone National Park (courtesy Jeff Hicke).

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA
84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK

This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞

Copyright © 2007, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, except chapters 5, 15, and 19.
Chapter 5 Copyright © 2007, Her Majesty the Queen in right of Canada
Chapter 15 Copyright © 2007, Elsevier Inc. and Her Majesty the Queen in right of Canada
Chapter 19 is in the public domain

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights
Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333,
E-mail: permissions@elsevier.com. You may also complete your request on-line via the
Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting “Support & Contact” then “Copyright
and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.”

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Application submitted

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 13: 978-0-12-088778-1

ISBN 10: 0-12-088778-9

For information on all Academic Press publications

visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com

Printed in the United States of America

07 08 09 10 11 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 « A qui s’adresse ce livre?
Il est pour ceux qui aiment comprendre.»

Jean-Philippe Derenne,
L’Amateur de Cuisine (Éditions Stock)
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Contributors xiii
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi

1 Disturbance and Succession 1

Edward A. Johnson and Kiyoko Miyanishi
Introduction 1
Disturbance as the Nemesis of Succession 2
The Chronosequence Basis of Succession 5
Coupling Disturbance and Vegetation Processes 6
Conclusion 10

2 The Turbulent Wind in Plant and Forest Canopies 15

John J. Finnigan
Introduction 15
The Structure of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Over Land 17
Characteristics of Turbulent Flow In and Above Plant
Canopies 22
Effects of Topography and Heterogeneity 36
Implications of This Velocity Structure for Canopy
Disturbance 49
Summary 54

vii
viii CONTENTS

3 Microbursts and Macrobursts: Windstorms

and Blowdowns 59
Mark R. Hjelmfelt
Introduction 59
Convective Storms and Downbursts 60
Vertical Equation of Motion 68
Climatology 71
Downdrafts, Mesocyclones, and Outflows 75
Microbursts 80
Large-Scale Systems 87
Summary 95

4 Understanding How the Interaction of Wind

and Trees Results in Windthrow, Stem Breakage,
and Canopy Gap Formation 103
Christopher P. Quine and Barry A. Gardiner
Introduction 103
Theoretical Core 107
Applied Force 110
Resistive Force 123
Direct Consequences 128
Subsequent Impact of Windthrow, Stem Breakage,
and Gap/Patch Formation 137
Summary and Conclusions 141
Appendix 1: Glossary and Definitions 153

5 Meteorological Conditions Associated with Ice

Storm Damage to Forests 157
Kaz Higuchi and Amir Shabbar
Introduction 157
Synoptic Conditions for Freezing Rain 158
Climatology of Freezing Rain in Canada 167
Meteorological Evolution of Ice Storm ‘98 169
Possible Changes in Ice Storm Frequency Under
a Warming Climate 176
Summary 177

6 The Effect of Icing Events on the Death and

Regeneration of North American Trees 181
David F. Greene, Kathleen F. Jones, and Olga J. Proulx
Introduction 181
The Biomechanics of Branch Breakage During Ice
Events With and Without Wind 185
CONTENTS ix

Ice Measurements in the Field 200

A Review of the Literature on Tree Damage Caused
By Icing Events 201
The Population Consequences of Major Ice Events 206

7 Disturbance Processes and Dynamics in Coastal Dunes 215

Patrick A. Hesp and M. Luisa Martínez
Introduction 215
Dune Types and Disturbance Types and Processes 216
Conclusion 240

8 Coastal Dune Succession and the Reality of Dune

Processes 249
Kiyoko Miyanishi and Edward A. Johnson
Introduction 249
Traditional Dune Succession Hypothesis 252
Problems with the Dune Succession Hypothesis 255
Process-Response Alternative to Traditional Succession
Hypothesis 261
Conclusion 273

9 Fluvial Geomorphic Disturbances and Life

History Traits of Riparian Tree Species 283
Futoshi Nakamura and Satomi Inahara
Introduction 283
Geomorphic Classification of Riparian Zones
and Disturbance Regimes in A Catchment 286
Disturbance, Reliability of Regeneration Habitat, and
Life History of Dominant Tree Species 290
Conclusion 304

10 Water Level Changes in Ponds and Lakes:

The Hydrological Processes 311
Masaki Hayashi and Garth van der Kamp
Introduction 311
Water Balance 312
Case Study: Northern Prairie Wetlands 329
Conclusions 334
x CONTENTS

11 Development of Post-Disturbance Vegetation

in Prairie Wetlands 341
Arnold G. van der Valk
Introduction 341
Wet-Dry Cycles 344
Marsh Ecology Research Program 345
Coenocline Development: Same Pre-
and Post-Disturbance Water Levels 348
Coenocline Development: Different Pre-
and Post-Disturbance Water Levels 357
Models of Coenocline Development 362
Conclusions 366

12 Modeling Heating Effects 371

Geoffry N. Mercer and Rodney O. Weber
Introduction 371
Conservation Laws 372
Simple Examples 373
Application to More Realistic Scenarios 382
Case Study: A Model of Seed Survival 387
Conclusion 392
Appendix: Notation 393

13 Fire Effects on Grasslands 397

Paul H. Zedler
Introduction 397
The Grass Growth Form 399
Regeneration from Seed 403
Grasses as Fuel, Mulch, and Forage 405
Drought Disturbance: A Primary Driver 413
Direct Fire Effects 415
Grassfire and Nutrients 424
Grasses and Woody Plants 425
A Final Caution—Grasses and Fires 430

14 Wildfire and Tree Population Processes 441

Sheri L. Gutsell and Edward A. Johnson
Introduction 441
Wildfire Processes and Characteristics 443
Local Populations and Processes 455
Regional Populations and Processes 471
Conclusions 477
CONTENTS xi

15 Insect Defoliators as Periodic Disturbances in

Northern Forest Ecosystems 487
Barry J. Cooke, Vincent G. Nealis, and Jacques Régnière
Introduction 487
Defoliating Insects as a Distinct Class of Forest
Disturbance 491
The Process of Insect Disturbance 495
Population Dynamics of Foliage-Grazers 502
Conclusion 518

16 Dynamics of Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreaks 527

Justin Heavilin, James Powell, and Jesse A. Logan
Introduction 527
Derivation of the Red Top Model 531
Results of the Fully Developed Model 547
Discussion and Conclusion 550

17 Relationship Between Spruce Budworm Outbreaks

and Forest Dynamics in Eastern North America 555
Hubert Morin, Yves Jardon, and Réjean Gagnon
Introduction 555
History of Spruce Budworm Outbreaks Over the
Past 8600 Years 559
Variation in Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of
Outbreaks: Reflection of Changes in Forest Structure 564

18 Impact of Beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) Foraging

on Species Composition of Boreal Forests 579
Noble T. Donkor
Introduction 579
Herbivory in Boreal Forests 581
Temporal Changes in Beaver Populations 582
Traditional Understanding of Beaver Foraging Impact on
Plant Community Structure 585
Understanding Beaver Foraging Impacts on
Composition and Dynamics of the Boreal Forest 588
Conclusion 597
xii CONTENTS

19 Beaver, Willow Shrubs, and Floods 603

J. Dungan Smith
Introduction 603
Background 607
Theory for Interaction of Flow and Shrubs 622
Model Results 638
Discussion 648
Summary and Conclusions 667

Index 673
Contributors

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contribu-

tions begin.
BARRY J. COOKE (487), Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest
Service, Northern Forestry Centre, 5320 122nd St., Edmonton, AB T6H
3S5, Canada (bcooke@nrcan.gc.ca)
NOBLE T. DONKOR (579), Canadian University College, 5415 College
Ave., Lacombe, AB T4L 2E5, Canada (ndonkor@cauc.ca)
JOHN J. FINNIGAN (15), CSIRO Centre for Complex Systems Science,
P.O. Box 821, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia (John.Finnigan@csiro.au)
RÉJEAN GAGNON (555), Départemente des Sciences Fondamentales,
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
(rgagnon@uqac.ca)
BARRY A. GARDINER (103), Forestry Commission Research Agency,
Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, UK (Barry.Gardiner@forestry.gsi.gov.uk)
DAVID F. GREENE (181), Department of Geography, Concordia
University, Montreal, PQ H3G 1M8, Canada (greene@alcor.concordia.ca)
SHERI L. GUTSELL (441), Department of Biological Sciences, University
of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada (gutsell@ucalgary.ca)
xiii
xiv CONTRIBUTORS

MASAKI HAYASHI (311), Department of Geology and Geophysics,

University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada (hayashi@ucalgary.ca)
JUSTIN HEAVILIN (527), Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Utah
State University, Logan, UT 84322-3900 (jheavilin@gmail.com)
PATRICK A. HESP (215), Department of Geography and Anthropology,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4105 (pahesp@lsu.edu)
KAZ HIGUCHI (157), Air Quality Research Division, Atmospheric Science
and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment
Canada, 4905 Dufferin St., Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada (kaz.higuchi@
ec.gc.ca)
MARK R. HJELMFELT (59), Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, South
Dakota School of Mines and Technology, 501 E. St. Joseph St., Rapid City,
SD 57701 (Mark.Hjelmfelt@sdsmt.edu)
SATOMI INAHARA (283), 3-5-14 Hatanaka, Niiza, Saitama 352-0012,
Japan (inaharas@mbi.nifty.com)
YVES JARDON (555), Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 33 Chemin
Boudreau, Mulgrave et Derry, Québec, QC J8L 2W9, Canada (yjardon@
nationalschool.ca)
EDWARD A. JOHNSON (1, 249, 441), Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada (johnsone@ucalgary.ca)
KATHLEEN F. JONES (181), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Snow and Ice
Branch, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Rd,
Hanover, NH 03755 (Kathleen.F.Jones@erdc.usace.army.mil)
JESSE A. LOGAN (527), USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Logan Forestry Science Lab, 860 North 1200 East, Logan, UT
84321 (logan.jesse@gmail.com)
M. LUISA MARTÍNEZ (215), Depto. de Ecologia Funcional, Instituto de
Ecologia, A.C., km 2.5 Antigua Carretera a Coatepec, Congregacion El Haya,
Xalapa, Ver. 91070, Mexico (marisa.martinez@inecol.edu.mx)
GEOFFRY N. MERCER (371), School of Physical, Environmental and
Mathematical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Australian Defence
Force Academy, Canberra ACT 2600, Australia (g.mercer@adfa.edu.au)
KIYOKO MIYANISHI (1, 249), Department of Geography, University of
Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada (kmiyanis@uoguelph.ca)
CONTRIBUTORS xv

HUBERT MORIN (555), Départemente des Sciences Fondamentales,

Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
(hmorin@uqac.ca)
FUTOSHI NAKAMURA (283), Department of Forest Science, Graduate
School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan
(nakaf@for.agr.hokudai.ac.jp)
VINCENT G. NEALIS (487), Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest
Service, 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC V8Z 1M5, Canada
(vnealis@nrcan.gc.ca)
JAMES POWELL (527), Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Utah
State University, Logan, UT 84322-3900 (powell@math.usu.edu)
OLGA J. PROULX (181), Department of Geography, Concordia University,
Montreal, PQ H3G 1M8, Canada (oj_prou@alcor.concordia.ca)
CHRISTOPHER P. QUINE (103), Forestry Commission Research Agency,
Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9SY, UK (Chris.Quine@forestry.gsi.gov.uk)
JACQUES RÉGNIÈRE (487), Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest
Service, 1055 P.E.P.S. Street, PO Box 10380 Stn. Ste-Foy, QC G1V 4C7,
Canada (JRegniere@cfl.forestry.ca)
AMIR SHABBAR (157), Climate Research Division, Atmospheric Science and
Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, Environment
Canada, 4905 Dufferin St., Toronto, ON M3H 5T4, Canada (amir.shabbar@
ec.gc.ca)
J. DUNGAN SMITH (603), U.S. Geological Survey, 3215 Marine St., Suite
E-127, Boulder, CO 80303, USA (jdsmith@usgs.gov)
GARTH VAN DER KAMP (311), Environment Canada, National Hydrology
Research Centre, 11 Innovation Blvd., Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
(garth.vanderkamp@ec.gc.ca)
ARNOLD G. VAN DER VALK (341), Department of Ecology, Evolution
and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011 (valk@
iastate.edu)
RODNEY O. WEBER (371), School of Physical, Environmental and
Mathematical Sciences, University of New South Wales at the Australian
Defence Force Academy, Canberra ACT 2600, Australia (r.weber@adfa.edu.au)
PAUL H. ZEDLER (397), Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies and
UW Arboretum, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 550 N. Park St.,
Madison, WI 53706 (phzedler@wisc.edu)
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

The role of natural disturbances in community dynamics has not always

been clearly recognized, even though ecologists have thought of communi-
ties as dynamic and undergoing succession since the early years of the sci-
ence. However, by the 1970s, there were a number of important studies
showing that communities were subject to a variety of natural disturbances
that occurred often enough to have significant ecological effects. This under-
standing of disturbances as recurrent natural events required a rethinking of
succession, because it was becoming obvious that the idea of directional suc-
cession toward some stable endpoint was no longer as realistic as it once
seemed. Out of this concern arose the gap phase dynamics argument which,
in its simplest version, had succession occurring in gaps of varying sizes or,
in its more complex form, that the community consisted of a spectrum of
life histories adapted to different-sized gaps. In 1985, the Pickett and White
book Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics summarized
these emerging viewpoints. This book was immensely influential because it
came at the right time, calling attention to the disparate evidence for the role
of disturbance in communities and providing an alternative way of thinking
about community dynamics from traditional succession.
Considerable literature has been generated since the Pickett and White
book by ecologists interested in elucidating disturbance dynamics as both a

xvii
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