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Medicinal Plants and Its Therapeutic Uses

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 eBooks

Medicinal Plants and Its

Therapeutic Uses
Edited by: Birla Kshetrimayum

ISBN: 978-1-63278-074-4

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/978-1-63278-074-4-075

Published Date: January, 2017

Printed Version: November, 2016

Published by OMICS Group eBooks

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Preface
Medicinal plants are an important part of our natural resources as they serve as an
important therapeutic agents as well as valuable raw materials for manufacturing
of various traditional and modern medicines. The history of medicinal plants used
for treating diseases and ailments is probably dates back to the beginning of human
civilization. Our forefathers are compelled to use any natural substances that
they could find to ease their suffering caused by acute and chronic illness, wound
injuries and even terminal illness. Since ancient time plants with therapeutic
properties have secured an important place in the healing practices and treatment
of diseases. In the many developing countries, traditional medicines are still the
mainstay of the healthcare, and most of the drugs and cures from the natural
resources such as plants. Even in the develop countries, the raw materials for
manufacturing essential drugs are extracted from medicinal plants, harnessing
its natural properties of healing and curing diseases. Increasingly more people are
turning to herbal remedies especially for treatment of minor ailments. However,
the inclination towards the revival and use of medicinal plants has resulted in a
few undesirable outcomes. Medicinal plants abundant in supply are not infinite
and with the widespread use and extraction, medicinal plants are on the verge of
depletion. There are no visible and concerted effort geared towards conservation
and wise use of medicinal plants, the supply which dwindling given the threats
and increasing demand, a rapid increasing in human population and rampant
destruction of plant rich habitats such as tropical forests. At the current rate of
consumption and used. The status of medicinal plants is threatened risking our
own future benefits and knowledge.
Thus the principal aim of the book is to provide information on the important ethno-
medicinal plants of India especially North Eastern India which is part of the Indo
Burma biodiversity hotspots of the world about the traditional knowledge of medicinal
uses of medicinal plants in the treatment of various diseases by various communities,
the phytochemicals and phytochemistry of various medicinal plants including anti-
parasitic effects and lastly their biodiversity, sustainable used as well as mode of
conservation. I believed that this book is one of the pioneering encyclopedia compilations
that can provide information of many different medicinal plants at glance. I think
that this book will be useful to the people interested in medicinal plants researches
and this book is intended for Scientists, Post-Doctoral Fellows, Academicians and
Research Scholars. However, it will also be useful to post graduate and graduate
students as well as health professionals. I hope, this book will encourage them to
discuss certain innovative things and aspects on the therapeutic uses of medicinal
plants, their sustainable uses as well as conservation in order to provide an ideal
platform for the isolation, purification and characterization of known bioactive/novel
compounds present in these medicinal plants to synthesize future potential drugs
against various diseases for the benefit of mankind.
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About Editor

Birla Kshetrimayum, Ph.D. is working as a Senior Assistant Professor and

teaching Zoology in the Pachuunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl,
India since the year 2007. He did his Bachelor of Sciences (B.Sc.) from Manipur
University, Canchipur and then obtained his Master of Science (M.Sc.) and Doctor
of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Degree from the Department of Zoology (Centre for Advance
Studies), Panjab University Chandigarh, India. He did his Post-Doctoral Research
in a highly competitive International Research project entitled “Role of Zn2+ ion
in Cell Signaling and Phosphorylation” sponsored by BBSRC, UK at the Diabetes
and Nutritional Sciences Division, School of Medicines, Kings College, University
of London, Waterloo Campus, United Kingdom. His field of specialization is Animal
Physiology and Biochemistry and has more than 10 years of teaching and research
experiences. His area of research interests are trace mineral nutrition research,
metals metabolism, metabolic syndrome-X, gene polymorphism in diseases and
recently natural products studies. He has to his credit more than 30 research
papers in the journals of International repute, 1 books, 2 edited proceedings, and
7(six) book chapters. Some of the high impact factor journals where he published
his research works were Coordination Chemistry Review (CCR), Bio Metals, Food
and Nutrition Sciences (FNS), Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine (APJTM),
Indian Journal of Experimental Biology (IJEB) etc. One of the research publications
from his Ph.D. works was selected as “2nd Best Biomedical Article” released by
the US National Library of Medicine in its lists of “World’s Top 50 publications” for
the year 2005-2012. He is currently acting as an Editorial board member of the 5
Research Journals of International repute and has reviewed more than 20 research
papers from the journals of International repute. He has successfully completed
2 major and 3 minor research projects as Principal investigator/Coordinator from
the various funding agencies in India like Department of Biotechnology (DBT),
New Delhi and University Grant Commission (UGC), New Delhi. 1(one) research
scholar has been successfully awarded Ph.D. degree from Mizoram University,
Aizawl under his supervision. He has also presented 27 research papers in many
International/national level seminars in India as well as overseas countries like

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Cambridge, UK, Bangkok, Thailand, Singapore and South Korea etc. He also has
organized 4 National level seminars/workshops as a full time “Convener” during
the last 5 years. He is currently life member of 5 professional academic bodies in
India and abroad namely Indian Sciences Congress Association(ISCA), Kolkata,
The Nutrition Society of India, Hyderabad, India Bird Conservation Network (IBCN),
Mumbai, North East Research Forum, Guwahati and Asia-Pacific Chemical,
Biological & Environmental Engineering Society (APCBEES), Hong Kong.

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 Forewords

I am happy to learn that Birla Kshetrimayum, Ph.D is editing an E-book titled

“Medicinal Plants and its Therapeutic Uses”. I am pleased to learn that the
contents of this E-book were outcome of cutting-edge researches carried out by
senior and young scientists from different reputed institutions of India.
I am sure this E-book will be useful to other scientists, academicians and students
working in the field of natural product research and its allied disciplines.

With best wishes

(Dr. S. Shantikumar Singh)

Assistant Professor
Department of Statistics
Manipur University,
Canchipur-795003 (Imphal),
Manipur

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Acknowledgement
Publication of book involves consistent and dedicated mind regarding the
strenuous and hard labour put in it. Here, it is a combine sense of pride
and great privilege for me to get this golden opportunity to express my
profound gratitude and admiration to Professor Wolfgang Maret of Diabetes
and Nutritional Sciences Division, Kings College, University of London,
who had given me valuable suggestions and encouragements during the
of compilation of this book. I am grateful to Dr. Tawnenga, Principal,
Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl for providing
me necessary facilities during my research works which provide me a
platform to carry out an advance research in order to get International
recognization in the domain field of natural products researches which
ultimately provide me an avenue to act as a single editor of this E-book. I
owe my immense gratitude to Dr. Jay Prakash Rajan, Assistant Professor,
Department of Chemistry, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram
University, Aizawl for his corporation and help. Moreover, I would like
to express my warms thanks to all those authors who have contributed
their valuable research in this E-book without which this E-book may
not be possible and also all those authors whose works have either been
consulted or quoted. I am very grateful to Miss Sherryl, Managing Editor,
Omics Group International, USA for her technical and editorial input during
the preparation of the book. I am also sincerely thankful to my family
members, colleagues and students for their constant encouragement
and support. Last but not the least, the financial assistance provided to
me by University, Grant Commission (UGC-NERO), India, to carry out a
cutting edge and breakthrough research in the Ethnomedicinal plants of
Mizoram, a north eastern states of India through Minor Research Project
is greatly acknowledge

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 Introduction
Plants that possess therapeutic properties or exert beneficial pharmacological
effects of the human body are generally designated as medicinal plants. Medicinal
plants naturally synthesize and accumulate some secondary metabolites like
alkaloids, sterols, terpenes, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, resins,
lactones, quinines and volatile oils. The medicinal plants have been used for
the treatment of diseases and illness since the ancient times. Ancient Chinese
scriptures and Egypt papyrus hieroglyphics describe medicinal uses of plants.
Indigenous cultures in Africa and America used herbs in healing while other in
developed traditional system (Indian ayurveda and traditional Chinese system) in
which herbal therapies are used. Researchers have found that people in different
parts of the world used same or similar plants parts for the treatment of the same
illness.
Recently the world health organization (WHO) estimates that 75% of the people
worldwide rely on the herbal medicines for their primary health care. In Europe
countries like Germany and United Kingdom about 600-700 plants based
medicines are available and also prescribed by same 70% physicians. In the
last 15 years in the United States, public dissatisfaction in connection with side
effects and the cost of the prescribe of allopathic medicines combine with an
interest in returning to natural and organic remedies has led to an increase in
herbal medicines used. During past three decades, the demand and utilization of
medicinal plants has increased globally. There is now consensus regarding the
importance of medicinal plants and traditional health systems in solving the health
care problems, efficacy and safety of medicinal plants in curing various diseases.
Because of this growing awareness, the international trade in plants of medicinal
importance is growing phenomenally. The documentation of traditional knowledge
can ensure local peoples right in the light of intellectual property rights and help
avoid adverse impact on local people and the environment. The used of traditional
knowledge in sustainable forest management can significantly contribute to
the research and development of medicinal plants and reduce associate costs.
Traditional knowledge on habitat, habit and use patterns of the wild plants by
ethnic communities are essential for a sustainable forest management plan which
is essential for restoration and conservation of wild diversity.
In addition to above, plants and their metabolites constituents have a long history
of use in modern “western” medicine and in certain systems of traditional medicine,
and are the sources of important drugs such as atropine, codeine, dioxin, morphine,
quinine. Use of herbal medicines in developed countries has expanded sharply

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in the latter half of the twentieth century. In recent years, the use of traditional
medicine information on plant research has again received considerable interest.
While the western use of such information has also come under increasing
scrutiny and the national and indigenous rights on these resources has become
acknowledged by most academic and industrial researchers. Meanwhile, the need
for basic scientific investigations on medicinal plants using indigenous medical
systems becomes imminent. The desire to capture the wisdom of traditional healing
systems has led to a resurgence of interest in herbal medicines, particularly in
Europe and North America, where herbal products have been incorporated into
so-called alternative, “complementary”, “holistic” or “integrative” medical systems.
Monographs on selected herbs are available from a number of sources, including
the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy, German Commission E and
the World Health Organization. The WHO monographs, for example, describe the
herb itself by a number of criteria (including synonyms and vernacular names) and
the herb part commonly used, its geographical distribution, tests used to identify
and characterize the herb (including macroscopic and microscopic examination
and purity testing), the active principles (when known), dosage forms and dosing,
medicinal uses, pharmacology, contra-indications and adverse reactions. During
the latter part of the twentieth century, increasing interest in self-care resulted
in an enormous growth in popularity of traditional healing modalities, including
the use of herbal remedies; this has been particularly true in the USA. In the
European market there are a lot of products derived from natural plants, which
are recognized to possess different biological properties, such as antioxidant,
antiseptic, diuretic, stimulating the central nervous system, sedative, expectorant,
digestive, etc. Some of these plants have been used in traditional medicine since
ancient times and are available on market as infusions, tablets and/or extracts.
Consumers have reported positive attitudes towards these products, in large part
because they believe them to be of “natural” rather than “synthetic” origin, they
believe that such products are more likely to be safe than are drugs, they are
considered part of a healthy lifestyle, and they can help to avoid un necessary
contact with conventional “western” medicine.
Besides these, India has also a long history of traditional medicine and has a vast
repository of medicinal plants that are used in traditional medical treatments and
around 20,000 medicinal plants have been recorded. To date, however, there has
been little rigorous scientific study of these traditional medicines and indigenous
plants. The North East Region of India is full of natural resources especially in
medicinal and aromatic plants, which are extensively used by the traditional user
from time immemorial. Since this region lie in Indo-Burmese mega-biodiversity
‘hot spot’ region of the world and is the genetic treasure house of rich biological
resources for a variety of wild as well as domesticated plants and a secondary vast
source of natural products, some of which may have the potential to be developed
into new drugs for treatment various diseases. In India the use of traditional
medicine is widespread amongst the ethnic people and village dwellers. Although
information on these species is available scatteredly and on a piecemeal basis, I
felt urgent need to compile this information in one volume for each of reference
and use by researches, academia and practitioners. Some of the listed species

VIII
in this book are becoming locally rare while some others are currently facing the
risk of acute depletion. It is therefore, considered important to bring together
the existing information on these species regarding availability, traditional uses,
phytochemicals present, conservation and future scope for synthesizing potential
drugs against various diseases.
Plants have been traditionally been used as a source of medicine by indigenous
people of different ethnic groups inhibiting the hilly terrains for treating various
ailments affecting humans and domestic animals. Form the time immoral, they
have developed a close ethnobotanical relation with the surrounding flora. They
also developed a local and community based traditional knowledge of plants such
as food medicine, pesticides, dye, soap and other purposes. Traditional knowledge
is adapted to local situations, traditionally shared and handed down to generations
by the elderly members of the community. This traditional practitioners are time
tested and have thorough experiences, innovations and experimentation, they are
sustainable and protect soil and water, natural vegetation and biological diversity
of forests in order to bank on this rare and rich pool of knowledge develop through
trial and error, documentation of important plants is crucial for recording the
records in the consolidated form. Documentation is required to store and manage
in all relevant information of the species.
In this book, different chapters from the different authors have been included
which cover biodiversity and conservation of medicinal plants, traditional uses
of medicinal plants by various communities for the treatment of diseases,
ethnomedicinal, phytochemistry and pharmacology of some selected medicinal
plants. The photographs of the some of the species of plants reported in this
book were provided. For most of the species, photographs of the entire plant,
leaf, stem, seeds, flowers and fruits have been given. It is anticipated that this
pioneering work on the medicinal plants will be widely used by professionals,
students and herbal healers alike for the conservation, wise use, and revival of
plants, indigenous knowledge and future research for the isolation of potential
drugs against various diseases.

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Contents Page #
Chapter 1: Biodiversity and conservation of medicinal plants.
Chapter 2: Traditionally used medicinal plants belongs to family
Asteraceae for the treatment of cancer in Mizoram, Northeast India
Chapter 3: Traditional medicinal plants used for various skin diseases
and cosmoceuticals in Manipur, North-East India.
Chapter 4: Ethnomedicinal plants used by the Garo tribe of South
Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India.
Chapter 5: Ethno-medicinal Plants Used by the South West Khasi Hills
District Community of Meghalaya, India
Chapter 6: Carex baccans Nees, an anthelmintic medicinal plant in
northeast India.
Chapter 7: A Review on Clitoria ternatea (linn.): Chemistry and
Pharmacology
Chapter 8: Cissampelos pareira Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry
and pharmacology: A review.

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Biodiversity and Conservation of Medicinal

Plants
Sanatombi Rajkumari and K. Sanatombi*
Department of Biotechnology, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal-795003, India
*Corresponding author: Dr. K. Sanatombi, Department of Biotechnology, Manipur
University, Canchipur, Imphal-795003, India; Tel: 0385-2435233; E-mail: ksanatombi@
rediffmail.com

Abstract
Medicinal plants are the principal economic resource for health care purposes which are
used throughout human history since time immemorial. Millions of world’s populations
rely mainly on medicinal plants as herbal medicine and these plants are cultivated to
meet their needs. Thus, it constitutes a significant part of their subsistence, need and
income. Biodiversity of valuable medicinal plants satisfy the expansion of regional and
international markets for cultural and economic purposes. The role and contributions of
medicinal plants to healthcare, cultural and economic reasons for the well-being of people
have been increasingly acknowledged over the past few decades. These increasing demands
have been met by over- harvesting of spontaneous flora and have resulted in severe habitat
loss, agriculture encroachment and genetic diversity depletion. Therefore, conservation and
sustainable utilization of medicinal plant species have become tremendously important.
Effective biodiversity conservation comprises of two main areas: in-situ conservation and
ex-situ conservation. Conserving medicinal plant resources demands the need for intensive
management, more research and increased level of public awareness for their socio-economic
upliftment. Biodiversity conservation and management of medicinal plant populations and
their potential habitat can provide significant base for the conservation of natural habitats
in the future.

Introduction
Medicinal plants have been greatly used in most countries as a vast integral part of
traditional herbal medicine. The widespread use of wild and harvested medicinal plants
as ethnomedicines has been described in the Vedas and the Bible. They also provide the
only form of health care sources which are easily available to the vast poor community
at cheap prices. Therefore, demand for natural products with medicinal properties is
hugely increasing in recent years and many such plants are traded within and across
different countries as they have no side-effects and non-narcotic. Moreover, establishing
pharmaceutical industries for development of plant based therapeutic drugs has become a
commercialization trend and this growing dependence on medicinal has indeed led to their
vast extraction and overexploitation. In addition, many plant species are investigated for
their active constituents and pharmacological activity. Although some drugs of botanical

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origins are manufactured through transformation of the bioactive chemicals present in
them, many are extracted directly from plants. This, in turn, poses a severe threat to their
biodiversity, natural habitat and genetic stocks if not sustainably managed.
Another good reason to conserve medicinal plant populations is for the purpose of genetic
conservation. Biodiversity conservation via cultivation of medicinally valuable plants can
be utilized to enhance current and future demands for large volume production of plant-
based drugs and herbal preparations. It is also a means for relieving wild populations from
harvest pressure and allows meticulous and skillful post-harvest handling. Thus, through
cultivation of medicinally valuable plants for biodiversity conservation, quality controls can
be achieved and it may also provide the opportunity for the economic development of the
medicinal plant species as an important commercial crop as well.
Conservation, for instance, are associated with seed-banks, environment information
systems or protected biological reserves. Conservationists should have a profound knowledge
about identification, morphology and ecology of medicinal plants. They should mostly be
concerned with management of plant species and socio-economic structures of local societies
where they are grown. There are significant global benefits that could be easily achieved by
supporting biodiversity conservation of medicinal plants with the active participation of
traditional medicinal practitioners, academics, researchers, and field personnel.

Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants

Biodiversity is often a varietals measure of the health of biological systems and plays a
predominant role by contributing significantly towards livelihood and development of the
global human population. It comprises all natural ecosystems, agricultural ecosystems,
wild and domesticated species.
Medicinal plants are widely distributed across diverse habitats and environment on Earth.
There exists no exact figure for their distribution in different regions and varies greatly. It
is estimated that about 35,000-70,000 number of plant species with medicinal value are
distributed worldwide [1,2] including 7500 in India [3]; 2237 in Mexico [4]; 2527 in North
America and 10,000-11,250 in China [5-7]. Based on their habits, these medicinal plants
are comprised of trees (33%), herbs (32%), shrubs (20%), climbers and grasses (12%) and
lower plants like lichens, algae, ferns etc. (3%). A larger proportion of medicinal plant species
belong to the plant families Asteraceae, Euphorbiacae, Laminaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae,
Poaceae, Acanthaceae, Rosaceae and Apiaceae. More than 800 species of these medicinal
plants are used in medicinal industry for commercial production where about 90% are
collected from wild [8].

Types of Biodiversity
Medicinal plants are distributed across diverse habitats and landscapes. Different types and
levels of biodiversity exist among the plant species. They are discussed as below:
Genetic diversity
It is defined as diversity in genetic characteristics of plant species which belong to different
genera of the same family. Such biodiversity provides the vital conditions to adapt with
different biotic and abiotic environmental changes, thus, serving a significant importance
in the continuity of a species. Loss of genetic diversity can indeed result in loss of desirable
characteristics of species reducing its ability to function its fundamental role in the whole
ecosystem.
Species diversity
It is defined as the diversity of different plant species belonging to the same genus. Such diverse
species shows variation in their morphology, habitat, distribution and reproductive behavior.

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Ecosystem diversity
This type of diversity is considered as the largest type of biodiversity and defined as the
variation of an ecosystem, including both biotic and abiotic component, found in the region.
Different types of ecosystems exist over the whole planet such as aquatic ecosystems,
terrestrial ecosystems, deserts, wetlands, coral reefs etc. Ecosystem diversity includes
large scale of genetic and species diversity, showing abundance of plant biodiversity due to
different ecological niches.
Agro biodiversity
Diversity which exists among different varieties of wild and cultivated clones and hybrids
of plant species is defined as agro biodiversity. Examples include cropland, forage land,
orchard, and ornamental ecosystems. Such type of diversity is rightly illustrated in several
species like Ocimum sanctum, Papavar somniferum, Azadirachta indica, etc.
Biodiversity is also categorized at various regional, national and global levels. Plant diversity
also exists depending upon agro-ecological zones in a country. Crop diversification has been
recommended to further strengthen regional diversity.

Concerns Related to Medicinal Plants

Major concerns are loss of biological diversity and plant resources. A large numbers of
medicinal plant species are globally threatened by various kinds of biotic and abiotic factors,
both in developed and developing countries [9,10]. They include:
Over exploitation
Medicinal plants are being over exploited by pharmaceutical industries and efforts made
to domesticate them are little. This, in turn, has a profound effect on pharmaceutical
industries (Ayurvedic, Unani and Homeopathic drug factories), with insufficient supply of
plant resources.
Unscientific exploitation
Plants are being extracted for various purposes. However, no proper studies on reproductive
biology of the plant are conducted and hence, the revital and replacement of plants are
tremendously hampered.
Environmental degradation
Natural calamities including floods, earthquakes cyclones, typhoons, sand dunes and soil
erosion are some of the environmental factors that adversely affect biodiversity of flora.
Extraction of plants for purposes other than medicinal uses and intensive cultivation as a
natural consequence of feeding the increasing human population also have adverse effects
on plant biodiversity. Further, human activities like uncontrolled and unscientific grazing
and pollution are some of major threats to our biodiversity which can lead to the extinction
of species [11-13].
Human population
Increasing human population has caused enormous biotic pressure on natural resources,
which in turn, has resulted in deforestation and climatic changes in several parts of the
world. Ozone depletion, greenhouse gases, industrial pollution and acid rain are some
climatic changes. Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides for crop cultivation have caused
ill effects on soil health and adversely affected natural flora in several parts of the world.
Even though, new molecular biology and gene transfer technology has certainly opened
new prospects in food security, the adverse effect of such efforts on plant biodiversity and
sustainable development has been cautioned [14]. There is immediate need to promoting

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scientific research on traditional medicine and collaboration work, whereby the scientific
research should be conducted on safety, adequacy and quality of traditional medicine as
proposed by World Health Organization (WHO).

Conservation of Medicinal Plants

There arises a strong and urgent need to conserve medicinal plants which are increasingly
facing major threats of various environmental, socio-economic and institutional factors.
Because of over harvesting of species and degradation of their habitats, much of medicinal
plant species has become threatened and endangered.
Even if medicinal plants species are cultivated on millions of hectares and thousands of
botanical gardens are created, medicinal plants can still become extinct if viable breeding
populations are not protected and conserved in the wild. The main purpose of conservation
is effective sustainable development of valuable bio-resources and germplasm without any
harm to natural habitats and ecosystems. Proper identification, collection, characterization,
evaluation, propagation, disease elimination, storage and distribution are some of the
major activities which are generally involved in sustainable conservation of important plant
resources. If urgent conservation programme are not undertaken, there is great danger of
losing these priceless biodiversities.
Conservation strategies are defined as sustainable use and maintenance of species and
different ecological processes which are essential for survival and various economic activities
of human populations. Conservation of plant resources must involve an integrated and
systematic scientifically oriented program involving socio-economic and ecological systems
interactions. It requires a team effort and co-operation involving a wide range of disciplines
and institutions. This will indeed help in developing a consensus on what needs to be
done and assigning task to various institutions for the conservation of biodiversity. Also,
the participants will be motivated to undertake the task and monitor its progress. Another
way is a national strategy which involves organizing a regional and/or national workshop
which will bring involvement and participation of experts on different aspects of the subject
area to analyze the situation, proposed objectives, define priorities and draw up a plan
of action. In order to implement this strategy, it is essential to work in co-operation and
partnership with local plant collectors and herbalists who use medicinal plants. WHO has
already collaborated with the Ministries of Health in setting up developmental programs for
utilization of medicinal plants in sustainable way.

Types of Conservation Strategies for Medicinal Plants

Biodiversity conservation and development strategies are broadly categorized in two types:
In-situ conservation
It is defined as conservation of a germplasm in its natural habitat along with several
wild relatives having genetic diversity. It is considered as cost-effective and high priority
preservation of the existing biological diversity. Some of the in-situ methods of conservation
are as follows:
National parks and sanctuaries: These are protected areas covering the biological diversity
and genetic diversity in its pristine condition, devoid of human interference. Many eco-
development programs are set up and operated around National Parks and Sanctuaries
with a main view to preserve the variability of populations, revitalize the area with less
adverse harm from infrastructure development and creation of new improved varieties.
Biosphere reserves: These are areas of land or water, usually encompass all terrestrial,
coastal and marine ecosystem, that is protected by law in order with a view to support
biodiversity conservation and reduce human impact on environment. These are considered

4
as sustainability support sites with prevalence of rich abundance of genetic resources of
wild crop relatives. Usually nominated by national governments, these areas are under the
jurisdiction of the state where they are located.
Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAP), launched in 1971 by United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), is a scientific programme which was
established with the aim to promote cooperation on research and development, improvement
of relationship between human populations and their existing environments and share
experienced knowledge on interlinked issues like biodiversity loss, climate change and
sustainable development. There are 669 biosphere reserves located in 120 countries [15].
A Biosphere reserve mainly consists of three areas. They are:
(a) Core zone – This is the most strongly protected area to conserve biological diversity
of plants and animals. They are protected and made safe from various impact of
human population.
(b) Buffer zone – This is the second zone and surround the main core zone. It provides
areas for recreation, travel, tourism and environmental research.
(c) Transition zone – This is the last part of a biosphere reserve which provides space for
local communities for managing the resources found in the area through fisheries,
farming and various other activities.
Sacred groves: These are patches of vegetation which are usually protected on the basis of
cultural and traditional religious practices. There is no separate scheme for the conservation
of sacred groves. However, studies have been conducted by NGOs and research organizations
like National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) to evaluate the status of
sacred groves under the forest protection and improvement programme.
On-farm conservation: This type of conservation has been gaining importance globally
recently as it provides an easy way of conservation which involves maintenance of farm
areas and traditional agriculture systems by farmers in a cost-effective manner.
Home gardens: Home garden conservation is very similar to on-farm conservation, but this
type is usually done in smaller scale. Common examples are home gardens which consist of
a wide variety of species such as fruits, vegetables, medicinal plants, etc.
Few limitations associated with in-situ conservation are high-cost maintenance of huge
number of genotypes and increased risk of losing germplasm due to environmental threats.
Ex-situ conservation
This involves conservation and long-term preservation of plants in location outside their
natural habitat by maintaining plants in farm fields, home gardens, botanical gardens and
plant tissue culture repositories. The importance of this type of conservation is the rapid
development of alternative supply sources of medicinal plants in huge quantities and low
price in order to compete with wild medicinal plant stocks cultivated by gatherers [16].
Botanical gardens/arboreta: Botanical gardens are gardens, often run by scientific
research organizations, which maintain documented collections and cultivations of broad
range of wild plant species displayed along with their botanical names. Its main purpose
is exploration, educational research and biodiversity conservation of threatened and
endangered plant species. The Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (London) was established in
1759 and since then, the importance of establishing a Botanical garden was realized.
Gene banks: Also known as Field Gene Bank (FGB)/Field Repository/Clonal Repository,
serves as a means of conserving indigenous and exotic plant germplasm. Their main
purposes are to act as the reservoir of collected elite plant sample, maintain it and ensure
its availability to global human population. This type of conservation gives easy access to

5
conserve material for scientific research purposes, even though their maintenance is rather
expensive.
Seed bank: Seed Bank provides the most efficient and effective method for conservation
of orthodox seed (desiccation tolerant which be stored for longer durations). In this
conservation process, sealed seeds are stored and maintained in medium- term storage
facilities (temperature of 0°C to 50°C and relative humidity of 15% to 20%) and long-term
storage facilities (stored at colder temperatures, -20°C to -180°C). Most seed samples
remain viable for 20- 30 years and up to 100 years in medium-term and long- term storage
depending upon the type of seed, their quality and specificity of storage environment. Seeds
are usually the most convenient materials for germplasm conservation as many plants are
propagated through seeds. Apart from this, seeds occupy relatively small space and are
easily transportable. Quarantine rules, seed health and seedling vigor rules are taken into
account while exchanging seeds and propagules between different countries/organizations
for various purposes.
Cryopreservation method: Cryopreservation has become another important scientific
technology for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. It is defined as
preservation of germplasm in frozen state at an ultra-low temperatures of -165°C to -196°C
using liquid nitrogen by bringing them to a non-dividing zero metabolism state. Some of the
new cryopreservation techniques are:
Vitrifications: This is the process of direct exposure of cells to cryoprotectants which are
highly concentrated (5–8 M), followed by rapid freezing, thus leading to dehydration but
avoiding the formation of ice crystals in cells of seeds-propagule. This technique is employed
successfully in the preservation of somatic embryos and synthetic seeds.
Encapsulation-dehydration: In this technique, cells are encapsulated in alginate beads
and cultured on high sucrose concentration medium, followed by air-drying (usually, silica
gel and airflow) and directly transferred to liquid nitrogen.
Two-step freezing: This technique involves incubation of seeds-propagules or tissue
culture regenerants in a mixture of cryoprotectants having concentration of 1–2 M, causing
moderate cell dehydration, followed by slow freezing (1°C/min down to app –35°C).
DNA conservation (storage at -20°C): This method is relatively simple, easy, cheap and
widely applicable. Recently, genetic engineering has evolved and resulted in manipulation
and transfer of desirable genes for production of transgenic plants. DNA Libraries are being
established and now it has become essential to develop strategies on how and where to use
the germplasm stored in the form of DNA [17].
In vitro (tissue culture) conservation: This type of conservation involves in vitro large scale
multiplication of plants and its storage in the form of shoot tips, meristems, axillary buds,
embryos, callus and cell suspension. The essential requirements for in vitro conservation
techniques are creation of environment and light controlled culture rooms, laminar airflow,
autoclave, trained scientists or technicians. Information of those plant species required for
in vitro conservation is also desirable. In vitro gene banks offers advantages in that it is often
inexpensive, easy to maintain and effective storage systems [18].

Future Potentials
The conservation of medicinal plants is necessarily a long term project requiring the
development and organization supported by educated staff and general public that is aware
of conservation issues. Improvement in national education standards and campaigns
that promote the importance of habitat will help in biodiversity conservation. Research
information related to identification of threatened medicinal plants, areas of high biological
diversity at the macro scale and properties specific medicinal plants at the microscale
should use the complementary skill of the conservation biologists. Various public sectors,
Institutes and NGOs should develop agro technique in order to provide large scale improved

6
quality planting material to the cultivators. Creation of mass awareness among rural folk
about the usefulness of medicinal plants and encouraging them for cultivation of medicinal
plants will be useful for conservation and sustainable use of plant biodiversity.

References
1. Farnsworth NR, Soejarto DD (1991) Global importance of medicinal plants. In: Akerele O, Heywood V and
Synge H. (Eds), The Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
2. Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham AB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants
on biodiversity: Global trends and issues. Inter-department working group on biology diversity for food and
agriculture, FAO, Rome, Italy.
3. Shiva V (1996) Protecting our biological and intellectual heritage in the age of biopiracy. The Research
Foundation for Science, Technology and Natural Resources Policy, New Delhi, India.
4. Toledo VM (1995) New paradigms for a new ethnobotany: reflections on the case of Mexico. In: Schultes RE
and Von Reis S. (Eds), Ethnobotany: Evolution of a Discipline. Chapman & Hall, London.
5. Moerman DE (1998) Native North American food and medicinal plants: epistemological considerations. In:
Prendergast HDV, Etkin NL, Harris DR and Houghton PJ. (Eds), Plants for food and medicine. Proceedings from
a Joint Conference of the Society for Economic Botany and the International Society for Ethnopharmacology,
London, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK.
6. He SA, Gu Y (1997) The challenge for the 21st Century for Chinese botanic gardens. In: Touchell DH and
Dixon KW. (Eds), Conservation into the 21st Century. Proceedings of the 4th International Botanic Gardens
Conservation Congress (Perth, 1995). Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth, Australia.
7. Xiao PG, Yong P (1998) Ethnopharmacology and research on medicinal plants in China. In: Prendergast
HDV, Etkin NL, Harris DR and Houghton PJ. (Eds), Plants for food and medicine. Proceedings from a Joint
Conference of the Society for Economic Botany and the International Society for Ethnopharmacology. London,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK.
8. Anonymous (2000) Report of the task force on conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants.
9. Kumar U, Sharma A (2001) Plant Biotechnology and Biodiversity Conservation. Jodhpur, Agro-Bio.
10.Deb C R (2002) Cryopreservation of somatic embryos and artificial seeds of Melia azedarch by vitrification ,
Journal of plant biology,29, 71-76.Jakhar ML, Kakralya BL, Singh SJ, Singh K (2009) Enhancing the Export
Potential of Medicinal plants through biodiversity conservation and development under multi-adversity
environment. In: Trivedi PC (2nd Ed), Medicinal plants: Utilisation and conservation. Aavishkar Publishers,
Distributors, Jaipur, Rajasthan.
11. Kakraliya B L, Singh K (1995) Ecophysiological factors in desertification’. In: Plant Productivity under
Environmental Stress. (Eds.). Singh, Karan and Purohit, S. S, RAU and Agros, Bikaner, 35-44.
12. Chaudhary V, Singh K, Kakralya, B L (2000) Environmental Protection (Eds.). Pointer Publishers, Jaipur. 231-240.
13.Chaudhary Y, Singh K, Kumar A, Bora KK (2001) Environmentalists, agrihorticuiturists, foresters, industrialists
and exporters expectations from phytophysiologists. In: Production and Developmental Plant Physiology (Eds.).
Bora K. K, Singh K and Kumar A. Pointer Publishers, Jaipur. 5-39.
14.Janic KJ (2001) New crops for 21st century, In: Nosberger J, Geiger HH and Struik PC. (Eds.), Crop Science:
Progress and Prospects. Wallingford, UK, CABI Publishing.
15.UNESCO: Biosphere Reserves, 2013.
16.Cunningham AB (1997) An Africa-wide overview of Medicinal Plant Harvesting, Conservation and Healthcare,
Non-Wood Forest Products. In: Medicinal plants for Forest Conservation and Healthcare. FAO, Italy.
17.Mattick JS, Alben EM, Edmonson DL (1972).The gene library-preservation and analysis of genetic diversity
in Australia. In: Conservation 0/ Plant Genes. DNA Banking and In-situ Biotechnology (Eds.). Adams R P and
Adams J E..: Academic Press, San Diego, U. S. A. 15-35.
18.Singh BP (2009) Germplasm Introduction, Exchange, Collection/Evaluation and Conservation of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants-Their Export Potential. In: Trivedi PC (2nd Ed), Medicinal plants: Utilisation and conservation.
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors, Jaipur, Rajasthan.

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 eBooks

Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants Belongs to

Family Asteraceae for the Treatment of Cancer
in Mizoram, Northeast India
Garima Singh, Ajit Kumar Passari, Bhim Pratap Singh and N. Senthil
Kumar *
Department of Biotechnology, Aizawl, Mizoram University, Mizoram -796 004, India
*Corresponding author: Dr. N. Senthil Kumar, Department of Biotechnology, Aizawl,
Mizoram University, Mizoram -796 004, India; E-mail: nskmzu@gmail.com

Abstract
The traditional knowledge and use of medicinal plant species from the plant family
Asteraceae was reviewed for the treatment of several types of cancers in Aizawl District,
Mizoram, Northeast India. Traditional healers and patients suffering from various cancers
in the study area were interviewed with the help of local translators to congregate the
information for the use of medicinal plants against several prevalent cancers in this part of
India. In the present review, we reported 22 plant species which were commonly used for the
treatment of various cancers and ulcer. The most common used plant for the treatment of
various cancers is Mikania micrantha followed by Ageratum conizoids. Leaves are the most
common part used. The present review outlined the traditional information along with the
major phytochemical compounds obtained from the listed plants which may be responsible
for their traditional values in the selected study area. We hypothesized that the information
could improve the traditional anti-cancer recipes and might contribute to a better national
or international health system in future.

Keywords: Anticancer; Asteraceae; Mizoram; Phytochemicals; Traditional Medicinal

Plants

Introduction
Plants have always been the important source for the nutrition and therapeutic usage
against a notable number of human ailments. Recent phytochemical studies of medicinal
plants supported the effectiveness of folkloric medicines. From the ancient time, the plants
have been used for curing various diseases and infections. Cancer is the stage of uncontrolled
growth of several cells, which can colonize and spread to distant sites of the body. It has
many health consequences and can lead to death. In males the most common prevalent
types of cancers are lung, prostate, colorectal, stomach, and liver cancers whereas, breast,
colorectal, lung, uterine cervix, and stomach cancer are most prevalent in women’s. On
an average 30% deaths occur due to cancer can be prevented by avoiding key risk factors
like tobacco or smoked foods. There is a serious need of the natural cancer control plans
to prevent or inhibit the spread of cancer especially in low and middle income countries

8
like India. Recently, World Health Organisation (WHO) has initiated and promoted Cancer
Control Programme (CCP) all around the world with a main focus to promote national cancer
control policies and ongoing programmes. One important parameter of this programme is to
set norms and standards, spread awareness, more importantly encourage evidence based
prevention by using traditional information’s mainly in remote areas where the medical
facilities are limited.
For the treatment of different types of cancers many traditional plants were used by
the local practioners. If we look into the phytochemistry of few plants then the discovery
of compounds like paclitaxel, vinblastine, vincristine, the camptothecin derivatives are the
plant derived agent that made history for the treatment of various cancers. Still many active
phytochemical compounds from traditionally used plants are under clinical trial for the
promising cancer cure.
Among the plants, family Asteraceae is the largest flowering plant family comprising
around 1,600 genera and 30,000 species [1]. The plants are well known to produce
foodstuffs, cooking oils, ornamental plants and medicinal plants. Phytochemical studies of
number of Asteraceae plants have revealed the presence of various chemical compounds
like alkaloids, polyphenols, phenols, flavonoids, terpenes, essential oils etc. Sesquiterpene
lactones are the major phytochemicals in the family that have various biological activities.
They are supposed to possess antibacterial, antiviral and anticancer potential [2-4].
Mizoram is a small and hilly state possesses rich biodiversity of medicinal plant,
with 90.68% forest cover [5]. It lies between 21º 56’ N-23º E latitude and 92º 16’-93º
26’N longitude, [6]. Mizo, the local population possesses unique cultures and indigenous
practices endemic to this region. Local tribes traditionally use many plants for the treatment
of cancer, tuberculosis, diabetes, arthritis skin diseases, allergies etc. There exist traditional
practitioners which prescribes herbal preparations in the form of decoctions, teas or to chew
orally or the pastes to apply externally.

Cancer in Mizoram: An Overview

Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells in the body leading to the death of an individual.
Cancer starts with changes in normal cell that include irregulation of cell division and cell
death, cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis. Deformed mass of cells
could locate inside the tissue without metastasize or it could invade the other tissues or
other part of body. It is a worldwide killer disease that causes more than 7 million deaths
per year worldwide. Till date, more than 100 types of cancers have been identified which are
classified into different groups such as carcinoma, leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma, and
central nerve system by National Cancer Institute (NCI). Major causes for the cancer are the
factors, such as dietary habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, infectious viruses, radiation
etc [7]. The lifestyle factors seem to be associated for Mizoram having the highest stomach
cancers in India [8].
In the recent years, enthusiasm for the use of traditional medicines against many
diseases especially for cancer has begun. Discovery of vinca alkaloids, vinblastine, vincristine
podophylotoxins like anticancer agents from plants led to the search of novel chemotypes
[9]. Plant derived chemotypes are moderate cytotoxic and found to be effective on tumor
cells in vivo with less side effects comparative to conventional treatment methods [10,11].
According to a European Survey by the use of herbal medicines in the cancer treatment were
escalated to 13.9% after the diagnosis of cancer from 5.3% before the diagnosis of cancer
[12]. In Mizoram around 89 plants species belonging to 56 families and 68 genera are used
as herbal medicines for the cure of various ailments [13]. There are also several reported
and few unreported plants which were traditionally used for the treatment of various types
of cancers. The present study documented twenty three most commonly used traditional
medicinal plants used by the local tribes for the treatment of several kinds of cancers in

9
Mizoram, India. We also listed out the method of preparation and the pharmacological
importance of these plants as reported elsewhere. From Mizoram which falls under Indo-
Burma biodiversity hotspot, this is the first report about the traditional plants belongs to
the family Astreaceae having anticancerous potential. The present review will open up the
field for the pharmaceutical peoples to understand the chemical composition of the selected
plants in future.

Material and Methods

There are many Ethnomedicinal plants used by the local people of Mizoram for the
treatment of cancer-suspected diseases and other health problems. Information of the plants
used in the treatments of cancer was collected personal with local herbal practitioners and
the patients suffering from villages in Aizawl, Mizoram, India (Figure 1). Though they were
not very much open about how to prepare the herbal mixture, but gave some glimpses of
the name of the plants and for what diseases the plants may be useful. For some traditional
medicinal plants like Anaphalis adnata and Leucomeris decora there is no literature available
but still are important traditional medicinal plant. The output plants list consists of local
name (mizo) and the common name of the plant. Other information viz. flowering season
of the plant, major phytochemicals isolated and the bioactivities were assayed through the
literature search. Following are the plants noted from the family Asteraceae used in the
herbal preparations for the cancer and other diseases by the Mizo tribal peoples as well.

Figure 1: Map showing the sample collection sites from different districts of Mizoram, Northeast India.

Acmella oleracea/Spilanthus acmella

Local name: An-sa-pui/ An-ka-sa-kir (mizo)
It is also known as toothache plant. The flowering season is during October- December of
every year. Major phytochemicals reported from the plant are Spilanthol (N-isobutyl amides),
[14] saturated and unsaturated alkyl ketones, alkamides, hydrocarbons, acetylenes,
lactones, alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and coumarins. All the plant parts, flowers,
leaves, roots, stems and aerial parts are used in herbal medicines. Leaves and stem boiled
with water was used for the treatment of stomach trouble and flower head is chewed to have
a relief in toothache.
The whole plant paste is used for snake bite. The particular plant is been reported to
possess analgesic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory [15,16], antifungal [17] and anticancer
activities [18].

10
Adenostemma lavenia
Local name: Vai-len-hlo-suak (mizo)
It is also known as sticky daisy and the flowering season in between March-January.
Major phytochemicals reported from this plant are Adenostemmoside, Adenostemmoic acid
[19]. Traditionally the leaf paste is applied on cuts and wound, insect and caterpillar bites
[20], found the Adenostemma lavenia plant extract is effective against MK-1 and B16F10 cell
lines as well which further proves the potential of existence of anticancerous compounds.
Ageratum conizoids
Local name: Vailenhlo (mizo)
It is also known as goat weed and the flowering season are in February-March or
August-September every year. Among the reported phytochemicals from A. conizoids are
mono and sesquiterpenes, triterpene and sterols, chromene, chromone, benzofuran and
coumarin, flavonoids, alkaloids etc. [21]. The plant is traditionally reported to be used for
curing various kinds of diseases including tuberculosis, skin diseases, fevers, cuts and
wounds. In Mizoram this plant is been used from many years by the local healers for the
treatment of stomach cancer. The method of preparation is that the plant roots are cleaned
and boiled with the rhizome of Curcuma longa and leaves of Mikania micrantha in water and
the decoction is given orally [22].The plant is also reported by several researchers all around
the world to possess antibacterial [23], wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antianalgesic,
antipyretic [21] and cytotoxic properties [24].

Anaphalis adnata
Local name: Khaw-te-mei-bu (mizo)
It is commonly known as pearly everlasting and the flowering season for this plant is
during May-October. Traditionally the boiled juice of the leaves is applied on cuts and
wound to get relieve from infections.

Artemisia vulgaris
Local name: Sai (mizo)
It is also known as Mugwort. The flowering occurs in the plant during January. Few of
the reported phytochemicals from A. vulgaris are flavones (luteolin, luteolin-7- glucoside),
flavonols (kaempferol, quercetin, rutin), coumarins (coumarin, 6,7-dimethoxy-coumarin)
[25]. The plant is traditionally used to cure a wide range of ailments including malaria,
bacterial infections, inflammation, menopausal and menstrual disorders. Traditionally
decoction of the roots or leaves is given orally in fever, stomach-ache, asthma etc. The
plant has showed significant cytotoxicity against HL-60 leukemic [26], HEPG2 [27], Human
prostate cancer PC-3, Human breast carcinoma T47D and colon cancer RKO [28] cancer
cell lines cells.

Bidens pilosa
Local name: Vawk-pui-thal (Mizo)
It is also known as Black-jack and the flowering season in during February to April
every year. The plant is very well studied and many major phytochemicals are reported
like terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, aromatics, porphyrins, flavonoids, [29]. B. pilosa is
been reported for the treatment of various diseases such as inflammation, immunological
disorders, digestive disorders, infectious diseases, cancers, metabolic syndrome, wounds,
and many others [30]. Generally whole plant is been used in herbal medicinal. Among the

11
specific parts, aerial parts like leaves, shoot and stem are also been used as an ingredient
in teas or herbal medicines in several countries. Its shoots and leaves (dried or fresh) are
utilized in sauces and teas. Sundarajan et al., 2006 and kumari et al., 2009 determined the
anticancer activity of B. pilosa extract against HeLa, KB, HepG2, CaCO2 and MCF7 cancer
cell lines [31,32].

Blumea lanceolaria
Local name: Buar-ze (mizo)
It is commonly known as lanceleaf blumea ans gives flowers during February-April.
The plant is well studied for its phytochemical constituents and few major compounds
reported are methyl thymol, p-Cymene, and l-hexadecanol [33]. The local tribes of Mizoram
used juice of Blumea leaves to treat stomach ulcer, asthama, tuberculosis, skin diseases,
sores, scabies etc. Rosangkima and Prasad 2004 determined the antitumor activity of B.
lanceolara leaves against murine ascites Dalton’s lymphoma in mice [34].
Chromolaena odorata/Eupatorium odoratum
Local name: Tlang-sam (mizo)
It is also known with the name of Christmas bush and give flowers during December-
January. Some of the important phytochemicals reported from this palnts are 5-hydroxy-7,40–
dimethoxyflavanone, 20-hydroxy-4,40,50,60–tetramethoxychalcone, and 1,6-dimethyl-4-
(1-methylethyl)naphthalene (cadalene) [35]. Traditionally, the leaf juice is applied on fresh
cuts and wound to fight against infections and it is been reported to have several activities
like antibacterial [36,37], anticancer [35,37,38], antifungal [39], anti-inflammatory [40,41]
and anti-malarial [42,43]. The plant could be an interesting candidate for the discovery of
the novel bioactive therapeutically active agents.
Chrysanthemum indicum
Local name: October-par (mizo)
It is also known as chrysanthemum, the plant flowers during October till March. The
plant is not well studied for the presence of phytochemicals, only few reported compounds
are from sesquiterpenes. Traditionally the flowers are used to make tea for digestive purpose.
In several other countries the C. indicum is used for the treatment of colitis, stomatitis,
cancer, fever, sores, vertigo, inflammation and hypertension. Plant is also been reported to
possess anti-inflammatory [44], hepatoprotective [45], antimicrobial [46-48] and anticancer
properties [49].
Cirsium shansiense
Local name: Len- hling (mizo)
It is also known as Canadian thistle which mainly flowered during October every year. Few
of the reported phytochemicals from this plant are ciryneol C, scopoletin, pectolinarigenin-
7-O-glucopyranoside, acacetin and 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin [50]. Traditionally the plant is
been used for the treatment of different ulcers and also used as diuretic, haemostatic and
anti-inflammatory. The plant also has antimicrobial [50,51] and anticancer [52] potential.
Crassocephalum crepidioides
Local name: buar-thau (mizo)
It is also known as Thickhead and the flowering season for this plant are in May to
December. Few of the broad phytochemicals reported from this plant are tannins, flavonoids,
steroids, coumarins [53]. Traditional medicinal uses of the plants are that the leaf juice is
taken for indigestion and stomachache. Leaf paste is applied to heal cut and wounds to

12
fight against microbial infections. Different plant parts are also been used in the herbal
preparations for the treatment of fever, hepatitis and inflammations. The plant is reported
to possess hepatoprotective [54], antitumor [55,56], and antibacterial [57] activities.
Cyanthillium cinereum
Local name: Buar (mizo)
It is also known as purple fleabane and gives flowers mainly during February. Traditionally
plant decoction is used to treat urinary tract infections and fevers. Cyanthillium cinereum has
therapeutic potentials against dysentery, diarrhea, cough, cholera, impotency colic pain
night-blindness [58] asthma [59] and cancer [60].
Dichrocephalum integrifolia
Local name: Vawk-ek-a-tum-tual (mizo)
The plant flowers during May-June. Some of the reported phytochemicals from this plant
are stearic acid, stigmasta-7, 22-dien-3-ol, alpha-amyrin, epifriedelanol, methyl stearate
and tritetracontane [61], eudesmane [62]. Traditionally the plant is been reported having
antimicrobial [63,64] as well as anticancer [64] potential. Plant is traditionally used for
wound healing, to treat mouth and stomach ulcers and microbial infections.
Galinsoga parviflora
Local name: sazu(pui)chaw (Mizo)
It is also known as quick weed and the flowering season is during June to September
every year. Some of the reported phytochemicals obtained from G. parviflora are galinsosides
A and B [65]. Traditionally the leaves and stem of the plant are been used in the herbal
preparation for fever, diarrhea, cuts and wound. G. parviflora is also reported to have
hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial activities [66].
Helianthus annuus
Local name: Ni-hawi (mizo)
It is commonly known as sunflower and the flowering season is in August to September.
Major phytochemicals reported are Heliespirone [67], Heliannuol E [68], Helikauranoside
A [69]. Medicinally the plant is used as food and medicine all around the world and most
importantly the seeds are been used for the production of cooking and essential oil. Leaves,
stem, flower and seed oil all possess active principle and plant has potent antioxidant and
also possess antimicrobial [70,71], anti-inflammatory [72] and anticancer potential [73,74].
Traditionally the leaf paste is applied to wounds, swellings, and insect bites. Flowers are
taken as tea for the treatment of malaria and lung diseases.
Inula cappa
Local name: Hmei-thai-sa-tul (mizo)
It is also known as sheep’s ear and flowers during September and October. Sesquiterpens
lactones [75,76], and phenolic glycosides [77] are reported as major phytochemicals from
this plant. Traditionally the leaf juice of Inula cappa is been used locally for the treatment of
jaundice. Decoction of the root is also been used to treat peptic ulcer, indigestion and fever.
Leucomeris decora
Local name: Tlangham (mizo)
The plant flowers during February to March every year. It is an Asteraceae shrub and
been used traditionally for curing many ailments especially the leaves and stem. The plant
becomes locally rare due to rapid habitat destruction and fragmentation, together with

13
unrestricted collection for medicinal use. Thus it has been listed in the IUCN red list of
threatened species [78].
Mikania micrantha
Local name: Japan-hlo(mizo)
It is also known as bitter vine and flowers during December till January each year.
Mikanolide: a sequiterpene dilactone [79], is the major phytochemical reported from this
plant. It is a perennial vine of which leaves are used to treat fever, diarrhea, dysentery,
insect bites, scorpion sting and cuts by traditional peoples. Several reports are available for
its anticancer and antitumor activities [80-82].
Senecio scandens
Local name: Sai-ekk-hlo(mizo)
The plant flowers in February and March. Several phytochemicals like pyrrolizidine
alkaloids and sesquiterpenes [83], jacaranone [84,85], phenolic acids [86] were reported
from S. scandens. In Mizoram local practitioners are using this plant for the treatment of
stomach cancer and other different type of cancers. Juices of the leaves are applied to chronic
ulcers. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids recovered from this plant are proven to be hepatotoxins and
carcinogens [87]. Plant has shown potent antimicrobial [88,89], anti-inflammatory [90],
antitumor [91] and anticancer activity [92] as well.
Siegesbeckia orientalis
Local name: Ansa-pui-suak(mizo)
It is commonly known as st. paul’s wort, flowers during October-November every year.
Several phytochemicals like sesquiterpene lactone: orientin [93], diterpenoids: Kirenol
and ent-16β,17-Dihydroxy-Kauran-19-Oic Acid (DHKA) [94]. S. orientalis is been reported
for anti-inlammatory [95,96], anti-proliferative [97] and anticancer activity [98]. Leaves
paste is applied against snakebites and insect bites. Decoction of the aerial part is given to
treat allergies, skin diseases, rheumatic arthritis and inflammatory diseases.
Sonchus arvensis
Local name: Khuang-lawi (mizo)
It is also known as corn sow thistle which give flowers during September till December.
Few of the phytochemicals reported from this plant are sesquiterpene lactones [99], flavonoids
[100] and terpenes [101]. The plant has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of
jaundice, cough, bronchitis, chronic fevers and inflammation. It has been reported to
possess anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effect in rats [102] along with antioxidant and
cytotoxic [103] activities.
Tithonia diversifolia
Local name: Bawng-pu-pang- par (mizo)
It is also known as Mexican sunflower and the flowering season is during November-
December. Tagitinins, tirotundin, flavones [105] were reported as major phytochemicals from
T. diversifolia. The plant is generally grown for ornamental purpose but possess medicinal
properties as well. Traditionally the plant is been used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus,
stomach pains, indigestion, sore throat and liver pains [103]. Flower head is used by local
healers for the treatment of wounds and bruises. Plant seems to have an anti-inflammatory
[104] anti-diarrhoeal [105], anti-amoebic and spasmolytic activities [106,107].

Conclusion
We documented twenty two traditionally used medicinal plants used by the local tribes

14
of Mizoram, Northeast, and India for the treatment of several types of cancers and other
human ailments. The paper also describes the important information like their local name,
flowering season and major phytochemical compounds investigated from these plants
elsewhere. As due to over utilization and population explosion, these plants which were
used in local health traditions are gradually becoming extinct. The present review will
alert the environmentalists and researchers to take steps to preserve or conduct modern
scientific studies of these traditionally important plants. These types of studies not only
can lead to probable discoveries of new bioactive pharmacologically useful compounds, but
also such discoveries can be an encouragement for the preservation of the forest region. We
conclude that domestication of these traditionally important wild medicinal plants should
be of utmost importance for the sustainable development.

Acknowledgement
Garima Singh is thankful to University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi for
providing fellowship under Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for SC candidates to pursue
Ph.D. Degree (F1-17.1/2015-16/RGNF-2015-17-SC-UTT-9023). Authors are also thankful
to the Bioinformatics infrastructure facility, Department of Biotechnology, sponsored by
Biotechnology Information system department of biotechnology, New Delhi in Mizoram
University which has been utilized for the present study.

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 eBooks

Traditional Medicinal Plants Used For Various

Skin Diseases and Cosmoceuticals in Manipur,
North-East India
W. Radhapiyari Devi*
Medicinal plant and Horticultural Resources Division, Institute of Bio resources and
Sustainable Development, Imphal-795001, Manipur, India
*Corresponding author: Dr. W. Radhapiyari Devi, Medicinal plant and Horticultural
Resources Division, Institute of Bio resources and Sustainable Development,
Imphal-795001, Manipur, India; Tel: 09089811056; E-mail: radhawang@gmail.com

Abstract
The present investigation is an attempt to find out ethnopharmacological application
of medicinal plants to cure skin diseases and in folk cosmetics. The study adopted the
interviewing method covering 35 different ethnic communities as respondents from various
districts of Manipur at different locations reflecting a multicultural pluralistic society with
rich traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants. While collecting information local
language was adopted and was queried for the type of herbal cure for skin diseases. A total
of 241 plants belonging to 95 families and 192 genera have been documented for their
therapeutic use against skin diseases and as herbal care. The most dominating families were
Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae and Moraceae.
The analysis of habits shows that, shrubs were represented the highest. The highest mode
of preparation methods were extract (23%), decoction (21%), paste (18%) and juice (15%).
Out of the total only 10 plants species showed 100% fidelity. The most important species
according to their fidelity is Mallotus philippensis, this was used for treating ringworm and
boils. Herbal product for beauty care range from enhancement of cosmetic, skin lotion,
hair lotion, skin glow, hair promoter, anti-dandruff, sun burn, nail injury and facial. The
people of Manipur seem to be well known for using medicinal plants to its culture and
tradition to cure skin diseases and herbal cares. The results of this study may support
the use of different medicinal plants by the different tribes of this region for the treatment
of skin diseases. Results of this study may be used as a basis for further phytochemical
and pharmacological investigations for the search of new single entity pharmaceutical
ingredients or characterized and standardized multicomponent botanical products which
may be useful for the treatment of different skin diseases and fungal infections.

Keywords: Cosmetic; Medicinal Plants; Manipur; Skin Diseases

Introduction
The use of plants as medicine is widespread throughout the world. Medicinal plants have
been used as sources of medicine in virtually all cultures of human curiosity and need.
According to WHO, herbal medicines serve the health needs of about 80% of the world’s

21
population, especially for millions of people in the vast rural areas of developing countries.
About 2,500,000 species of higher plants and the majority of these have not been examined
in detail for their pharmacological activities. Medicinal plants are used globally and have a
rapidly growing economic importance in the healthcare system of local communities and it
is the main source of medicine for the majority of the rural population. Rise in population,
cost of treatment for common ailments, side effects of allopathic drugs and development of
resistance have led to increase emphasis on the use of herbs as source of medicines.
The use of the medicinal plants for curing disease has been documented in history of
all civilization. In spite of all the medical advances, only 2 percent of the world’s plant
species have ever been tested for their medicinal potential. Certain Indian medicinal plants
which have antimicrobial properties are reported based on folklore information [1-8] and
a few attempts are made on inhibitory activity against certain pathogenic micros [8-10].
Traditional medicinal resources, especially plants, have been found to play an important
role in the management of dermatological conditions [11,12].
The people of Manipur have a very rich traditional knowledge on the use of herbal extracts
associated with its long multicultural history to cure skin infection. Hence, Manipur is
considered to be the Gold mine of well-practiced knowledge of traditional herbal medicine.
Interestingly, Manipur falls within Indo-Burma Centre of Biodiversity Hot Spots of global
significance [13] with high medicinal values used for remedial and curative therapy.
Recently, the practice of herbal medicine has been declining in the very places where it has
been once developed and nurtured by oral tradition. This may in future lead to the loss
of valuable information about the plants used [14]. The demand for herbal medicines is
increasing rapidly due to their lack of side effects. Further, as health care costs continue to
escalate, the attraction for low-cost remedies has stimulated consumers to re-evaluate other
potential alternatives [12,15-24]. To our knowledge no systematic ethno botanical study of
medicinal plants used in Manipur for curing skin diseases has been made. Keeping these
things in mind we explored the knowledge available with the native people to cure different
skin diseases prevalent in this region using medicinal plants. Here we report the ethno
botany of herbal plants, which are claimed to be useful in curing dermatological diseases
by the people of Manipur.
The extensive use of these herbal drugs by the local people in treating various types of
skin disorders might therefore be justified by their antimicrobial activities against different
micros, which are known to be responsible for causing various skin infections [25-29].
The proposed documentation work is done as a part for the study and development of
antifungal herbal extracts/drugs from certain medicinal plants based on the traditional/
folklore knowledge of Manipur.

Materials and Methods

Study site
The study area is situated between the latitudes of 23°80´ N - 25°68´ N and longitudes of 93°3´
E - 94°78´ E with an area of 22,327 sq km. Further, the state falls in the biogeography tri
junction of 3 distinctive biogeographically regions: extensions of Himalayan region, Oriental
region of India and the Malayan Archipelago. The varied climatic condition facilitates the
development of various microbial skin infections. This cup-shaped land has a series of hill
ranges. Manipur is considered as a sensitive border state, which is bounded by Nagaland
on the north, Mizoram on the south, Myanmar on the east, and Assam on the west (Figure
1). It shares a 352 km long international border line with Myanmar. Out of its total area,
approximately 90% area is characterized by hills, which further surrounds the 10% of plain
area. The climate of Manipur is largely influenced by the topography of this hilly region
which defines the geography of Manipur under the influence of sub-tropical monsoon

22
climate as it is just near the Tropic of Cancer. The state has tropical to temperate climate
depending upon elevation of 790 meters above the sea level. This north eastern corner of
India is blessed with a generally amiable climate though the winters can be a little chilly. The
maximum temperature recorded in the summer months of Manipur is 32°C. In winter the
mercury often falls to subzero temperature making it frosty in the wintertime. The coldest
month in Manipur is January and July experiences the maximum summer temperature.
The ideal time for tourism in the state, in terms of the climate of Manipur, is from the
months of October till February, when the weather remains bright and sunny without the
scorch of the sun. Manipur experiences a remarkably erratic distribution of rainfall varying
from 110 cm to 350 cm and average annual rainfall is about 207.77 cm. Wet Temperate
Forest, Pine Forest, Wet Hill Forest, Semi Evergreen Forest, Teak Gurjan Forest are the
forest types of this area. Though the state enjoys all the three seasons of summer, winter,
and monsoon; precipitation dominates the valley for most of the year. To sum up, Manipur
enjoys salubrious climate round the year. Manipur has a population of 2,388,634. Of this
total, 58.9% live in the valley and the remaining 41.1% in the hilly region. With 987 females
per 1000 males, Manipur has a balanced sex ratio. Manipur has a large rural population
and comparatively much lower urban population. The population density in Manipur is
107 per square kilometers. The state is inhabited by 35 different ethnic groups at different
locations, indicating a multicultural pluralistic society with rich traditional knowledge on
the use of medicinal plants. The main ethnic groups of the areas are Meetei, Meetei Pangan,
Mao, Maram, Anal, Chiru, Chothe, Koireng, Lamkang, Maring, Moyon, Tangkhul, Thangal,
Paomei, Tarao, Monsang, Mizo, Hmar, Paite, Gangte, Simte, Kuki, Thadou, Kom, Purum,
Sukte, Zou, Ralte, Moyong, Kharam, Ziangmei, Laingmei, Rongmei, Sema, Kacha Naga.

Figure 1: Map indicating the local of the study area, Manipur, India.

Interviews
Resource persons of different ethnic communities from various districts of Manipur, as
respondents were selected carefully for the study by interviewing to collect information
in the local language and were queried for the type of herbal cure known to them for skin
diseases. The study was carried out by interviewing respondents in remote sites (lack of
health facilities, poverty and extensive use of medicinal plants). In total 150 informants were
interviewed on their management of various fungal diseases. The respondents were; old age
men (50%), women (23%) and traditional healers (27%) those who heals themselves or have

23
a tradition of healing in their families and had knowledge on the medicinal use of the plants
for the said purpose. As for the present study, methods adopted [30] were followed with
slight modifications under the local context. The interviews included questions that target
the local people’s perception of names of various skin diseases, the names of plants, parts
of plants used, methods used in preparation and mode of application of the drugs. The data
were tabulated to include the botanical name, family, local name, parts used, preparation
and popular use.
Preservation and identification of plant species
Plants were collected in flowering and fruiting conditions during January to November and
confirmed by the ethnic communities to ensure that proper plants have been collected
and compared with the related so-far published flora of the region [24,31-33] and for the
authentic identification thereof, flora and monographs have been consulted especially Flora
of British India, Flora of Assam, Flora of India [34-38]. Botanical identification was done
with the help of local taxonomists and Botanical survey of India, Kolkata. The botanical
name was written as in International Plant Name Index (IPNI) database. Skin diseases were
compiled and the number of plants used against was estimated. Keeping these things in
mind we explored the knowledge available with the native people to cure skin diseases
prevalent in this region using medicinal plants. Here we report the ethno botany of herbal
plants, which are claimed to be useful in curing various skin diseases by the people of
Manipur.
Quantitative analysis
The Fidelity Level (FL) was used to determine the most important plant species used for
treating certain diseases by the local herbal practitioners and literate elders in the study
area. It was calculated by the following formula: FL(%) = Np x 100/N, [39] where Np is the
number of the informants who provided the information of a plant species used to treat
certain ailments, and N is the number of informants who utilized plants as medicines for
treating any given ailments.

Results and Discussion

General analysis of the data
A total of 241 plants belonging to 95 families and 192 genera have been documented for
their ethno pharmacological application against skin diseases and in folk cosmetics as
enlisted in Table 1. This could be a great interest for the development of novel drugs as
the exploration of therapeutic activity-bearing ingredients may be easier from the remedies
which involve merely the use of single plant. The most dominating families were Asteraceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Moraceae [8,40-42]. The
analysis of habits show that shrubs were represented the highest among other habits.
Plant Name Voucher Family Local Name Parts used Ailments Preparation FL
Abrus precatorius Linn. WR1 Fabaceaae Chaning Seed Hair promoter Extract 16.7
Scabies, ringworm,
Acalypha indica Linn. WR2 Euphorbiaceae Haying mathi Leaf Juice 23
urticaria
Acacia oxyphylla
WR3 Mimosaceae Thaonam Dark and fruit Anti-dandruff Decoction 12
Graham
Boils, skin eruption,
Achyranthes aspera Decoction,
WR4 Amaranthaceae Khujumpere Leaf acne, insect bite, 100
Linn. infusion
ringworm, scabies
Aconitum nagarum
WR5 Helleboraceae Apin tumphai Whole plant Ringworm Extract 80
Slapf.
Acronychia pedunculata
WR6 Rutaceae Heijrang-macha Root, bark Scabies Extract 45
(Linn.) Miq.
Nongmangkha
Adhatoda vasica Nees WR7 Acanthaceae Leaf Scabies, wart, urticaria Powder 35
angouba

24
Aeschynanthus hookeri
WR8 Gesneriaceae Utangbi Leaf Facial spots Extract 12
Clarke
Ageratum conyzoides
WR9 Asteraceae Khongjainapi Leaf Ringworm, hair wash Extract 46
Linn.
Ageratum
WR10 Asteraceae Khongjainapi Leaf Scabies, hair wash Extract 45
houstonianum Mill.
Anisomeles indica Thoiding
WR11 Lamiaceae Seed Hair oil Extract 88
(Linn.) O. Ktze angouba
Ajuga macrosperma Chinggi-
WR12 Lamiaceae Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 45
Wall.var. sangbrei
Albizia odoratissima
WR13 Mimosaceae Uyil Bark, leaf Leprosy Extract 55
Benth.
Alisma plantago- Rootstock,
WR14 Alismataceae Kakthrum Sore Extract 50
aquatica Linn. flower, fruit
Allium sativum Linn. WR15 Alliaceae Chanam Bulb Boils, wart Extract 60
Boils, burn, sun
Aloe vera Linn. WR16 Liliaceae Ghrita kumari Pulp of leaf burn, skin lotion, hair Extract 80
promoter
Ringworm, scabies,
Alpinia galanga Willd. WR17 Zingiberaceae Kanghu Rhizome Powder 85
sore, acne, wart
Amaranthus spinosus Chengkruk Shoot Wart, sore, astringent Crush
WR18 Amaranthaceae 35
Linn. tingkhangpanbi Leaf Boils, burn Paste
Amaranthus tricolour Root Nail injury Crush
WR19 Amaranthaceae Chengkruk 20
Linn. Shoot Sore Crush
Anotis foetida (Dalz.)
WR20 Rubiaceae Khut-chappi Roots Boils Paste 20
Benth. & Hook.f.
Aphanamixis
WR21 Meliaceae Heirangkhoi Leaf Alopecia Paste 30
polystachya Wall.
Areca catechu Linn. WR22 Arecaceae Kwa Nut Hair promoter Paste 25
Argemone mexicana
WR23 Papaveraceae Khomthongpee Latex Scabies Juice 30
Linn.
Argyreia nervosa
WR24 Convolvulaceae Uritusonbi Leaf Boils, acne Poultice 12
(Burm.f.) Boj.
Laipakngou-
Artemisia maritima Linn. WR25 Asteraceae Bark Antiseptic Juice 50
manba
Artemisia nilagirica
WR26 Asteraceae Laipakngou Leaf Hair lotion, scabies, Extract 35
(Clarke) Pamp.
Artemisia parviflora
WR27 Asteraceae Laipakngou Leaf Hair lotion, scabies Extract 30
Roxb.
Artocarpus
WR28 Moraceae Theibong Rachis Boils Roast 18
heterophyllus Lamk.
Bark, fruit Acne, skin eruption, Powder
Artocarpus lakoocha
WR29 Moraceae Harikokthong boils, antiseptic 100
Roxb.
Latex Boils Juice
Asparagus officinalis
subsp. prostratus WR30 Liliaceae Nunggarie Leaf Boils Paste 65
(Dumort.) Corb.
Asplenium nidus Linn. WR31 Aspleniaceae U-nappi Fronds Hair wash Decoction 37
Boils , small-pox
Azadirachta indica A. Leaf Poultice
WR32 Meliaceae Neem Ringworm, acne, 58.7
Juss. Seed Decoction
urticaria
Bambusa arundinacea
WR33 Poaceae Saneibo Shoot Ring worm, alopecia Decoction 23.4
(Retz.) Willd.
Bambusa nutans Wall. Small-pox, chicken-
WR34 Poaceae Utang Leaf Boil 31.2
ex. Munro pox, ringworm
Bambusa oliveriana
WR35 Poaceae Warak Shoot Ringworm, alopecia Fermentation 45.1
Gamble
Small pox, chicken
Bambusa tulda Roxb. WR36 Poaceae Saneibi Leaf Boil 20.6
pox, burn

25
Basella alba Linn. WR37 Basellaceae Urok-shumbal Leaf Boils, burn Extract 22.6
Bauhinia acuminata Chingthao
WR38 Caesalpiniaceae Bark, leaf Leprosy Paste 35.1
Linn. angouba
Bauhinia purpurea Linn. WR39 Caesalpiniaceae Chingthao Bark, root Insect bite, leprosy Extract 24.7
Bauhinia variegata Linn. WR40 Caesalpiniaceae Chingthao Bark Leprosy Extract 37.5
Bixa orellana Linn. WR41 Bixaceae Ureirom Seed Warts, acne Extract 42
Blumea hieracifolia (D.
WR42 Asteraceae Ching-terapaidi Leaf Hair lotion, scabies Decoction 34
Don) DC.
Brucea javanica (Linn.) Acne, sore, hair lotion,
WR43 Simaroubaceae Heining Leaf Poultice 46.8
Merr. anti-dandruff
Bryophyllum pinnatum
WR44 Crassulaceae Manahidak Leaf Boils, insect bite, burn Crush 42
(Lam.) Kruz
Buddleja asiatica Lour. WR45 Buddlejaceae Shamei Leaf Scabies, wart, acne Extract 49.2
Buddleja paniculata
WR46 Buddlejaceae Shani Root Skin eruption, sore Crush 32
Wall.
Callistemon linearis
(Schrad. & J.C. Wendl.) WR47 Myrtaceae Tiyup Lei Flower, leaf Hair lotion Decoction 35
Sweet
Leaf Eczema, snake bite, Extract
Calotropis procera carbuncle
WR48 Asclepiadaceae Angkot 78.4
(Willd.) R.Br. Latex Ringworm Juice
Root Leprosy Extract
Canarium bengalense
WR49 Burseraceae Mekruk Resin Urticaria Extract 57.8
Roxb.
Cannabis sativa Linn. WR50 Cannabaceae Ganja Leaf Insect-bite, burn Pasted 67.4
Kakyel khujin
Capparis tenera Dalz. WR51 Capparidaceae Leaf Acne, scabies Decoction 45.8
laba
Latex of raw Remove freckles from Juice
68.5
Carica papaya Linn. WR52 Caricaceae Awathabi fruit the skin blemishes,
Fruit pulp Skin lotion Paste
Ringworm, scabies,
Cassia alata Linn. WR53 Caesalpiniaceae Daopata Leaf Juice 100
boils, herpic
Cassia fistula Linn. WR54 Caesalpiniaceae Chahui Root-bark Ringworm Decoction 78
Cassia hirsuta Linn. WR55 Caesalpiniaceae Thounam Young twigs Ringworm Paste 65.4
Cassia laevigata Willd. WR56 Caesalpiniaceae Thounam Young leaf Ringworm Boil 67.3
Cassia sophera Linn. WR57 Caesalpiniaceae Thounam Young leaf Ringworm Extract 45.6
Young leaf, Skin eruption,
Cassia tora Linn. WR58 Caesalpiniaceae Thounam Extract 30
seed ringworm
Centella asiatica (Linn.) Boils, anti-dandruff,
WR59 Apiaceae Peruk Whole plant Powder 69
Urban hair promoter
Chenopodium album
WR60 Chenopodiaceae Monshaobi Leaf Alopecia Extract 67
Linn.
Citrus reticulata Blanco WR61 Rutaceae KoMola Rachis Acne Juice 45
Colocasia esculenta
WR62 Araceae Paan Petiole Insect-bites Juice 65
(Linn.) Schott
Commelina
WR63 Commelinaceae Wangden-khoibi Whole plant Leprosy, boils, burn Decoction 67
benghalensis Linn.
Conyza japonica Less. WR64 Asteraceae Terapaibi manbi Leaf Urticaria, scabies. Boil 68.7
Coriandrum sativum
WR65 Apiaceae Phadigom Leaf Acne Paste 56
Linn.
Crepis japonica (L)
WR66 Asteraceae Terapaibi-macha Leaf Burn, scabies Boil 68.2
Benth.
Croton caudatus Geisel. WR67 Euphorbiaceae Apintuphi Leaf, root Skin eruption Extract 54.3
Cucurbita maxima
WR68 Cucurbitaceae Mairel Pulp Boils, burn Poultice 58.3
Duchesne
Cucurbita pepo Linn. WR69 Cucurbitaceae Mairel Leaf Burn Crush 55
Curculigo orchioides
WR70 Amaryllidaceae Kali musli Rhizome Acne, urticaria Powder 56.8
Gaertn.

26
 Small pox, chicken
Curcuma domestica WR71
Zingiberaceae Yaingang Leaf, rhizome pox, scabies, facial, Paste 100
Valeton.
boils
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. WR72 Cuscutaceae Urisanamachu Leaf Urticaria Decoction 76
Cyathea gigantea (Wall.
WR73 Cyatheaceae U-chagrang Frond Hair promoter, urticaria Boil 34.3
Ex Hook.) Multum
Cyathula prostrata Linn.
WR74 Amaranthaceae Kabo napimacha Root Acne, wart Decoction 44.5
(Blume)
Cymbopogon citratus Scratchon skin, hair
WR75 Poaceae Haona Leaf Boil 59
Linn. Stapf lotion
Shembang
Cyperus rotundus Linn. WR76 Cyperaceae Rhizome Sore Extract 60.1
kakthum
Dactyloctenium
aegyptium (Linn.) P. WR77 Poaceae Pungphai Whole plant Small pox, skin allergy Extract 67.8
Beauv.
Leaf, root,
Datura metel Linn. WR78 Solanaceae Sagohidak Ringworm, boils, wart Decoction 88
seed
Boils
Datura stramonium WR79 Leaf Paste
Solanaceae Sagohidak Anti-dandruff, hair 67
Linn. Fruit Juice
promoter
Dicrocephala latifolia Anti-dandruff, hair
WR80 Asteraceae Lalukok Whole plant Decoction 43
DC. promoter
Anti-dandruff, hair
Dillenia indica Linn. WR81 Dilleniaceae Heigri Fruit Decoction 32
promoter
Dioscorea alata Linn. WR82 Dioscoreaceae Ha Tuber Leprosy Juice 59.7
Diplospora singularis
WR83 Rubiaceae Thingsai in Mizo Leaf Urticaria Paste 67.3
Korth.
Dipterocarpus
WR84 Dipterocarpaceae Yingou Oleo-resin Ringworm, scabies Warm 45.9
turbinatus Gaertn.f.
Drynaria quercifolia
WR85 Polypodiaceae Utangbi Frond Boils Paste 56
(Linn.) J. Smith
Eczema, blacking of
Eclipta prostrate Linn. WR86 Asteraceae Uchisumbal Whole plant Paste 76.4
hair
Eucalyptus citriodora
WR87 Myrtaceae Nasik Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 34.1
Hook.
Eupatorium odoratum
WR88 Asteraceaee Kambilei Leaf Wart, sore Juice 37.6
Linn.
Eupatorium birmanicum
WR89 Asteraceae Langthrei Leaf Acne, burn Paste 67.8
DC.
Euphorbia antiquorum Leaf Wart Juice
WR90 Euphorbiaceae Tengnou 32.6
Linn. Latex Boils Juice
Euphorbia hypericifolia
WR91 Euphorbiaceae Tengnou Whole plant Skin eruption Warm 21.1
Linn.
Euphorbia neriifolia
WR92 Euphorbiaceae Tengnou Latex Skin eruption Juice 13.8
Linn.
Euphorbia thymifolia
WR93 Euphorbiaceae Tengnou Leaf Urticaria, ringworm Crush 65.4
Linn.
Eryngium foetidum Linn. WR94 Umbelliferae Awaphadigom Whole plant Ringworm Crush 76.2
Ficus benghalensis
WR95 Moraceae Khongnangbot Root Hair lotion Decoction 32
Linn.
Latex
Boils Paste 56.3
Ficus glomerata Roxb. WR96 Moraceae Heibong Fruit, root,
Skin eruption, leprosy Decoction
bark
Leaf, bark Ringworm Decoction
Ficus hispida Linn. WR97 Moraceae Ashi-Heibong Fruit, seed Scabies Paste 60.2
Latex Boils Juice
Ficus palmata Forks WR98 Moraceae Heibam Latex Boils Juice 34.5
Ficus religiosa Linn. WR99 Moraceae Sanakhongnang Bark Boils, scabies Decoction 32
Ficus semicordata F.
WR100 Moraceae Heirit Latex Boils Juice 30
Ham

27
 Changkruk
Fumaria vaillantii Loisel. WR101 Papaveraceae Whole plant Boils Paste 42.7
manbi
Glycosmis pentaphylla Eczema, hair lotion,
WR102 Rutaceae Yong-komla Leaf, root Extract 92
(Retz.) Correa urticaria, scabies
Gmelina arborea Roxb. WR103 Verbenaceae Wang Leaf Boils Extract 80
Goniothalamus Small pox
Smoke
sesquipedalis Hook.f & WR104 Annonaceae Leikham Leaf Ringworm, scabies, 100
Extract
Thorns. wart, boils
Gossypium arboreum
WR105 Malvaceae Lashing Flower, seed Scabies, sore Paste 65
Linn.
Bark, root Hair wash Decoction
Gouania tiliaefolia Lam. WR106 Rhamnaceae Uri 32
Leaf Sore Crushed
Gynocardia odorata
WR107 Flacourtiaceae Chalmugra Fruit Scabies, wart, urticaria Decoction 30
R.Br.
Hedera nepalensis Hurim –
WR108 Araliaceae Leaf Hair wash Decoction 14.7
K.Koch. Rongmei
Hedychium spicatum Takhelei
WR109 Zingiberaceae Rootstock Small pox, burn Crush 67
Ham. hanggammapal
Heliotropium indicum
WR110 Boraginaceae Leihenbi Leaf Boils, insect bite Paste 54.6
Linn.
Hemidesmus indicus(L) Root Skin eruption
WR111 Asclepiadaceae Kwa manbi Decoction 56.2
R. Br. Stalk leaf Sore
Leaf Skin eruption, hair Decoction
Hibiscus cannabinus 45
WR112 Malvaceae Sougree lotion
Linn.
Stem Sore Decoction
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
WR113 Malvaceae Jubakusum Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 21
Linn.
Hiptage benghalensis Sore, acne, urticaria,
WR114 Malpighiaceae Madhabi Leaf Paste 35.8
Linn. (Kurz) scabies.
Holigarna longifolia
WR115 Anacardiaceae Kherai Bark Scabies, boils Extract 45.3
Buch. Ham.ex Roxb.
Holmskioldia sanguinea
WR116 Verbenaceae Kharam leithong Leaf Hair wash Decoction 28.3
Retz.
Homonoia riparia Lour. WR117 Euphorbiaceae Wangchu in Kuki Leaf Anti-dandruff Boil 32.5
Houttuynia cordata
WR118 Saururaceae Toningkok Leaf, rhizome Burn, skin eruption Extract 35.8
Thunb.
Hydnocarpus kurzii Flower, fruit Eczema, acne, sore Decoction
WR119 Flacourtiaceae Uhan 45
(King) Warb. Leaf Wart Paste
Leaf Nail injury, hair lotion, Juice
Impatiens balsamina
WR120 Balsaminaceae Khujang ringworm 100
Linn.
Flower Burn, anti-dandruff Juice
Impatiens chinensis
WR121 Balsaminaceae Khujang Leaf Burn Juice 45
Linn.
Imperata cylindrica (L.)
WR122 Poaceae Imom Whole plant Hair lotion Decoction 23
Beauv.
Jasminum diversifolium
WR123 Oleaceae Kundo Root Ringworm Extract 58
Kobuski
Jasminum multiflorum
WR124 Oleaceae Waruk Kundo Leaf Sore Paste 34
Burm. f.
Jasminum nervosum
WR125 Oleaceae Kundo Root Ringworm Extract 45
Lour.
Euphorbiaceae Latex Sore Juice
Jatropha curcas Linn. WR126 Awakege 67
Seed Wart, hair promoter Extract
Jatropha gossypifolia Leprosy, scabies, wart,
WR127 Euphorbiaceae Kege-mangi Leaf Extract 62.7
Linn. urticaria
Kaempferia galanga Yai-
WR128 Zingiberaceae Rhizome Hair lotion Extract 31
Linn. thamnamanbi
Lactuca sativa Linn. WR129 Asteraceae Salad Stem, root Burn Poultice 43.7
Lagenaria siceraria
WR130 Cucurbitaceae Khongdrum Fruit, leaf Acne, alopecia Juice 39.8
(Mol.)Standl.

28
Leea crispa Linn. WR131 Vitaceae Koknal Leaf Hair wash Decoction 31
Lens culinaris Medic. WR132 Leguminosae Mukswori Seed Skin glow Paste 20.6
Skin eruptions,
Mayang 100
Leucas aspera Spreng. WR133 Lamiaceae Leaf insect-bites, scabies, Juice
Lambum
eczema, psoriasis
Lindernia crustacea (L.) Namguak – Boils, urticaria,
WR134 Scrophulariaceae Whole plant Poultice 69.6
F. Muell. Rongmei ringworm, sore
Linum usitatissimum
WR135 Linaceae Thoiding amuba Seed Burn Paste 19.6
Linn.
Ludwigia clavelliana
37.3
Gomez de la Maza & WR136 Euphorbiaceae Tebo Whole plant Burn, urticaria Poultice
Molinet
Luffa cylindrica (Linn.)
WR137 Cucurbitaceae Shebot Seed Wart, eczema Roast 47.7
M.J.Roem.
Lycopodium cernuum
WR138 Lycopodiaceae Leishing Whole plant Skin eruption Embract 34.2
Linn.
Lycopodium clavatum
WR139 Lycopodiaceae Leishing Whole plant Skin eruption Poultice 28
Linn.
Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Tlangham – Young leaf,
WR140 Ericaceae Skin allergy Juice 30.5
Drude Mizo bud, flower
Mallotus philippinensis Fruit Scabies, ringworm Powder
WR141 Euphorbiaceae Ureirom- laba 100
Muell.-Arg. Leaf Boils Powder
Mangifera indica Linn. WR142 Anacardiaceae Heinou Fruit Wart, sore Raw 68.4
Manihot esculenta Wart, sore, eczema,
WR143 Euphorbiaceae U-mangra Leaf Extract 82.1
Crantz. scabies
Melanorrhoea usitata
WR144 Anacardiaceae Kheu Bark Skin allergy, leprosy Extract 56
Wall.
Melastoma Bark, leaf, Skin eruption,
WR145 Melastomaceae Yachubi Extract 35
malabathricum Linn. root antiseptic
Leaf, flower, Paste
Small pox, anti-
seed, bark
Melia azedarach Linn. WR146 Meliaceae Sheizak dandruff, hair promoter 100
Boils, acne, scabies
Fruit Paste
Melothria heterophylla
WR147 Cucurbitaceae Lamgi-shebot Leaf Burn, acne, wart Extract 78.2
(Lour.) Cogn.
Meriandra strobilifera
WR148 Lamiaceae Kanghuman Leaf Antiseptic Decoction 62.1
Benth.
Merremia umbellata
ssp. umbellata (Linn.) WR149 Convolvulaceae Voktesentil-Mizo Leaf Burn, anti-dandruff Poultice 57.3
Hall. f.
Leaf Hair wash Decoction
Meyna spinosa Roxb. WR150 Rubiaceae Heibi 34.4
Fruit Skin glow, boils Extract
Mezoneurum
enneaphyllum (Roxb.) WR151 Caesalpiniaceae Kangol Young fruit Hair lotion Decoction 37
Wight & Arn
Michelia champaca
WR152 Magnoliaceae Leihao Leaf, flower Hair wash Decoction 32
Linn.
Microcos paniculata Bark, leaf, Small pox, eczema,
WR153 Tiliaceae Heitoop Extract 67
Linn. fruit urticaria
Mikania micrantha
WR154 Asteraceae Uri-hingchabi Leaf Ringworm, boils, wart Paste 72
Kunth
Milleltia pachycarpa
WR155 Fabaceae Ngamuyai Root Scabies, urticaria Decoction 46
Benth.
Kangphal Leaf, root Urticaria, scabies Decoction
Mimosa pudica Linn. WR156 Mimosaceae 59.6
Ikaithabi Leaf Boils Decoction
Seed Skin lotion Extract
Mirabilis jalapa Linn. WR157 Nyctaginaceae Mugalei 54.7
Leaf Boils Paste
Mucuna monosperma
WR158 Fabaceae Mei-siarvyntim Pod Burn Paste 72
DC.
Murdania nudiflora
WR159 Commelinaceae Tandal pambi Whole plant Burn, urticaria, sore Extract 87
(Linn.) Brenan

29
Mussaenda frondosa Root Leprosy Extract
WR160 Rubiaceae Hanurei 78.5
Linn. Leaf Hair lotion Decoction
Mussaenda glabra Vahl WR161 Rubiaceae Hanurei Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 34.1
Mussaenda roxburghii
WR162 Rubiaceae Hanurei Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 35.5
Hook.f.
Nelumbo nucifera Root, flower, Skin eruption, leprosy,
WR163 Nymphaeaceae Thambal Raw 22.6
Gaertn. seed skin glow
Root Boils Paste
Nerium oleander Linn. WR164 Apocynaceae Kabilei Leaf Wart, insect-bites Extract 56.2
Root-bark Wart Extract
Insect bite, skin
Nicotiana tabacum Linn. WR165 Solanaceae Hidak mana Leaf, seed Extract 91.3
eruption, wart, boils
Nyctanthes arbortristis Leaf Urticaria, sore Extract
WR166 Oleaceae Singalei 74.2
Linn. Seed Antidandruff Roast
Nymphaea nouchali
WR167 Nymphaeaceae Tharo Seed Sore Extract 62.1
Burm.f.
Nymphoides
hydrophyllum (Lour.) WR168 Menyanthaceae Tharo-macha Stalk, leaf Antiseptic Decoction 32
Kuntze
Ocimum americanum
WR169 Lamiaceae Mayangba Leaf Alopecia Crush 56.9
Linn.
Ocimum gratissimum
WR171 Lamiaceae Uhang amuba Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 44.8
Linn.
Seed Sore Poultice
Ocimum sanctum Linn. WR170 Lamiaceae Uhang 79.6
Leaf Ringworm Juice
Oldenlandia umbellata
WR172 Rubiaceae Lin marei Whole plant Burn Paste 23.5
Linn.
Ophiopogon
WR173 Haemodoriaceae Ching-charot Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 40.1
wallichianus Hook.f.
Opuntia dillenii (Ker-
WR174 Cactaceae Meipokpi Phylloclade Boils, burn Poultice 34.1
Gawl) Haw.
Opuntia monacantha
WR175 Cactaceae Meipokpi Phylloclade Burn Juice 62
Haw.
Oxalis corniculata Linn. WR176 Oxalidaceae Yensil Whole plant Hair lotion Crush 55.9
Pandanus Leprosy, small pox,
WR177 Pandanaceae Ketukee Leaf Paste 83.4
odoratissimus Linn. scabies
Parkia roxburghii G.
WR178 Mimosaceae Yongchak Bark, leaf Wart Extract 77.5
Don
Pavetta indica Linn. WR179 Rubiaceae Kukurchura Leaf, root Boils Poultice 34
Perilla frutescens (Linn.)
WR180 Lamiaceae Khamela Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 17.7
Britton
Phlogacanthus Nongmangkha
WR181 Acanthaceae Inflorescence Small pox, scabies Paste 39.6
thyrsiflorus Nees sanamachu
Phyla nodiflora (Linn.)
WR182 Verbenaceae Chinglengbi Leaf Boils Poultice 32.4
Greene
Phyllanthus emblica
WR183 Euphorbiaceae Heigru Fruit Blacking of hairs Juice 45
Linn.
Phyllanthus urinaria
WR184 Euphorbiaceae Chakpa heikru Leaf Leprosy, burn Juice 65
Linn.
Plantago erosa Wall ex
WR185 Plantaginaceae Yempat Leaf, seed Boils Roast 69.7
Roxb
Plectranthus coesta
WR186 Lamiaceae Khoiju-man Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 34
Buch. Ham
Leaf
Plectranthus ternifolius Small pox Smoke
WR187 Lamiaceae Khoiju Leaf, 93.2
D. Don. Hair lotion Decoction
inflorescence
Plumbago indica Linn. WR188 Plumbaginaceae Mukaklei Root Wart, leprosy Paste 65.2
Plumbago zeylanica Telhidak
WR189 Plumbaginaceae Root Wart, boils Decoction 56.9
Linn. angouba

30
 Root-bark Sore Decoction
Plumeria acuminata Ait. WR190 Apocynaceae Khagi-leihao 69.7
Latex Urticaria Juice
Pogostemon Seed Sun burn
WR191 Lamiaceae Wichou Paste 53.2
elsholtzioides Benth. Leaf Insect-bite
Pogostemon
WR192 Lamiaceae Shangbrei Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 32.6
purpurascens Dalz.
Polygonum chinense
WR193 Polygonaceae Angom yenshil Leaf Acne, wart Paste 45.8
Linn.
Polygonum hydropiper
WR194 Polygonaceae Lilhar Leaf, root Boils, sore Extract 34.2
Linn.
Whole plant, Burn, alopecia, anti-
Portulaca oleracea Linn. WR195 Portulacaceae Leipak-kundo Crush 42.4
seed dandruff
Premna mucronata
WR196 Verbenaceae Upongtha Leaf, latex Boils Juice 37.5
Roxb.
Prunus persica (L.)
WR197 Rosaceae Chumbrei Leaf Hair lotion Decoction 35
Batsch
Psidium guajava Linn. WR198 Myrtaceae Pungdol Leaf, bark Wart, sore Decoction 58.4
Pterospermum
WR199 Sterculiaceae Kuakla Flower, bark Small pox Decoction 69
acerifolium Willd.
Ranunculus
WR200 Ranunculaceae Lallucauba Whole plant Boils, wart, sore, acne Paste 63.2
hyperboreus Rotlb.
Rhus chinensis Mill. WR201 Anacardiaceae Heimang Leaf, fruit Acne, boils, hair lotion Decoction 73.4
Rosa indica Linn. WR202 Rosaceae Adugulap Flower Skin glow Raw 31.2
Rotala indica (Willd.)
WR203 Lythraceae Ishing kundo Leaf Antiseptic, ringworm Juice 21.4
Koechne
Rumex nepalensis Torong Ringworm, scabies,
WR204 Polygonaceae Leaf Paste 69.6
Spreng. khongchak burn
Rungia repens (Linn.)
WR205 Acanthaceae Kharmor Leaf Ringworm Crush 72.2
Nees
Saccharum officinarum
WR206 Poaceae Chu Shoot Small pox Juice 66.5
Linn.
Saccharum spontaneum
WR207 Poaceae Mom Leaf Burn Juice 53.2
Linn.
Rhizome, Paste
Sagittaria sagittifolia Boils, abscesses
WR208 Alismaceae Koukha rootstock 48.4
Linn. Urticaria, sore
Leaf Juice
Santalum album Linn. WR209 Santalaceae Char chandan Bark Sun burn, insect-bite Paste 78.4
Sapindus trifoliatus Anti-dandruff, hair
WR210 Sapindaceae Kekru Fruit Extract 44.5
Linn. wash
Schefflera hypoleuca
WR211 Araliaceae Chom Root Boils Extract 56.7
(Kurz) Harm
Scutellaria discolor
WR212 Lamiaceae Yenakhat Whole plant Boils, sore, acne Extract 58.3
Colebr.
Sesamum orientale Leaf Hair promoter Extract
WR213 Pedaliaceae Thoiding amuba 79.8
Linn. Seed Burn, anti-dandruff Paste
Sesbania grandiflora
WR214 Fabaceae Houwaima Bark Small pox Infusion 67
(L.) Pers.
Siegesbeckia orientalis Acne, wart, sore, skin
WR215 Asteraceae Sampakpi Leaf Juice 72
Linn. lotion
Smilax zeylanica Linn. WR216 Liliaceae Keisum Root Sore Crush 54
Solanum erianthum D.
WR217 Solanaceae Lamkhamen Shoot Burn Paste 59
Don.
Solanum melongena Khamel
WR218 Solanaceae Leaf Boils, burn, sun burn Juiced 68.3
Linn. Barmasika
Solanum nigrum Linn. WR219 Solanaceae Leipungkhangga Shoot Boils Decoction 56.3
Sonchus asper (Linn.)
WR220 Solanaceae Khomthongpee Leaf, latex Boils, wart Juice 60.3
Hill
Spilanthes acmella Flower, leaf,
WR221 Asteraceae Lalu-kowba Sore Paste 49.8
Murr. seed

31
Stellaria media (Linn.) 55.2
WR222 Caryophyllaceae Yenrum-keirum Leaf Boils Crush
Vill.
Stephania hernandifolia Thangga
WR223 Menispermaceae Leaf Sore Juice 61.3
Wf. uriangangba
Boils, carbuncles,
Tagetes erecta Linn. WR224 Asteraceae Sanalei Leaf Paste 75.8
scabies
Tectona grandis Linn.f. WR225 Verbenaceae Chingsu Kernel Scabies, hair promoter Roast 69.5
Telosma cordata (Burm
WR226 Asclepiadaceae Koubru yai Root Boils, leprosy Extract 70.5
f.) Merr.
Terminalia citrina Roxb.
WR227 Combretaceae Manahei Fruit, bark Leprosy, wart, acne Paste 89.3
ex Flem
Tetrastigma
44
lanceolarium (Roxb.) WR228 Vitaceae Menjas Leaf Boils Poultice
Planch.
Tinospora cordifolia
Whole plant Sore, antiseptic
(Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. WR229 Menispermaceae Ningthoukhongli Extract 89.6
Root Leprosy
& Thoms
Decoction
Eczema, urticaria, 71.4
Toona ciliata M. Roem. WR230 Meliaceae Tairel Leaf
small pox, chicken pox.

Triumfetta tomentosa
WR231 Tiliaceae Lamgi leeching Twig Sore Crush 54
Noronha
Leaf, root,
Vitex negundo Linn. WR232 Verbenaceae Urikshibi Ringworm, sore Crush 78.5
fruit
Scabies, sore, anti-
Vitex trifolia Linn. WR233 Verbenaceae Urikshibi Seed Paste 70.3
dandruff, hair promoter
Sap of young
Vitis vinifera Linn. WR234 Vitaceae Angur Skin eruption Paste 71
branches
Xanthium strumarium Hameng
WR235 Asteraceae Fruit Small pox, ringworm Juice 100
Linn. sampakpi
Xylosma longifolium Ringworm, scabies,
WR236 Flacourtiaceae Nongleisang Leaf, bark Extract 79.4
Clos. acne
Zanthoxylum Ringworm, greying of
WR237 Rutaceae Mukthrubi Seed Extract 69.7
acanthopodium DC hairs
Zanthoxylum limonella
WR238 Rutaceae Ngang Seed, bark Alopecia Extract 77.3
Alston
Zingiber zerumbet (L.)
WR239 Zingiberaceae Shingkha Rhizome Leprosy, burn, sore Crush 78.7
Smith.
Leaf Scabies
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. WR240 Rhamnaceae Boroi Crush 56.8
Fruit Boils
Ziziphus mauritiana
WR241 Rhamnaceae Boroi Seeds Boils Extract 50.5
Lam.
Table 1: Medicinal plants used by people of Manipur for skin diseases and cosmetic aspects.

Methods of drug preparation and administration

Different parts of native plants were used for medicine by the key respondents. Our analysis
revealed that overall, 31 kinds of plant-parts were selected ranging from root, leaf, shoot,
flower, bark, seed, fruit, rhizome, tuber, latex, rootstock, frond, resin, phylloclade, pod,
root-bark, inflorescence, kernel, stalk leaf, bulb, bud, nut, fruit pulp, petiole and in some
cases the whole plant. Leaf was most frequently used plant-part, constituting 54.62% of
the whole followed by root (12.2%), bark (10.1%), and fruit (9.24%) and 13.84% were the
remaining plant-parts [43-45] that compared with the previous ethnobotanical studies.
The total number of preparation methods for the medicinal materials was fifteen (15). Among
the highest mode of preparation methods were extract (23%), decoction (21%), paste (18%)
and juice (15%). From the data presented in Table 1, we observe that remedies can be divided
into three classes: those that use (i) a single plant, (ii) two plants and (iii) more than two
plants. These various preparation modes were twice or triple times diversified compared to
the outcomes of the other previous studies [45-50]. The majority of the traditional medicines

32
were prepared using water as the medium. The mode of application was topical, confined
to the affected portion of the body but in certain cases it was also administered orally. In
regard to the skin conditions, the preparations were applied more than two times daily until
healing was evident.
Skin medicinal aspects
Analyses on the mode application of the herbal preparations identified 22 different skin
diseases like ringworms, sores, scabies, chickenpox, smallpox, insect bite, snake bite, skin
eruption, burns, acnes, warts, boils, urticaria, skin allergy, antiseptics, leprosy, alopecia,
herpic, eczema, psoriasis, carbuncle, abscesses [45,49,51]; it appears that the people had
some idea about the systemic mode of the disease/disorder (Figure 2).
Cosmetic aspect
We also found that the people of the state use herbal product for beauty care ranging from
enhancement of cosmetic, skin lotion, hair lotion, skin glow, hair promoter, anti-dandruff,
sun burn, nail injury, facial (Figure 2). Many plants used for enhancing beauty were also
applied for therapeutic use. We therefore classified the plants into those that are solely used
either for therapeutic or cosmetic purpose and those that have dual use – cosmeceuticals
[49].

Abscesses
Herpic
Psoriasis
Carbuncle
Facial
Skin allergy
Snake bite
Nail injury
Chicken pox
Skin lotion
Skin glow
Sun burn
Skin diseases and cosmetics

Antiseptic
Alopecia
Eczema
Insect bite
Antidranduff
Small pox
Skin eruption
Hair promoter
Leprosy
Urticaria
Sore
Hair lotion
Warts
Acne
Boils
Ringworm
Scabies
Burn

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of medications

Figure 2: Number of medications used to treat skin diseases and cosmetic aspects.

Antimicrobials investigations
Skin diseases such as boils, carbuncles, eczema are caused by bacteria. Boils was the most
common bacterial disease cited in the study area and local inhabitants use 61 remedies
to cure this infection [52]. Further investigations indicated that, inhabitants of the area
use 36 remedies to treat ringworms which were fungal infections. Viruses also damaged
the skin and cause infections like small pox, warts and leprosy which explored 17, 32 and
19 remedies respectively. Some plant species used for skin diseases and cosmetic have
been reported for their antimicrobial activities, like alcoholic, aqueous, hexane, chloroform,
petroleum ether, extracts from various plant-parts [8,49].

33
Fidelity Level (FL)
We analyzed the categories with the major agreements to highlight the most important
plants in each category. The plants which were mentioned only once were not considered
in this analysis for better accuracy. Nevertheless, 10 plant species showed 100% fidelity.
It seems that the informants trend to reply on one specific plant species for treating one
ailment rather than selecting same plant for a more diverse uses.
Analyzing each of the ailments having important medicinal plants (FL 100%), for the treatment
of ringworms were Achyranthes aspera, Cassia alata, Goniothalamus sesquipedalis,
Impatiens balsamina, Mallotus philippinensis, Xanthium strumarium. Also, the following were
in usage for treating boils: A. aspera, Artocarpus lakoocha, C. alata, Curcuma domestica,
G. sesquipedalis, I. balsamina, M. philippinensis, Melia azedarach. Next, for acnes were A.
aspera, Artocarpus lakoocha, G. sesquipedalis, M. azedarach. For scabies were A. aspera, C.
alata, C. domestica, G. sesquipedalis, Leucas aspera, M. philippinensis, M. azedarach (Table 1).
Looking at the correlation between the ailments that have been mentioned many times and
their Fidelity Level it was found out that M. philippinensis or the plant use for the treatment
of ringworm and boils was the most prevalent one from the total plants covered by the study.

Conclusions
One of the main goals of an ethno pharmacological field study is to provide the main plants in a
region used to perform further phytochemical and pharmacological studies. In this work, we
used only one quantitative tool to perform the selection. The significance of orally transmitted
traditional knowledge will be emphasized more with the announcement of the Nagoya [8,53].
Particularly, knowledge about the traditional treatments among other traditional knowledge
is expected to increase in demand because of its economic value. Comparatively, more
diverse and less numbers of medicinal plants were recorded which seems to indicate a
rapid ongoing process of traditional knowledge leak due to the inhabitants’ reliance on the
modern medical system. However, the results of this study will be of essential use to those
who are tired from overwhelming urbanization and industrialization since they demonstrate
great potential not only as nature-friendly medicinal materials, but also as health care
methods and naturopathies. In the present study we identified as many as 241 plants used
by the people of Manipur to cure skin diseases and herbal cares. Further, extensive ethno
botanical and ethno pharmacological study may lead to the discovery of more plants and
compounds for skin care and cure.

Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the local traditional healers in Manipur for sharing their knowledge
on medicinal plants. And also thanks to Dept. of Biotechnology, Govt. of India, for funding
the work.

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 eBooks

Ethnomedicinal Plant Used By the Garo Tribe

of South Garo Hills, Meghalaya, India
Dilip Kumar Roy1, Aupam Das Talukdar2, Manabendra Dutta
Choudhury2, Bipin Kumar Sinha3, Sanjoy Singh Ningthoujam4, Deepa
Nath5 and Prakash Roy Choudhury2*
1
Botanical Survey of India, Shillong, Meghalaya, India
2
Department of Life Science & Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, Assam, India
3
Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, India
4
Department of Botany, Ghanapriya Women’s College, Imphal, Manipur, India
5
Department of Botany &Biotechnology, Karimganj College, Karimganj, Assam

*Corresponding author: Dr. Prakash Roy Choudhury, Asst. Professor, Department

of Life Science & Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, Assam, India; Tel: +91
94017 58966; Fax: 03842 270920; E-mail: prchoudhury15@gmail.com

Abstract
Garo tribe, in most of the remote areas of South Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, India
use medicinal plants for their primary needs in all medical aspects due to lack of modern
facilities in the district. But this indigenous therapeutic knowledge of the community is fading
away rapidly due to lack of proper documentation. The present investigation has been made
to document the plants used by the Garo tribe to treat different diseases and to determine
their importance by quantitative analysis. The study was based on ethnomedicinal field
survey covering a period of 2 year from 2012 to 2014. The ethnomedicinal information was
collected by using semi-structured questionnaires from different medicine man. Collected
data were analyzed through relative frequency of citation and informant consensus factor to
determine culturally significant plants. A total 98 plant species belonging to 91 genera and
46 families have been documented. Family Leguminosae was documented to have highest
number of plants (7 sp.). Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts and most of the
medicines were prepared in the form of decoction and administered internally. FIC values
of the present study indicated that there was a high agreement in the use of plants in
the treatment of III-defined symptoms. Aegle marmelos, Averrhoa carombola and Cissus
quadrangularis are the top three plants with RFC value of 0.83, 0.72 and 0.72 respectively.
The top three plants with higher RFC value documented during the survey may be taken
under consideration for further pharmacological study. Moreover, continued documentation
concerning conservation and sustainable used of Garo medicinal plant heritage is required,
which should be publicized to younger generation.

Keywords: Ethnomedicinal Plant; FIC; Garo Tribe; RFC; South Garo Hills District

37
Introduction
Plants have played a key role in the traditional healthcare system of human beings since
the dawn of medicine. Over the past few decades, the traditional knowledge on the use of
medicinal plants against various ailments has been widely acknowledged across the world
[1]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the world’s population in
developing countries uses traditional medicine [2]. The reliance of this large population
may possibly due to the good accessibility to the plants, good affordability of the herbal
material as compared to conventional drugs and the widespread ethnic knowledge and
expertise among the local communities [3]. Now a day, the assessment of ethnobotanical
information has received special attention to gather knowledge of natural resources for their
scientific and economic exploitation [1]. A number of active principles from of herbal origin
were isolated and introduced as potential drugs in modern system of healthcare with the
advancement in the techniques of phytochemistry and pharmacology [4].
India is one of the 17 mega biodiversity countries of the world. Meghalaya comes under
the globally recognized Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot which is host to a remarkable
biodiversity that includes a high proportion of endemic, rare and endangered species.
Its varied topography and high annual precipitation makes the state one of the richest
biodiversity belt of the region and harbors about 3128 species of flowering plants contributing
about 18% of total flora of the country [5].
Garo Hills, Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills are three main regions of Meghalaya in terms of
tribal composition. The state has an estimated population of about 2,964,007 [6]. The three
principal tribes of Meghalaya are the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia. The Garo tribe belongs to
Tibeto-Burman subfamily of Sino-Tibetan linguistic group [7].
The Garo Hills comprises of five districts namely North Garo Hills, West Garo Hills,
South West Garo Hills, South Garo Hills (SGH) and East Garo Hills districts, predominated
by the Garo tribe which constitutes 96.54% of the total population. It is the second largest
tribe after the Khasi in Meghalaya along with other indigenous inhabitants viz. Hajongs,
Rabhas, Koches, Rajbansis, Kacharis and Dalus [8].
Recent trend in ethno-medicinal studies produces a number of works in northeast
Indian state. In the state of Meghalaya, ethnomedicinal works have been done basically on
the Khasi and Jaintia tribes [9-14] and only a few sporadic works on the Garo tribe [15-18].
However, no attempt has been made so far to document the ethnomedicinal plants of SGH
district in concern with traditional knowledge of Garo tribe. Therefore, the present study
was conducted to document the use of medicinal plants used by Garo tribe residing in SGH
district of Meghalaya, India.

Materials and Methods

Study area
SGH district, one of the 5 districts of Garo Hills is situated in the south-west corner of
Meghalaya. It is bounded by international border with Bangladesh in the South, West Garo
Hills district in the West, East Garo Hills district in the north and South West Khasi Hills
district in the east. The district lies between 25°25’N to 25°27’N Latitude and 90°30’E to
90°66’E Longitude extending an area of 1850 sq. km with 1186 sq. km of forest coverage
having Balpakram-Baghmara Landscape in its heart. The district is predominated by the
Garos and shifting cultivation is their main occupation.
Field survey
During the ethnomedicinal survey from 2012 to 2014 in SGH district of Meghalaya, India
in connection with the Approved Research Programme of Botanical Survey of India, Eastern

38
Regional Centre, Shillong, Meghalaya, efforts were made to record the ethnomedicinal plants
used by the Garo tribe. Field surveys have been undertaken covering all the seasons for
gathering the information on plant species used in traditional herbal medicine in different
villages namely Rompa, New Rompa, Hatisia, Durbeta, Kanai, Mahadeo, Moheskhola,
Rongra, Karauni and Siju in and around Balpakram-Baghmara Landscape (25°9’N to
25°22’N latitude and 90°37’E to 90°60’E longitude) of SGH district (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map showing study area.

Data collection and interviews

The information were collected from 18 (13 men and 5 women) traditional practitioners
locally called ojhas in different villages. All the interviewees were in the age range of 45-
75 years. The data were collected through direct interview and discussion in local Garo
language and sometime in English using educated forest personal as translators following
the semi structured questionnaire [19]. In course of the interviews, information on
ethnomedicinal plants, their local names, plant parts used in respective diseases and
methods of administration were recorded. The scientific term for various ailments mentioned
by the informants in the survey has been standardized and grouped under different disease
categories according to Cook [20].
Plant collection, preservation, identification and deposition in herbarium
The plants have been collected in flowering and fruiting stages. The whole process of
collection, pressing and preparation of herbarium specimens were in accordance to the
conventional herbarium techniques [21]. The specimens were identified with the help of
different Floras and Monograph specially Flora of British India [22], Forest Flora of Meghalaya
[23] and Flora of Assam [24-27]. The identities of the specimens were finally confirmed by
consulting ASSAM herbarium in Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Shillong. All the voucher
specimens have been deposited to the ASSAM herbarium, BSI, Eastern Regional Centre,
Shillong for future references.
Data analysis
The data collected during the study were analysed by the following methods.
Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC): The RFC is obtained by the equation RFC =
FC/N (0 < RFC < 1) where, FC is the frequency of citation i.e., the number of informants
who mention the use of the species and N is the total number of informants interviewed in
the survey [28]. This index shows the local importance of each species.

39
 Informant consensus factor (FIC): Informant Consensus factor or Informant Agreement
Ratio (IAR) was one of popular quantitative approaches for identifying the relative importance
of medicinal plants with the ailment categories in a particular culture. The present index
was initially developed by Trotter and Logan [29] and later on modified by Heinrich et al.,
[30]. The present index calculated on the basis of the following equation-
FIC = Nur – Nt/(Nur - 1)
Where, Nur stands for the number of use reports for a particular use category and Nt
stands for the number of taxa used for a particular ailment category by all informants.
The indices could reflect the homogeneity in the use of plants in the ailment categories
among the informants of the study area. As many species may be associated with the same
disease, this factor becomes significant tool for determining the most used plant species for
treating a particular ailment. A higher FIC value indicates the use of relatively few plants
by the informants in the treatment of a particular ailment category whereas a lower FIC
value indicates that there are disagreement among the informants with regard to use of a
particular plant for treating a particular ailment category.

Results
The present investigation on ethnomedicinal plants was carried out from 2012 to 2014
in SGH district of Meghalaya. Total 98 plant species belonging to 91 genera and 47 families
have been reported by 18 Garo medicine men and women in about 35 different ailments.
Collected data were tabulated with the family name in alphabetical order followed by
species name, voucher number, vernacular name, habitat, relevant frequency of citation,
plant part(s) used, ailments treated, preparation, application and relevant ethnobotanical/
pharmacological citation (Table 1).
Family and botanical Voucher Vernacular Part(s)
Habit RFC# Used in Preparation Application
name number name used
Acanthaceae
DKR130889 Alot-gipak S 0.50 Bk Cough & Cold Juice I
Justicia adhatoda L.
Justicia gendarussa DKR125437,
Dojajjiipe S 0.22 St Bone fracture Paste E
Burm. f. 125445, 125495
Phlogacanthus DKR125438, 0.38 Lf Dysentery Juice I
A lot-gitchok S
thyrsiflorus Nees 125601,129446 Bk Jaundice Juice I
Acoraceae Indigestion,
DKR130875 Pachhi H 0.61 Rz Decoc I
Acorus calamus L. cough, asthma
Amaryllidaceae
DKR125968, Gorobokchi
Crinum amoenum Ker H 0.39 Tb Bone fracture Paste E
125646 jota
Gawl. ex Roxb.
Apiaceae
DKR125971, Gastric,
Centella asiatica (L.) Monmuni H 0.44 Wp Juice I
130112 Dysentery
Urb.
Apocynaceae
DKR125697,
Calotropis gigantea Khimbar S 0.61 Lf Headache Paste E
125940, 125625
(L.) Dryand.
Rauvolfia serpentina DKR125440,
Dogrik S 0.38 Rt Jaundice Decoc I
(L.) Benth. ex Kurz 125605
Wrightia
DKR125474,
antidysenterica (L.) Bolmatara T 0.33 Rt Dysentery Decoc I
125493
R.Br.
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex umbellulata (Wall.) DKR129476 Boltajong T 0.17 Bk Indigestion Decoc I
Loes.
Araceae
Colocasia esculenta DKR125926 Ajokdiki H 0.16 Tb Abortion Decoc I
(L.) Schott

40
 Lasia spinosa (L.) Cuts & wounds,
DKR129470 Chonggi H 0.39 Lf Paste E, I
Thwaites gastric
Asparagaceae
DKR125932, Sexual
Asparagus racemosus Kizhangu H 0.50 Rt Decoc I
125970 weakness, ulcer
Willd.
Bignoniaceae
Oroxylum indicum (L.) DKR130893 Kiringbol T 0.33 Bk Jaundice Decoc I
Kurz
Stereospermum DKR125510,
Bolsil T 0.22 Bk Dizziness Decoc I
tetragonum DC. 129722
Bromeliaceae Gonorrhea, skin
Ananas comosus (L.) DKR130877 Anaros H 0.50 Rt debridement, Decoc I
Merr. arthritis
Combretaceae
Gastritis,
Terminalia bellirica DKR125512 Bahera T 0.44 Fr Powder
Jaundice
(Gaertn.) Roxb.
Compositae Cut & wounds,
DKR125394,
Ageratum conyzoides Namining H 0.61 Lf diarrhea, boils, Paste, juice I, E
130115
(L.) L. fever
Jaundice,
Artemisia nilagirica Decoc, paste
DKR 125955 Nakdue S 0.61 Lf scabies, itching, I, E
(C.B.Clarke) Pamp.
wounds
Spilanthes acmella
DKR125385 Santusem H 0..39 Lf Toothache Paste E
(L.) L.
Chromolaena odorata
Cut &Wounds,
(L.) R.M.King & DKR130116 Samsimari S 0.44 Lf Paste, juice E, I
fever
H.Rob.
Mikania micrantha
DKR125990 German-pila S 0.38 Lf Cuts & wounds Paste E
Kunth
Convolvulaceae
DKR130885 Durimit-budu H 0.38 Wp Jaundice Decoc I
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Costaceae
Cheilocostus
DKR130883 Diki-ahuda S 0.22 Rz Jaundice Powder I
speciosus (J.Koenig)
C.D.Specht
Crassulaceae Irregular
Bryophyllum pinnatum DKR129602 Samjangi H 0.44 Lf menstruation, Juice I
(Lam.) Oken dysentery
Cucurbitaceae Profuse bleeding
Benincasa hispida DKR130859 Akaru H 0.38 Sd from uterus, Roasted I
(Thunb.) Cogn. epilepsy
Coccinia grandis (L.) Stomach ache,
DKR130087 Du-chuja S 0.27 Rt Paste E
Voigt diabetes
Cucurbita maxima Akaru- Profuse bleeding
DKR130884 S 0.22 Sd Roasted I
Duchesne gitchak from uterus
Momordica charantia
DKR130891 Kolacita S 0.16 Lf Piles Juice E
L.
Cyperaceae
DKR125370 Ganechi H 0.44 Rz Jaundice, wonds Juice I
Cyperus rotundus L.
Dilleniaceae
Juice,
Dillenia pentagyna DKR125302 Agachi T 0.5 Fl, Bk Fever, diabetes I
powder
Roxb.
Euphorbiaceae
Croton caudatus DKR125996 Sawaka S 0.27 Bk Malaria, diabetes Decoc I
Geiseler
Paralysis,
Croton joufra Roxb. DKR125653 Matmi T 0.5 Bk Decoc I
diarrhea
Leucorrhea,
Euphorbia hirta L. DKR130887 Katri H 0.33 Tw Juice I
diarrhea
Malaria,
Jatropha curcas L. DKR130888 Mandalchi S 0.27 Lf Latex I
rheumatism

41
Jatropha gossypiifolia Stomachache,
DKR125935 Mandalchi S 0.5 Lf Latex I
L. headache
Manihot esculenta
DKR129600 Simuldiki S 0.28 Lf Ringworm Paste E
Crantz
Fagaceae
DKR125523,
Castanopsis indica Chakko T 0.33 Lf Headache Paste E
125545
(Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC.
Hypoxidaceae
Sexual
Curculigo orchioides DKR130181. A Shakti-bindu H 0.27 Rt Decoc I
weakness
Gaertn.
Lamiaceae
Paralysis,
Callicarpa arborea DKR130879 Akon T 0.61 Lf Paste I
diabetes
Roxb.
Clerodendrum indicum Dysentery,
DKR130882 Bodimdim S 0.38 Lf Juice I
(L.) Kuntze asthma
Clerodendrum Sam-makhi,
DKR125657 S 0.22 Rt Dysentery Decoc I
infortunatum L. Samsikhs
Leucas aspera (Willd.)
DKR130890 Dumkolos H 0.22 Lf Rhinitis Juice E
Link
Cough & Cold,
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. DKR129598 Tulshi S 0.33 Lf Juice I
fever
Lauraceae
Cinnamomum tamala DKR125462, Beriberi,
Tezibol T 0.61 Bk Decoc I
(Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees 129686 diabetes
& Eberm.
Litsea cubeba (Lour.)
DKR129612 Zeng-jil T 0.11 Bk Headache Paste E
Pers.
Lecythidaceae
DKR125463 Ghimbeel T 0.38 Bk Dysentery, piles Decoc I
Careya arborea Roxb.
Leguminosae DKR129433, Bone fracture,
Megong T 0.44 Bk Paste E
Bauhinia purpurea L. 129617 leprosy
Arthritis,
Cassia fistula L. DKR130880 Sinaru T 0.44 Lf, Bk Decoc I
Jaundice
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. DKR125984 Doneru S 0.44 Sd Ringworm Powder E
Mimosa pudica L. DKR125387 Smit-chip S 0.33 Lf Boil Paste E
Sexual
Mucuna bracteata DC. DKR125942 Wakmi S 0.33 Sd Roasted I
weakness
Ormosia robusta DKR125524, Sanachi-
T 0.05 Bk Jaundice Decoc I
Baker 130155 bloma
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) DKR129496,
Khom-kol T 0.38 Fl Uterine disorders Juice I
Willd. 125327
Lythraceae
DKR125987,
Lagerstroemia Asaribol T 0.38 Rt Jaundice Decoc I
129782
speciosa (L.) Pers.
Malvaceae
Headache, Liver
Abutilon indicum (L.) DKR130874 Hathkapali S 0.54 Lf Paste E
disorder
Sweet
Bone fracture,
Bombax ceiba L. DKR129766 Bolchu T 0.44 Bk Paste E
indigestion
Domachiok- Bone fracture,
Urena lobata L. DKR125359 S 0.39 Rt Paste E
budu dog bite
Melastomataceae DKR125681,
Cuts & wounds,
Melastoma 125972, Kakkuchi S 0.44 Lf Paste E
dysentery
malabathricum L. 125460, 125477
Osbeckia nepalensis
DKR130895 Kakuchi S 0.22 Rt Body pain Paste E
Hook. f.
Meliaceae
Jaundice,
Azadirachta indica DKR130860 Neem T 0.5 Bk Decoc I
gingivitis
A.Juss.
Munronia pinnata
DKR125345 Samskar S 0.38 Rt Diarrhea Decoc I
(Wall.) W. Theob.

42
 Menispermaceae
Small Pox,
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) DKR129654 Nirkhut S 0.5 Rt Decoc I
jaundice
Hook.f. & Thomson
Tinospora sinensis Lengkot-
DKR130139 S 0.27 Tb Piles Decoc I
(Lour.) Merr. budu
Nepenthaceae
DKR125519, Memang-
Nepenthes khasiana S 0.27 Pt Leprosy Sap E
125909 kakshi
Hook.f.
Nymphaeaceae
Nymphaea nouchali DKR130892 Aplak H 0.44 Rz Irregular period Paste I
Burm.f.
Oxalidaceae
DKR130016 Kamagga T 0.72 Fr Jaundice Juice I
Averrhoa carambola L.
Oxalis corniculata L. DKR130894 Ladawke H 0.38 Wp Onychomycosis Paste E
Phyllanthaceae
DKR130896 Ambri T 0.33 Bk Dysentery Decoc I
Phyllanthus emblica L.
Piperaceae Cough & Cold,
DKR129402 Golmoris C 0.50 Fr Powder I
Piper longum L. menstrual pain
Plantaginaceae
DKR125949 Chakurblang H 0.38 Lf Cut & wounds Paste E
Plantago major L.
Scoparia dulcis L. DKR125363 Sam-Goldak S 0.33 Wp Headache Paste E
Rhamnaceae
DKR130900 Angkil T 0.22 Rt Influenza Decoc I
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
Rubiaceae
Stomach pain,
Hedyotis scandens DKR125368 Kimprong S 0.38 Rt Juice I
cough
Roxb.
Morinda angustifolia DKR125334,
Chenong S 0.44 Rt Dysentery Decoc I
Roxb. 125491, 125557
Bk Jaundice Decoc I
Mussaenda glabra
DKR129599 Gardek S 0.38 Rt Jaundice Decoc I
Vahl
Paederia foetida L. DKR125354 Pashum S 0.44 Lf Indigestion Juice I
Spermacoce Stomach pain,
DKR130878 Ramasam H 0.39 Lf Juice I
neohispida Govaerts wounds
Cough & Cold
Rutaceae
, diarrhea,
Aegle marmelos (L.) DKR125933 Belethi T 0.83 Tw, Bk Decoc I
jaundice,
Corrêa
dysentery
Micromelum
integerrimum (Buch.- Toothache, Powder,
DKR125415 Bol-bisi T 0.28 Bk E, I
Ham. ex DC.) Wight & gastric Decoc
Arn. ex M. Roem.
Murraya paniculata
DKR125442 Kamini T 0.38 Lf Fever Juice I
(L.) Jack
Zanthoxylum rhetsa
DKR 130341 Chilong T 0.27 Rt Jaundice Paste I
DC.
Smilacaceae
Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. DKR130103 Narang-wa S 0.33 Lf, Rt Boil, body pain Paste, E
ex D.Don
Solanaceae
Physalis divaricata DKR130897 Chichithopa H 0.5 Tw Gastritis Juice I
D. Don
Solanum melongena Toothache, Powder,
DKR130898 Bareng S 0.44 Rt E, I
L. beriberi Decoc
Theaceae
DKR125309,
Schima wallichii Boldo-kaki T 0.5 Lf Cut & wounds Paste E
125977,125499
Choisy
Urticaceae
DKR125973,
Boehmeria Gilgra S 0.33 Lf Dysentery Paste I
129737
macrophylla Hornem.

43
 Vitaceae Bone fracture,
Cissus quadrangularis DKR130881 Samritchu S 0.72 Rt, St irregular Paste, juice E
L. menstruation
Cissus repanda (Wight wounds,
DKR130236 Tazabudu S 0.39 Lf, Rt Paste, Decoc I
& Arn.) Vahl dysentery
Tetrastigma
DKR125320 Wakkarang S 0.16 Bk Bone fracture Paste E
thomasianum Planch.
Leea indica (Burm.
Ganggipetop S 0.50 Rt Beriberi, allergy Decoc, paste I, E
f.) Merr.
Xanthorrhoeaceae Diki- Jaundice,
DKR130876 H 0.67 Lf Decoc I
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. kamchon eczema, wounds
Zingiberaceae
Diki- Stomach pain,
Curcuma angustifolia DKR125679 H 0.61 Rz Juice I
Katonggisim stomatitis
Roxb.
Curcuma montana Diki-
DKR130221 H 0.61 Rz Jaundice Decoc I
Roxb. Katonggisim
Curcuma zedoaria
DKR130219 Jalam-dike H 0.55 Rz Jaundice, cough Decoc I
(Christm.) Roscoe
Hedychium coccineum Headache,
DKR130331 Samriching H 0.44 Rz Paste E
Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. rheumatism
Zingiber officinale
DKR130899 Reching H 0.27 Rz Jaundice Decoc I
Roscoe
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Convulsion in
DKR130345 Adadari H 0.33 Rt Decoc I
Roscoe ex Sm. children

Table 1: Plant species used by the Garo tribe in South Garo Hills district of Meghalaya.

H - Herb; S - Shrub; T - Tree; C - Climber; #RFC - Relative Frequency of Citation; Lf -

Leaf; Rt - Root, Bk - Bark, St - Stem; Rz - Rhizome; Wp - Whole Plant; Sd - Seed; Fl - Flower;
Tb - Tuber; Tw - Twig; Pt - Pitcher; Fr - Fruit; Decoc - Decoction; I - Internal; E - External.
Out of 46 families, most predominant are Leguminosae (7 spp.), Zingiberaceae (6 spp.),
Euphorbiaceae (6 spp.), Rubiaceae (5 spp.), Lamiaceae (5 spp.), Compositae (5 spp.),
Cucurbitaceae (4 spp.), Rutaceae (4 spp.), Vitaceae (4 spp.), Malvaceae (3 spp.), in terms
of number of species used (Figure 2). Amongst the collected plants, shrubs comprise 42
species followed by herbs (29 sp.), tree (28 sp.) and climber (1 sp.).

Xanthorrhoeaceae
Theaceae
Rutaceae
Plantaginaceae
Oxalidaceae
Menispermaceae
Malvaceae
Family

Lecythidaceae
Hypoxidaceae
Dilleniaceae
Crassulaceae
Compositae
Bignoniaceae
Araceae
Apiaceae
Acanthaceae
0 2Number4of plants6 8

Figure 2: Number of plants per family used in SGH.

44
 Out of various plant parts used as medicine (Figure 3), usage of leaf has shown highest
percentage of 29% followed by root (21%), bark (20%) , rhizome (8%), seed (4%), whole plant
(4%), fruit (3%), tuber (3%), twig (3%), flower (2%), stem (2%) and pitcher (1%).

Figure 3: Percentage of plant parts used.

The most prevalent forms of preparation of medicine are decoction (36%), which is
followed by paste (31%), juice (21%), powder (6%), roasted (3%), latex (2%) and sap (1%)
(Figure 4).

Figure 4: Mode of preparation of traditional therapy in SGH.

The herbal medicines are either applied Externally (E) or taken Internally (I). Internal
application of plants is more frequent (66%) in the present study area than external

45
application (33%). Out of 33 ailments, herbal medicines are applied externally in 11
ailments namely body pain, boil, bone fracture, cut and wounds, headache, joint pain,
leprosy, onychomycosis, paralysis, ringworm, toothache and taken orally in 22 ailments viz.
abortion, irregular period, after delivery, beriberi, convulsion of children, cough and cold,
diarrhea, dysentery, fever, gastritis, gonorrhea, indigestion, jaundice, malaria, paralysis,
piles, profuse bleeding from uterus, rhinitis, sexual weakness, small pox, stomach pain,
uterine disorders. The most common ailments are jaundice, dysentery, bone fracture,
cut and wounds, headache, indigestion, cough and cold, irregular period and ringworm.
Maximum 20 species are found to be used in the remedies of jaundice followed by dysentery
(13 sp.), bone fracture (8 sp.), cut and wounds (7 sp.), headache (6 sp.) and indigestion (5 sp.).
Diseases recorded in the present study area have been categorized under 15 disease
categories based on the human body system (Table 2). Among them highest FIC value has
been shown by III-Defined symptoms (1) followed by nutritional disorders (0.78).

Informants consensus
Disease category Number of Use Reports (Nur) Number of Taxa (Nt)
index factor (FIC)
III-Defined symptoms 2 1 1
Nutritional disorders 24 6 0.78
Genitourinary system disorders 45 11 0.77
Endocrine system disorder 27 7 0.77
Respiratory system disorders 52 13 0.76
Infections/infestations 124 30 0.76
Pain 56 14 0.76
Muscular-skeletal system disorders 55 14 0.76
Nervous system disorders 30 8 0.76
Mental disorders 13 4 0.75
Pregnancy/birth/puerperium disorders 5 2 0.75
Inflammation 5 2 0.75
Skin/subcutaneous cellular tissue disorders 37 10 0.75
Digestive system disorders 164 43 0.74
Injuries 63 17 0.74
Table 2: Informants consensus factor (FIC) for various disease categories.
Based on the information provided by the interviewee, the highest cited plant is Aegle
marmelos with RFC value of 0.83. Other plants with prominent RFC value are Averrhoa
carombola (0.72), Cissus quadrangularis (0.72), Aloe vera (0.67), Acorus calamus (0.61),
Callicarpa arborea (0.61), Ageratum conyzoides (0.61), Artemisia nilagirica (0.61), Calotropis
gigantea (0.61), Cinnamomum tamala (0.61), Curcuma angustifolia (0.61) and Curcuma
montana (0.61).

Discussion
The present survey indicates a high level of consensus within the ethnic Garo community.
In this current work, the informant consensus of medicinal plant usage by the Garo people
of SGH, Meghalaya resulted in FIC ranging from 0.74 to 1 per disease category. The highest
FIC (1.00) is observed for use category related to III-defined symptoms, but only one species
viz., Stereospermum tetragonum was recorded for dizziness in this category. This finding
suggested that there is a well-defined selection criterion for this use category [31]. However,
the plant in this use category was cited by only two informants, indicating that the species
may be effective for specific treatments, yet the knowledge rests with only a few people,
making it vulnerable to extinction [32].
Similarly, in case of Nepenthes khasiana, the main attribute for getting endangered is
its endemicity to the state of Meghalaya, India [33] and intensive exploitation by the local
inhabitant for its medicinal uses. The species has a much localised distribution in the

46
Jarain area of the Jaintia Hills [34] and the Baghmara area of the Garo Hills of Meghalaya.
During the current survey, 10 out of 18 informants mentioned the plant for treating leprosy
which demarcates most of the surveyed traditional practitioners is exploiting the plant for
its therapeutic use. Therefore, it validates the present conservation status of the plant.
Among the ethnomedicinal plants documented during the survey, Aegle marmelos,
Averrhoa carombola and Cissus quadrangularis are the top three frequently cited plants.
The used of twig and bark of A. marmelos by the Garos is very effective in curing cough &
cold, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery. In Ayurveda and in various folk medicines, the leaves
and bark of A. marmelos are used extensively to treat ailments including diarrhea, jaundice
and dysentery [35]. C. quadrangularis, commonly known as the “bone setter,” referred to
as “Asthisamdhani” in Sanskrit and “Harjod” (Har means bone and jod means to attach) in
Hindi because of its ability to join bones [36]. Nadkarni [37] in his Materia Medica describes
the root as most useful for bone fractures, with similar mode of application. Relevant use
of this plant has also been reported in the neighboring state of Tripura [38]. The use of A.
carombola fruit in treating jaundice is found very common by the Garo tribe of SGH district.
In Maharastra, India 2-3 ripened fruit of this plant are consumed daily for 15-20 days to
get rid of Jaundice [39]. The plant has also been reported against jaundice in the sub-
Himalayan parts of Uttarakhand, India [40].
Leaves and root were the most used plant part, which agrees with most other
ethnobotanical studies [31,38,41]. The explanation is possibly that leaves are the most
vulnerable parts of plants and therefore contain more bioactive secondary compounds to
defend themselves from herbivores [42]. From a management perspective, gathering of
leaves is more sustainable than gathering of underground parts, stem, bark, or entire plants
[43]. However, roots are the second most preferred part, possibly because they contain high
levels of bioactive compounds related to their function as a sink for compounds produced
by the plants [32].

Conclusion
Aegle marmelos, Averrhoa carombola and Cissus quadrangularis are the top three plants
analyzed during the present investigation. These plants can be further studied for their
pharmacological activity and active compound. Scientific and systematic collections of
medicinal plants may be done by responsible authority for commercial purposes, which can
be beneficial for the local inhabitants as well as the nourishment for the natural ecosystem.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to Dr. Paramjit Singh, Director, Botanical Survey of India,
Kolkata and Dr. A.A. Mao, Scientist-F, Head of Office, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern
Regional Centre, Shillong for encouragement and facilities. We specially express our thanks
to Garo tribe in the study area for revealing their traditional knowledge. We are also grateful
to the Bioinformatics Centre, Assam University, Silchar and DeLCON (DBT-Electronic
Library Consortium), Govt. of India for providing free access to the journal articles.

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 eBooks

Ethno-Medicinal Plants Used By the South West

Khasi Hills District Community of Meghalaya,
India
Sh. Bidyasagar Singh1*, S.K. Tripathi2 and B. P. Mishra3*
1
NERCORMP- KCRMS, West Khasi Hill District- 793119, Meghalaya
2
Department of Forestry, Mizoram University, Aizawl – 796004, Mizoram
3
Department of Environmental Science, Mizoram University, Aizawl – 796004,
Mizoram

*Corresponding author: Dr. Sh. Bidyasagar Singh, NERCORMP- KCRMS, West

Khasi Hill District- 793119, Meghalaya, India; E-mail: shaikhombidyasagar@yahoo.
co.in

Abstract
Medicinal plants play a vital role for the development of new drugs and form the backbone
of the traditional communities for their daily needs of curing ailments. Information on
the uses of these medicines is communicated within the community verbally and there
is general lack of proper recording of these plants and their uses. In recent years, uses of
medicinal plants are increasingly solicited through the tradi-practioners for the treatment
of different ailments of the communities. The present study was carried out on medicinally
important plants used by the South West Khasi Hills District community of Meghalaya,
and recorded a total of 56 medicinal plant species belonging to 53 genera and 41 families.
The study showed that Achyranthes aspera and Celastrus peniculatus were most important
species used for curing many diseases. The leaves were the most frequently used plant
parts followed by root, bark, fruit, stem, seed, and whole plant to cure various diseases. The
unproportioned use of plants and their parts is threatening the survival of critical plants in
the region. Therefore, there is a need to conserve the plant resources on the ground level for
the benefit of local communities and sustainable use of these species.

Keywords: Ailments; Sustainable Development; Traditional Medicine; Tradipractioners

Introduction
Natural ecosystems mainly forests have been considered as the storehouse of biodiversity
and used as a source of medicinally important plants for millennia. Plants produce number
of chemical compounds for biological functions like defense against insects, fungi and
herbivorous mammals and more than 12, 000 chemical compounds have been isolated so
far which are believed to be less than 10% of the total [1,2]. These chemical compounds
originated from plants mediate their effects on the human body through the process
similarly to those already known for the chemical compounds in the conventional drugs
and so the herbal medicine works similarly as the conventional medicines. Therefore, plant-
based system continues to play an essential role in primary health care of population still

50
today. Medicinal Plants have been used for thousands of years to flavor and conserve food,
to treat health disorders and to prevent many diseases including epidemics [3].
The use of herbal plants to treat human ailments is universal among non-industrialized
societies and is often more affordable than purchasing modern medicines. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimated that 80% of the population in the countries of Asia and
Africa continent presently use herbal medicine for primary health care remedies. This has
led to increase the total annual global value of pharmaceutical plants over US $ 2.2 billion
in 2012 [4]. WHO has recognized the importance of traditional medicine and has created
strategies, guidelines and standards for botanical medicines [5]. Plants with medicinal
properties enjoyed the highest reputation in the indigenous systems of medicine all over the
world, and still constitute one of the major sources of drugs in modern as well as traditional
systems of medicine in spite of tremendous development in the field of synthetic drugs and
antibiotics [6].
Indigenous people living in particular areas depend on the use of wild plants or plant
parts to fulfill their needs and often have considerable knowledge on their uses for the plant
diversity for food, cloth, shelter, for the treatment of their regular ailments, utilize the plants
and manage to conserve it to some extent for future use [7]. Forest degradation followed by
unsustainable use of forest products has resulted not only in environmental degradation
but also threatened the livelihood security of millions of people particularly in developing
countries. Therefore, conservation of natural resources has held utmost importance for
mankind’s survival and sustenance. Protections of a large number of medicinal plants in
sacred forests of different parts of India are some of the well documented studies [8-11]
that can provide a natural wealth for food, fiber and medicinal uses of tribal population
inhabiting the area.
Traditional medicine healing practice is not only concerned with curing of diseases but
also with the protection and promotion of human physical, spiritual, social, mental and
material wellbeing [12]. The importance of medicinal plants to treat human ailments and
community characteristic in most parts of Northeast of India has been described by various
studies [13-18]; however, there are still only few studies describing such studies for the
state of Meghalaya [19-21]. Meghalaya is rich in its floral diversity and contributes about
18% of total flora of country [22]. There are about 3128 species of flowering plants in the
state of which 40% of total flora of state is endemic. Herbal drugs obtained from plants are
believed to be much safer; this has been proved in the treatment of various ailments [23].
Traditional medicine and ethnobotanical information play an important role in scientific
research, particularly when the literature and field work data have been properly evaluated
[24]. Medicinal plants have always been the principle form of medicine in India. Therefore,
the present study was carried out to identify the use of medicinally important plants by the
communities of West Khasi Hills District of Meghalaya based on primary and secondary
resources and suggested action for conservation of threatened plants of the region based on
their unjudicial uses.

Material and Methods

The study was carried out in part of Mawkyrwat, South West Khasi Hills District which
is 37 km far from the West Khasi Hills District under the Mawkyrwat block, Meghalaya,
India. It lies between latitudes 25.3625° N and longitudes 91.4556° E. The elevation ranges
is 1534.82 m asl. The climate is monsoonal with distinct warm-wet and cold-dry periods.
The monsoon strikes in this area in the middle of May to the middle of September, which
sometimes extends to late September and first week of October. The western and southern
parts of the state are warmer than the central upland where mean minimum temperature
stands at 20°C. Average maximum and minimum temperatures and annual rainfall in the
state varies from 5°C to 32°C, and 4,000 mm to 11,436 mm, respectively.

51
 The study was conducted during 2014-2015 with suitable questionnaires in selected
villages. Information was collected from elder people and traditional healer who have
sound knowledge about plants and their uses. The species were identified with the help of
herbarium of the BSI, Eastern circle, Shillong and counter checked with the help of Flora of
Assam [25], Flora of Meghalaya [26] and other regional and local floras.

Results and Discussion

In the present study, a total 56 plants species belonging to 41 families and 53 genera
were recorded. The information on different ethno-medicinal use of the plant species to
treat various ailments recorded during the period of survey are given alphabetically in Table
1 and the photographs of some plants and consulting are given in Figure 5. Based on life
forms there were: 52% tree, 23% shrub, 14% Herb and 11% climber (Figure 1). Trees are the
main sources of medicines followed by shrubs, herbs, climbers. The present study shows
that almost all plant parts are used as medicine. Rubiaceae was the most dominant family
representing 5 species followed by Anacardiaceae, Lauraceae, Solanaceae (3 species each),
Fabaceae, Moraceae, Plantaginaceae, Rutaceae and Verbenaceae (2 species each) and the
remaining thirty two families were represented by a single species (Figure 2). People use
several methods to prepare medicines from local herbs and plant materials traditionally.
Sometime they use different parts of the plants and sometime whole plants. The parts of
plants used for medicinal purpose were leave, root, bark, stem, seed etc. The study focuses
the use of plant parts i.e. leave 26%, root 19%, and bark 17%, fruit 13%, stem 10%, seed
9% and whole plant 6% to cure various diseases (Figure 3). The maximum use of leave,
root and bark indicates that these parts may have strong medicinal properties. Most of the
medicinal plants are taken internally or applied externally and used in juice form which
is extracted from different parts of a plant followed by paste, fresh plants and plant parts
and powder form. Some of the plant parts used in medicines is single or either mixed with
other ingredients. These medicinally important plants are used to cure various ailments
including diarrhea, cold, cough, fever, stomachache, snake bite, skin disease, toothache,
diabetes bone fracture etc. The finding revealed that maximum plants species are used to
cure various ailments such as diarrhea, cold, cough, fever, stomachache, dysentery etc.
However, minimum plant species used to cure diabetes, blood pressure, toothache, asthma,
diuretic etc. (Figure 4). The study further showed that a single plant species Achyranthes
aspera and Celastrus peniculatus frequently used to cure many diseases. Ethno-medicinal
plants have special meanings to the communities in the sense that they contribute to
many lives in term of health support, income generation and food security [27]. During
our survey we have found that most of the elderly persons/traditional healers have greater
knowledge upon the utilization of medicinal plants compare to younger generation. They are
practicing this method since time immemorial and have been passed for every generation to
generation. There is a great danger that this knowledge will be lost in the future due to lack
of interest by younger people. However, interaction with younger generation of the village,
they showed lack interest in practices. Most of literature who worked in ethno-medicinal
studies also presented the same. But due to over exploitation of these valuable resources,
there is tremendous pressure on some of the plant species which is resulting in reduction
of their population. It is, therefore extremely essential to cultivate and conserve plant
species in their environment and to conserve the indigenous knowledge for curing various
diseases. The need for integration of indigenous knowledge for sustainable development and
conservation of natural resources receive more recognition. To encourage local community
towards traditional healthcare systems, there is ample scope of the credit should be given to
the persons having such knowledge development of reward system will add a new dimension
for protection of medicinal plant as well as restoration of land.

52
Sl.
Scientific Name Family Local Name Parts Used Ailments
No
Amenorrhoea, Abortifacient,
Abroma augusta Leaves, Bark, Dysmenorrhoea, Diabetes, Menstrual
1 Malvaceae Dieng tyrkhum
(L.) L.f Roots, Seeds disorders, Gonorrhoea, Sinusitis,
Uterine tonic
Piles, Diuretic, Boils, Abscess,
Painfull delivery, Antifertility, Rabies,
Achyranthes aspera Seeds, Roots,
2 Amaranthaceae Sohbyrthid Antidiabetic, Pneumonia, Menstrual
L. Leaves
disorders, Insect stings and
Snakebite
Colonorrhoea, Haematuria,
Adenanthera Leaves, Bark, Ulcers, Gout, Burning sensation,
3 Fabaceae Dieng thing
pavonina L Stem, Heartwood Hyperdipsia, Giddiness, Dysentery
and Haemorrhages
Snakebite, Carminative, Circulation,
Alangium chinense Contraceptive, Hemostatic,
4 Cornaceae Dieng skhorkhla Leaves
(Lour.) Harms Numbness, Poison, Rheumatism and
Wounds
Antidesma
5 diandrum(Roxb.) Euphorbiaceae Dieng japew Leave Bile complaints
B.Heyne ex Roth
Liver disorders, Tumours, Ulcers,
Aphanamixis
Worms, Skin diseases, Leprosy,
6 polystachya (Wall.) Meliaceae Dieng rata Bark, Seeds
Jaundice, Haemorrhoids,
R.N. Parker
Rheumatoid Arthritis and Myalgia
Rheumatism, Boils, Skin diseases,
Argyiera nervosa
7 Convolvulaceae Jatapmasi Roots, Leaves Syphilis, Nerve tonic, Eczema,
(Burm.f.) Bojer
Ringworm, Itchings and Swellings
Stomachache, Snakebite, Toothache,
8 Aristolochia tagala Aristolochiaceae Sohrynkhiah Leaves, Roots
Rheumatism and Tonic
Berberis wallichiana
9 Berberidaceae Dieng matshynrang Root, leave Swelling, Snake bite, Cough
DC.
Thermogenic, Alexeteric, Antipyretic,
Pruritus, Tumours, Cough,
Flowers, Bark, Dyspepsia, Colic, Haemorrhoids,
10 Careya arborea Roxb Lecythidaceae Sohkundur
Leaves, Fruits Worms, Dysentery, Urorrhoea,
Leucoderma, Fits, Smallpox, Ulcers
and Vaginal raptures
Stimulant, Aphrodisiac, Rheumatism,
Strengthening Memory, Antidote
on Opium Poisoning, Expectorant,
Celastrus paniculatus Bark, Leaves,
11 Celastraceae Meilalih Appetiser, Cardiotonic, Diuretic,
Willd Seeds
Anti-Inflammatory on Itching &
Skin diseases, Paralysis, Asthma,
Leucoderma, Beri-Beri and Sores
Cinnamomum
Urinary troubles, Gall Bladder stones
12 bejolghota (Buch. Lauraceae Dieng lasisirmot Bark
and Liver complaints
Ham) Sweet
Clerodendrum
Bark, Leaves, Rheumatism, Malaria and Blood
13 colebrookianum Verbenaceae Diengjalemkynthei
Roots Pressure
Walp.
Clerodendrum Bark, Leaves, Asthma, Cough, Scrofulous Affection,
14 Verbenaceae Phlangrilong
serratum (L.) Moon. Roots Dropsy, Fever and Syphilis
Constipation, Dyspepsia, Fever,
Cordia dichotoma Bark, Leaves, Diarrhoea, Leprosy, Skin diseases,
16 Boraginaceae Diengmong
G.Forst. Fruits Helminthiasis, Gonorrhoea and
Ringworm
Astringent, Stimulant, Anthelmintic,
Costusspeciosus
17 Zingiberaceae Krahhei-iang Rhizome Cough, Catarrhal, Fever, Dyspepsia,
(J.Konig) C.Specht
Skin diseases, Worms and Snakebite

53
 Stomachic, Blood purifier, Cold,
18 Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Shynrai Rhizome Vermicide, Antiseptic, Antiperiodic,
Diabetes, Leprosy and Sore Throat
Carbuncles, Chest Complaints,
Dillenia pentagyna
19 Dilleniaceae Dieng sohbar Fruits, Leaves Cholera, Dysentery, Fever, Sores,
Roxb.
Cough and Astringent
Cough, Bronchitis, Neuralgia,
Elaeocarpus Cephalalgia, Anorexia, Fits, Manic
20 Elaeocarpaceae Dieng sohlangskei Seeds, Fruits
sphaericus L.f conditions, Melancholia and Mental
disorders
Sedative, Carminative, Anthelmintic,
Engelhardtia spicata Diuretic, Rheumatism, Itches &
21 Juglandaceae Dieng lamba Bark, Leaves
Lechen ex. Blume Burns, Fever, Asthma, Leprosy and
Epilepsy
Erythrina stricta Stomachic, Digestive, Anthelmintic,
22 Fabaceae Dieng songdkhar Bark, leaves
Roxb. Fever, Asthma, Leprosy
Leaves, Seeds, Ringworms, Dysentery, Purgative,
23 Ficus hispida L.f. Moraceae Dieng lapong
Bark, Fruit Ulcer
Pulmonary Affections, Cornea
Roots, Stem,
Garuga pinnata Dieng Opacity, Asthma, Vermifuge, Obesity,
24 Burseraceae Leaves, Flowers,
Roxb. sohpjiarshynrang Splenomegaly, Foul Ulcers and
Galls
Odontalgia
Abortifacient, Stimulant, Anthelmintic
25 Gloriosa superba L Colchicaceae Malabar glory lily Tuber
and Leprosy
Grewia multiflora
26 Tiliaceae Dieng tyrbhong Fruit, Root Shin disease, Diarrhoea, Dysentery
Juss
Gynocardia odorata
27 Achariaceae Dieng sohliang Fruits Leprosy and Skin diseases
R.Br.
Gastralgia, Gastric Ulcers,
Hedyotis scandens
28 Rubiaceae Jyrmiskie Whole plant Heartburns, Colic, Vulnerary and
Roxb.
Wounds
Holarrhenna Amoebic Dysentery, Vaginitis,
29 antidysenterica (L.) Apocynaceae Dieng jamew Bark, Seeds Diarrhoea, Jaundice, Fever, Bladder
Wall. stone and Tuberculosis
Houttuynia cordata Stomachache, Cholera, Dysentery
30 Saururaceae Jamyrdoh Leaves, Roots
Thunb. and Diuretic
Lindera pulcherrina
31 Lauraceae Dieng jaburit Bark Cold, Cough, Worm
(Wall.) Benth
Demulcent, Astringent, Diarrhoea,
Bark, Leaves, Dysentery, Anodyne, Antidote,
32 Litsea sebifera Lour. Lauraceae Dieng jalowan
Berries Bruises, Wounds, Rheumatism and
Antiseptic
Micromelum
33 Rutaceae Dieng sohsat Leaves, Roots Cough
pubescens Bl.
Bacillary Dysentery, Urinary Lithiasis,
Paederia scandens Roots, Whole Dysuria, Dyspepsia, Gastritis,
34 Rubiaceae Jiasohmusem
(Lour.) Merr. plant, Leaves Enteritis, Convalascing Persons and
Rhematism
35 Passiflora edulis Sims Passifloraceae Sohbrab Leaves, Fruits Jaundice, Dysentery and Diarrhoea
Diuretic, Visceral Obstruction,
Roots, Fruits, Jaundice, Headache, Urinary
36 Pavetta indica L. Rubiaceae Dieng longtham
Leaves Diseases, Dropsy, Boils, Itches, Nose
Ulcers and Haemorrhages
Anti-Blennorliagic, Stomachic,
37 Piper nigrum L Piperaceae Sohmarit Fruits Dyspepsia, Malaria, Haemorrhoids,
Delirium, Tremors and Migraine
Burns, Cuts, Tooth & Earaches,
Enuresis, Pyorrhea Alveolaris,
Leaves, Roots,
Depression & Insomnia, Itching &
38 Plantago erosa L. Plantaginaceae Krah shit Seeds, Whole
Burning Urticaria, Chilbains, Pruritus,
plant
Bee sting, Bleeding Piles, Astringent
and Febrifuge.

54
 Antiscorbutic, Diuretic, Scurvy, Liver,
Kidney, Spleen & Bladder diseases,
39 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulaceae Jehesia Whole plant Cardio-Vascular disorder, Dysuria,
Haematuria, Gonorrhoea, Sore
Nipples and Mouth Ulcers
Astringent, Acrid, Refrigerant and
40 Prunus nepalensis L. Rosaceae Sohiong Leaves, Fruit
Diuretic
Astringent, Tonic, Expectorant,
41 Rhus succedaenia L Anacardiaceae Dieng khlaw Fruits
Diarrhoea, Dysentery
Inflammation, Antiseptic,
Dysentery, Vulnerary, Diuretic,
Ophthalmic, Febrifuge, Rheumatoid
Arthritis, Neuralgia, Cephalalgia,
42 Rubia cordifolia L Rubiaceae Sohmisem Roots
Helminthiasis, Leprosy, Leucoderma,
Pruritus, Wounds, Ulcers,
Tuberculosis, Pharyngitis and
Diabetes
Inflammation, Febrifuge, Diuretic,
Coryza, Hyperthermia, Sore Throat,
43 Scoparia dulcis L Plantaginaceae Krahlebekor Whole plant
Cough, Erythema, Measles, Boils
and Impetigo
Liver tonic, Arthritis, Antiseptic,
Semecarpus Cardiotonic, Sudorific, Febrifuge,
44 Anacardiaceae Dieng sohbhala Fruits
anacardium L.f. Beri-Beri, Cancer, Sciatoca, Neuritis,
Diabetes and Ulcers
Solanum khasianum Inflammations, Arthritis and
45 Solanaceae Berries
C.B.Clarke Hormonal
Ulcers, Skin Diseases, Dysentery,
46 Solanum nigrum L Solanaceae The Black Night Shade Whole plant
Laxative, Asthma
47 Solanum torvum Sw Solanaceae Diengsohnang Leaves, Fruits Wounds and Cough
Jaundice, Diuretic, Diaphoretic,
Whole plant, Antiseptic, Coughs, Phthisis,
48 Sonchus arvensis L. Asteraceae Kilanjiat
Roots, Seeds Bronchitis, Asthma, Pertusis and
Demulcent
Spondias pinnata (L. Refrigerant, Dysentery, Rheumatism,
49 Anacardiaceae Dieng sohpier Bark, Fruits
f.) Kurz Dyspepsia
Thermogenic, Vulnerary,
Inflammation, Ulcers, Sinusitis,
Roots, Bark,
50 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae Dieng sohkhyrdang Elephantiasis, Boils, Haemorrhages,
Leaves, Latex
Cough, Bronchitis, Fits, Diarrhoea,
Dysentery, Fever and Syphilis
Swertia chirayita
Stomachic, Febrifuge, Diarrhoea,
51 (Roxb.ex Fleming) Gentianaceae Sharita Whole plant
Malaria and Weakness
H. Karst
Ophthalmic, Haemostatic, Asthma,
Bronchitis, Dropsy, Arthritis, Ulcers,
Symplocos laurina Tumours, Leprosy, Skin diseases,
52 Symplocaceae Dieng japei Bark
(Retz.) Fever, Ulemorrhagia, Haemorrhages,
Dyspepsia, Flatulence and
Leucorrhoea
Emmenagogue, Asthma, Cancer,
53 Taxus baccata L Taxaceae Dieng blei Leaves, Bark
Bronchitis and Spasms
Laxative, Inflammation of Mouth
Terminalia chebula & Mucous Membrane, Bleeding &
54 Combretaceae Bolartak Fruits
Retz. Ulceration of Gums, Cough, Wounds
and Scalds
Diaphoretic, Anti Periodic, Anti
Pyretic, Anti Bacterial, Vulnerary,
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Roots, Fruits,
55 Rutaceae Soh sat Odontalgia, Paralysis, Malaria,
Lam Leaves, Flowers
Dyspepsia, Colic, Flatulence,
Nausea, Epilepsy and Wasp-Stings

55
 Abortifacient, Antiseptic, Diarrhoea,
Dysentery, Bruises, Cuts,
Xeromphis spinosa Inflammation, Vulnerary, Febrifuge,
56 Rubiaceae Diengmakasingkhlaw Fruits, Bark
(Thunb.) Keay Sudorific, Spasms, Sprains, Gout,
Wounds, Tumours, Amenorrhoea and
Dysmenorrhoea
Table 1: Plant species used by local community for treating in various ailments.

Climbe r
11%

He rb
14%

Tre e
52%

Shrub
23%
Figure 1: Different life forms of medicinal plants collected.

6
S 5
p
4
e
c 3
i 2
e
s 1
0
Fabaceae

Celastraceae

Meliaceae
Passifloraceae

Taxaceae
Rubiaceae
Lauraceae

Plantaginaceae
Verbenaceae
Apocynaceae
Asteraceae
Boraginaceae

Combretaceae
Cornaceae
Dilleniaceae

Portulaceae
Saururaceae
Gentianaceae
Lecythidaceae

Zingiberaceae
Euphorbiaceae

Family
Figure 2: Family distribution of medicinal plants in study area.

10% Leave
6% 26%
Root
9% Bark
Fruit
Seed
Whole plant
13%
19% Stem
17%

Figure 3: Plants parts used as medicine.

56
 12

No. of Species 10

Ailments
Figure 4: Plant species used for various ailments.

Figure 5: Photographs of some medicinal plants. (A). Tradi-practioner consulting bone fracture, (B).
Swertia chirayita, (C). Achyranthes aspera, (D). Plantago erosa, (E). Solanum torvum, (F). Solanum
nigrum, (G). Prunus nepalensis, (H). Passiflora edulis, (I). Costus speciosus.

Conclusion
The rural populations inhabiting the villages in Meghalaya are strongly dependent on locally
available medicinal plant resources either directly or through tradi-medicinal-practitioner
for their medicinal requirements. The introduction of allopathic drugs decreased the

57
degree of human dependency on medicinal plants up to certain extent. But because of
the unavailability of timely expertise and cost associated with the allopathic drugs, the
demand for medicinal plants is increasing in this village as a result of recognition of the
non-narcotic nature, lack of side effects, easy availability of many herbal drugs and their
effectiveness. Since the indigenous traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and therapies
are transmitted orally for centuries and so the part of information is becoming extinct due
to absence of proper documentation. To save the indigenous knowledge associated with
medicinal plants, raising awareness in the people and form traditional healer association is
mandatory. This study emphasizes the need to properly document medicinal plants of the
region which are being used traditionally used, to conserve basic plant resources on ground
level and to utilize them sustainably for the greater societal benefit.

Acknowledgement
The authors are highly grateful to the local communities who shared their traditional
knowledge on herbal medicine with us to complete this piece of work desirably.

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 eBooks

Carex baccans Nees, an Anthelmintic Medicinal

Plant of Northeast India
*
B. Roy and B. R. Giri
Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong 793022, Meghalaya, India
*Corresponding author: Dr. B Roy, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill
University, Shillong 793022, Meghalaya, India; Tel: +91364 2722331; E-mail:
bishnuroy12@rediffmail.com

Summary
India, especially northeast India is one of the biodiversity hotspot and well known for
rich culture of traditional medicine against different ailments and diseases. Carex baccans
Nees (family: Cyperaceae) is a crimson seeded sedge native to India, Sri Lanka and China,
traditionally used by the Jaintia tribe of Meghalaya, India to cure intestinal helminth
infections. The plant is also used against measles, fever, hypertension, dysmenorrhoea,
chincough, leucorrhea, fracture and gynaecological problems in different traditional
culture. In vitro and in vivo exposure of cestode parasites to crude root-tuber extract of C.
baccans and its active compounds resveratrol and 𝛼-viniferin have revealed the effective
anthelmintic property of the plant. Phytoproducts treated R. echinobothrida showed
extensive deformation and distortion of whole body, formation of lesions, loss of spines
and destruction of tegumental surface. Ultrastructural observations on the phytoproducts
exposed parasites revealed damages in the glycolcalyx layer followed by sub-tegumental
cyton, altered nucleus, disrupted nuclear membrane, chromatin condensation, vacuoles
formations and granulation of cyton, which are characteristic of a generalized stress
condition compared to the control. Crude extract of the plant and its active principles also
reduced activities of some key tegumental enzymes, energy metabolism related enzymes and
neurotransmitter related enzymes, leading to paralysis and death of the treated parasites.
Thus C. baccans revealed to be an effective anthelmintic plant.

Keywords: Anthelmintic; Carex baccans; Medicinal Plant; Raillietina echinobothrida

Abbreviations
ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate;
DAPI: 4, 6′-Diamidine-2-Phenylindole Dihydrochloride;
EPG: Egg per Gram;
MTT: 3-(4,5-Dimethyl-Thiazol-2-Yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide;
PZQ: Praziquantel;

60
 TUNEL: Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase-Mediated Dutp-Biotin Nick End Labeling

Introduction
The medical culture of India contains both folk traditions and codified knowledge
systems with references in the Atharva Veda, being textual evidence of the traditional use
of medicinal plants. In Ayurveda, more than 2,000 plant species are considered to have
medicinal value, while the Chinese Pharmacopoeia listed more than 5,700 traditional
medicines, most of which are of plant origin [1]. Medicinal plants in different form offer
unlimited opportunities for the discovery of new drugs. Increasing interest in drugs of plant
origin are due to several reasons, viz., inefficiency of conventional medicine, abusive and/
or incorrect use of synthetic drugs results in serious side effects, over and above a large
percentage of global population have no access to conventional treatment [2].
India has three major biodiversity hotspots of the world i.e., Himalayan, Western Ghats
and Indo-Burma, having vast repository of flora and fauna. It is reported that India is
bestowed with over 45,000 species of plants which constitute about 7% of the world’s total
flora out of which 11% have been known to have medicinal properties [3]. Geographically,
though it covers only 2% of the Earth’s surface, it is the richest country of the world as far
the genetic resources in terms of medicinal plants are concerned. India is rich in traditional
folklore healthcare system, use of plant as a source of medicine has been inherited and
is an important component of the health care system in India. An estimated 65% of rural
Indians use Ayurvedic medicine system and medicinal plants to meet their primary health
care needs [4,5]. The Northeast region of India comes under Indo-Burma hotspot, gifted with
vast range of medicinal plants. The North eastern states of India comprises of eight sister
states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim
and Tripura, harbours more than 130 major tribal communities of the total 427 tribal
communities found in India. The native tribes of this region have a rich tradition of using
several plants in their own traditional medicine system to cure parasitic infections.
Parasitic helminths are multicellular worms belongs to two phylum namely
Platyhelminthes and Nemathelminthes/Aschelminthes. The phylum Platyhelminthes
subdivided in to three classes: trematoda, cestoda and turbellaria. They are the common
human infectious agents account for half of the WHO designated “Neglected Tropical
Diseases,” and infect 1-2 billion of the world’s poorest and deprived sections of the society,
especially in the tropical countries [6,7]. Among helminthes parasites Gastrointestinal (GI)
helminths are responsible for significant production loss in livestock and crop production
industry globally [8-10]. Epidemiological studies reported that out of the three major classes
of helminths, nematode alone constitute more than 1 billion, trematode more than 250
million and cestode about 0.4 million of the global prevalence of helminthiasis leading to
high economic losses to both the small- and large-scale farming communities [11-13]. As
per as public health is concerned, it is estimated that approximately one-third of the world’s
population are infected by at least one or more helminth parasites [14,15].
Evidence of the anthelmintic properties of plants and plant extracts is derived primarily
from ethnoveterinary sources [16]. A number of plants having potential to cure worm
infections have been identified and established their medical potential. Over the past
100 years, the development and mass production of chemically synthesized drugs have
revolutionized health care in most parts of the world [17]. Large sections of the population
in developing countries still rely on traditional practitioners and herbal medicines for their
primary care. According to WHO up to 90%, 70% and 40% population in Africa, India
and China, respectively, depends on traditional medicine to meet their regular health care
needs [18]. More than 90% of general hospitals in China have units for traditional medicine
[18]. In the United States, about 38% of adults and 12% of children were using some form
of traditional medicine [19,20]. It has been estimated that in developing countries about
80% of the world’s population rely predominantly on indigenous practice of plants and

61
plant extracts for controlling various diseases affecting both human beings as well as other
animals [21,22].
Genus Carex Linn., one of the largest genera among angiosperms in the world, which
is cosmopolitan in distribution with relatively high species richness in the temperate
regions of Northern Hemisphere. All species of Carex are perennial with an exception to
C. bebbii and C. viridula which can produce fruit in their first year of growth, and may not
survive longer [23]. They typically have rhizomes, stolons or short rootstocks, but some
species grow in tufts (caespitose) [24]. Carex consists of grasses and sedges, belongs to
the family Cyperaceae contains over 2000 species distributed worldwide. In India, Carex is
one of the largest and widely distributed genera, occurring from tropical to the sub-tropical
Jammu through temperate Kashmir valley to the cold-arid Ladakh region [25,26]. Although
these plants are abundant, only few species have been studied, revealing the presence of
α-viniferin and other resveratrol oligomers as active compounds of the plant [27]. Carex
baccans (Figure 1), locally known as ‘‘Kre’’ in Meghalaya (India), the root-tuber extract of
the plant is traditionally used by the Jaintia tribe of northeast India to get rid of intestinal
worm infections [28].

Figure 1: Carex baccans with flowers and underground part root – tuber.

Geographical Distribution
The sedge family (Cyperaceae) having 104 genera (with about 5000 species) distributed
worldwide except Antartica, making it the 3rd largest family of monocots [29]. It is reported
that out of 2000 species of Carex available throughout the world 527 species are found in
China, 82 species in India out of which 49 species are found in North-Eastern India [30]. C.
baccans is found growing in wet moist places and in swamps at an altitude of 1,500-2,500
m, in dense moist to semi-evergreen forest. It is a native species to temperate and tropical
Asia and is found in China, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Philippines [31]. In India it
is found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and in Northeast
India.

Morphology
C. baccans is a clumping and perennial evergreen herb, having rhizome and a short
root stock. The leaves are dark green blade, 1-2 cm wide and 2-3 feet long, which extends
away from the stalk [24]. The blade is normally long and channeled. The leaves have
parallel veins and a distinct midrib. The flowers are small and combined into spikes,
which are arches up and out from the clump and combined into a larger inflorescence
carrying greenish flowering seed clusters that grow 6-7 inches long and 3 inches wide. It is
monoecious in nature. The fruit of Carex is a dry, one-seeded, known for its bright, showy
seed heads. As they mature, they turn in to bright orange-red.

Traditional Use
Carex spp. have gained recent attention for their nutraceutical properties as they

62
produce bioactive compounds. Apart from anthelmintic use, the plant is also in use to
treat hypertension, fever, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhea, chincough, ulcer, measles and
gynaecological problems by different ethinic groups in Asia [32-35].

Phytochemistry
Resveratrol (3,5,4’-trihydroxystilbene) is a naturally occurring non-flavanoid phytoalexin
molecule found in the root tuber of different species of the genus Carex [36-38]. Antiviral,
antibacterial and antifungal properties of the compound are established [39-41] and the
compound is also known to be well-tolerated by animals at high doses without any adverse
effects [42]. 𝛼-Viniferin, a trimeric form of resveratrol also found in the plant C. baccans
and exhibits a wide range of biological activities include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
inhibitory activity of Protein Kinase C (PKC), tyrosinase and prostaglandin H2 synthase [43-
48]. Other known chemical constituents from the plants are smiglaside A and smiglaside
B [49]. Molecular structure of all the phytochemicals of the plant are depicted in Figure 2.
However, the present review discusses in details the anthelmintic activity of C. baccans and
its active principles (resveratrol and α-viniferin) on the poultry tape worm R. echinobothrida.

Figure 2: Phytochemicals from Carex baccans.

Anthelmintic Properties
In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic efficacy
In vitro study showed a dose-dependent significant (P ≤ 0.05) cestocidal activity at all
concentrations of crude extract. The control group of R. echinobothrida survived up to 72.01
± 0.06 h in a medium of PBS with 0.1% DMSO. In vitro exposure of parasites to different
treatment groups like root-tuber extract, active compounds and PZQ showed a very active
movement of parasites at the initial hour of exposure but at later stage slowly moved to
a sluggish state with less/no active movement. Crude extract of C. baccans at its highest
concentration (5 mg), caused paralysis at 6.439 ± 0.047 h and death at 7.254 ± 0.029 h.
Similarly, at other lower doses of crude extract at 1 and 2 mg/ml of PBS the time taken for
paralysis were 13.67 ± 0.08 and 10.24 ± 0.066 and death 15.38 ± 0.039 and 12.48 ± 0.03
h, respectively. Similarly, highest concentration (1.36 mg/ml of PBS) of resveratrol caused
paralysis at 9.37 ± 0.05 and death at 23.65 ± 0.06, whereas α-viniferin (1.35 mg/ml of PBS)
caused paralysis at 11.38 ± 0.09 and death at 34.13 ± 0.67 h [50,51]. However, the broad
spectrum reference drug PZQ at its highest concentration (0.05 mg/ml of PBS) paralysed
the parasite taking 0.35 ± 0.11 h leading to death at 5.32 ± 0.03 h [52].
The in vivo study demonstrated a clear dose-dependent cestocidal activity of C. baccans
root-tuber extract against the rat tapeworm H. diminuta. When the infected animals were

63
administered with 10, 25 and 50 mg crude root-tuber extract of the plant/kg body weight
of rat, it showed decrease in the egg counts by 17, 29 and 56%, respectively (Table 1) [53].
Three days single dose treatments comprising of 10, 25 and 50 mg crude root-tuber extract
of the plant/kg body weight of rat achieved 6, 24 and 44% reduction in worm burden,
respectively (Table 1) [53]. However, when treated with resveratrol at doses of 1.14, 2.28 and
4.56 mg/kg body weight, there was a reduction of 15, 27 and 46% of egg count and 3, 20
and 31% reduction in worm burden, respectively. Animals exposed to 5 mg of praziquantel/
kg body weight showed reduction by 72 and 68% in EPG count and in the worm recovery,
respectively [53].
Treatment group EPG % reduction in EPG No. of worm recovered/ % worm recovery
rate /

(mg/kg x dose x day) Days 18-20 (A) Days 33-35 (B) A/B rat % reduction in
worm count
Control 24250±1195 25167±2786 -- 4.833±0.16 --

Carex baccans root-tuber extract

10x1x3 24222±870 19917±870* 17 4.5±0.223 93/6

25x1x3 24235±1221 17083±1221* 29 3.666±0.21* 75/24

50x1x3 24250±1218 10667±881* 56 2.666±0.21* 55/44

Resveratrol

1.141 x1x3 24050±495 20416±768 15 4.666±0.21 96/3

2.282 x1x3 24110±381 17583±860* 27 3.833±0.3* 79/20

4.564 x1x3 24550±810 13083±700* 46 3.333±0.21* 69/31

Praziquantel

5x1x3 24074±1204 6666±435* 7 1.5±0.223* 31/68

Table 1: Effect of Carex baccans root-tuber extract, resveratrol and praziquantel on mature worms of Hymenolepis diminuta
infections in rats as monitored by Eggs Per Gram (EPG) of faeces count and worm recovery rate at autopsy.
*: P≤ 0.05 vs. control value (n=6)
Source: Giri BR, RR Bharti and Roy B. 2015. In vivo anthelmintic activity of Carex baccans and its active principle resveratrol
against Hymenolepis diminuta. Parasitology Research 114(2), 785-788.

MTT assay
MTT assay of resveratrol exposed parasites revealed 27, 45, 74 and 93 % reduction in
viability compared to control when exposed for 6, 12, 18 and 23 h, respectively [54]. The
gradual reduction in the motility of the worms, as observed visually, corresponds to the
decreased viability in MTT assay.
Scanning electron microscopy
Scanning electron microscopic observations on control R. echinobothrida showed suckers
in the scolex typically marked with rows of short but thick pointed hooklets (Figure 3A).
Proglottids appear to be normal with regular and continuous distributions of microtriches
(Figure 3B). However, cestode treated with root-tuber extract the scolex appeared greatly
distorted with suckers extensively shrunken and few proglottids revealing shrunken surface
(Figure 3C-D). The cestode treated with resveratrol showed distorted scolex with shrunken

64
suckers and destructed general body topology (Figure 3E-F) [50]. α-Viniferin exposed cestode
showed damaged scolex with shrunken suckers and degenerated proglottids surface with
formation of wrinkles (Figure 3G-H) [51]. PZQ treated parasite showed distorted scolex with
bulging out of suckers (Figure 3I). It also revealed destruction of tegumental surface with
shrunken proglottids (Figure 3J) [55].

Figure 3: Stereosacn micrographs of control (A, B), C. baccans crude extract exposed (C, D), resveratrol exposed (E, F),
α-viniferin exposed (G, H) and PZQ exposed Raillietina echinobothrida (I, J). A. Control worm showing normal contour of scolex
having suckers; B. Enlarged view of a portion of proglottid showing densly packed microtriches gently sloping downwards;
C. Shriveled scolex with suckers; D. Proglottids showing shrinkage of the tegumental surface; E. Anterior part of the body
showing deformed scolex with suckers; F. Proglottids showing shrunken surface topography and scars; G. Wrinkled scolex; H.
Proglottids showing damaged tegumental surface; I. Distorted scolex with suckers; J. Proglottids showing wrinkles and scars
on the surface.
Figure 3 (A, B, E) reprinted from parasitology International, 63, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Resveratol induced structural and
biochemical alterations in the tegument of Raillietina echinobothrida, 432-37, Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 3 (G, H) reprinted from Microscopy and Microanalysis, 21, B. Roy and B.R. Giri α-viniferin induced structural and
functional alterations in Raillietina echinobothrida, a poultry tapeworm, 377-384, Copyright (2015), with the permission from
Cambridge University Press.
Figure 3 (I, J) reprinted from Micron, 50, S. Dasgupta, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Ultrastructural observations on Raillietina
echinobothrida exposed to crude extract and active compound of Securinega virosa, 62-67, Copyright (2013), with permission
from Elsevier.

Transmission electron microscopy

Transmission electron micrographs of control parasite showed typical ultrastructure of
tegument with intact microthrix layer followed by distal cytoplasm, secretory bodies with
tegumental discs, non-disrupted basal lamina (Figure 4A) [50]. Sub-tegumental cells lying
beneath the sub-tegumental muscle blocks contain healthy cell, nucleus in the cytons is

65
almost round in shape and has regular conspicuous double nuclear membrane, granular
nucleolus, chromatin material and normal mitochondria (Figure 4B) [50]. Crude extract of C.
baccans treated parasite showed ragged tegumental layer with less number of microtriches,
disrupted distal cytoplasm, swelling of basal lamina (Figure 4C). Distorted nuclei, nuclear
membrane and formation of vacuole were evident in the sub-tegumental cells exposed to the
crude extract of C. baccans (Figure 4D). Resveratrol exposed parasite showed degradation of
both the circular and longitudinal muscle layers (Figure 4E). The nuclei in the tegumental
cyton showed vacuolated cyton with granulated cytoplasm, damaged and wavy shaped
nuclear membrane and condensed chromatins throughout the nucleus (Figure 4F) [50].
α-Viniferin exposed parasites showed disrupted and dilated basal infolds and ridges were
located from the glycocalyx and microtriches up to the sub-tegumental layer (Figure 4G)
[51]. Sub-tegumental cyton showing wavy shaped irregular singlet nuclear membranes with
disintegrated nucleolus (Figure 4H) [51]. Similarly, worms treated with PZQ also showed
destruction of microthrix layer and degeneration of muscle stacks in the distal cytoplasm
of tegument (Figure 4I). The sub-tegumental cyton showed damaged cell membrane with
blabbed nuclear membrane and condensed nucleolus (Figure 4J) [55].

Figure 4: Transmission electron micrographs of control (A, B), crude extract exposed (C, D), resveratrol (E, F), α-viniferin (G,
H) and praziquantel exposed R. echinobothrida (I, J).
A. Control tegument with intact Microthrix Layer (MT) , Distal Cytoplasm (DC) electron-dense secretory bodies, non-disrupted
Basal Lamina (BL); B. Sub-tegumental cyton having Nucleus (N), Nucleolus (NL) with no chromatin clumping, intact nuclear
membrane and normal mitochondria (*); C. Deformed Distal Cytoplasm (DC, arrows) and Longitudinal Muscle layer (LM, arrows);
D. Sub-tegumental cyton having distorted Nucleus (N), completely disturbed Nuclear Membrane (NM), though nucleolus aws
intact (NL) and granulated cytoplasm with Vacuole (V); E. Distorted distal and proximal cytoplasm having disrupted Circular
Muscles (CM); F. Deformed Nucleus (N) with chromatin clumping; G. Damaged tegumented with loss of Microthrix Layer (MT)
and having remnants of basal lamina and muscle laers (arrows). H. Sub-tegumental cyton showing distorted Nucleus (N),
dispersed Nucleolus (NL), and wavy nuclear membrane (arrows). I. Stripped tegument with exposed Basal Lamina (BL), and
slightly disorganized Muscle Layers (ML); J. Sub-tegumental cytons having cells damaged cytoplasm, presence of altered
Nuclei (N) and nucleolus.
Figure 4 (A, B, E, F) reprinted from Parasitology International, 63, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Resveratrol induced structural and
biochemical alterations in the tegument of Raillietina echinobothrida, 432-37, Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier.
Figre 4 (G, H) reprinted from Microscopy and Microanalysis, 21, B. Roy and B.R. Giri, α-viniferin induced structural and
functional alterations in Raillietina echinobothrida, a poultry tapeworm, 377-384, Copyright (2015), with permission from
Cambridge University Press.
Figure 4 (I, J) reprinted from Micron, 50, S. Dasgupta, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Ultrastructural observations on Raillietina
echinobothrida exposed to crude extract and active compound of Securinega virosa, 62-67, Copyright (2013), with permission
from Elsevier.

66
Histochemical localization of enzymes
Tegumental enzymes: The AcPase activity in the form of brownish black depositions
was observed throughout the whole tissue sections in control parasite (Figure 5A). Similarly,
AlkPase and ATPase also showed a similar kind of enzyme staining (Figure 5F and 5K). High
activities of enzyme were localized mainly in the tegument, sub-tegument and musculature
regions of the control parasites. Exposure of the parasites to crude root-tuber extract of C.
baccans showed visible reduction in the staining intensities of AcPase, Alkpase and ATPase
enzyme activity (Figure 5B, G and L). Resveratrol and α-viniferin exposed R. echinobothrida
retained mild AcPase, AlkPase and ATPase activity in testes and ovary, and to some extent
in the tegument and sub-tegument (Figure 5C-D, H-I and M-N) [50, 51]. Similarly, drug
treated parasites also showed a more or less similar extends of reduction in the staining
intensities of all the three tegumental enzymes (Figure 5E, J and O).

Figure 5: Histochemical localization of acid phosphatase (A-E), alkaline phosphatase (F-J) and adenosine triphosphatase
activities (K-O). Control (A, F and K); crude extract of Carex baccans treated (B, G and L); resveratrol (C, H and M); α-viniferin
(D, I and N) and praziquantel treated (E, J and O). [All scale bar = 100 µm]
Figure 5 (C, H, M) reprinted from Parasitology International, 63, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Resveratrol induced structural and
biochemical alterations in the tegument of Raillietina echinobothrida, 432-37, Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 5 (D, I, N) reprinted from Microscopy and Microanalysis, 21, B. Roy and B.R. Giri, α-viniferin induced structural and
functional alterations in Raillietina echinobothrida, a poultry tapeworm, 377-384, Copyright (2015), with permission from
Cambridge University Press.

Neurotransmitter related enzymes: In the control parasite a higher staining intensity

for AchE was observed which confined to the tegument, sub-tegument as well as somatic
musculature of the parasite (Figure 6A). When R. echinobothrida exposed to the crude
extract of C. baccans a reduction in the stain intensities for AchE were noted (Figure 6B).
Resveratrol and α-viniferin exposed parasites also showed decreased staining intensities
(Figure 6C-D) [56]. Similarly, PZQ exposed parasites showed diminished staining intensities
compared to control (Figure 6E).

Figure 6: Light microscopiuc photographs of transverse sections of Raillietina echinobothrida showing Histochemical
localization of acetylcholinesterase activities (A-E) and nitric oxide synthase (F-J). Control (A, F); crude extract of Carex
baccans treated (B, G); resveratrol (C, H); α-viniferin (D, I) and praziquantel treated (E, J). [All scale bar = 100 µm]
Figure 6 (C, D, H, I) reprinted from Parasitology Research, 114, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Resveratrol and α-viniferin induced
alterations of acetylcholinesterase and nitric oxide synthase in Raillietina echinobothrida, 3775-3781, Copyright (3015), with
permission from Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

67
 Histochemical localization of NOS revealed higher staining intensities in the control
parasite section (Figure 6F). The higher staining intensities were observed in the main
nerve cords, nerves in association with the musculature especially the cirrus musculature.
Histochemical detection of NOS in the crude extract treated parasites showed diminished
staining intensities in different confined area of the parasite (Figure 6G). Resveratrol and
α-viniferin exposed parasites revealed less staining intensity throughout the tegument and
sub-tegument compared to the control (Figure 6H-I) [56]. However, PZQ exposed parasites
showed a similar trend of diminished staining intensities compared to the control (Figure 6J).
Energy metabolism related enzymes: High LDH activities were observed throughout the
tissue sections of control R. echinobothrida (Figure 7A). Similarly, histochemical detection of
MDH revealed higher staining intensities in the control parasite (Figure 7F). After exposure
of the parasites to C. baccans crude extract, its active compounds and PZQ, a reduction in
LDH stain intensities was noticed (Figure 7B-E) [57]. A similar trend of decrease in MDH
stain intensity were also observed in the parasites exposed to crude extract of C. baccans,
its active compounds and PZQ (Figure 7G-J) [57].

Figure 7: Light microscopiuc photographs of transverse sections of Raillietina echinobothrida showing Histochemical
localization of lactate dehydrogenase (A-E) and malate dehydrogenase activities (F-J). Control (A, F); crude extract of Carex
baccans treated (B, G); resveratrol (C, H); α-viniferin (D, I) and praziquantel treated (E, J). [All scale bar = 100 µm]
Figure 7 (C, D, H, I) reprinted from Acta Tropica, 154, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, α-Viniferin Resveratrol and induced alterations in the
activities of some energy metabolism related enzymes in the cstode of parasite Raillietina echinobothrida, 102-106, Copyright
(3016), with permission from Elsevier.

Biochemical studies
Tegumental enzymes: In the control parasites high AcPase activities (5.04 ± 0.11
U/mg tissue protein) were observed. However, on exposure to different test materials
highest inhibition in AcPase activity was observed in parasites exposed to α-viniferin (26%)
followed by crude extract (4%), PZQ (2%) and resveratrol (2%) [50,51]. Biochemical study
on AlkPase showed highest enzyme activity (19.41 ± 0.51 U/mg tissue proteins) in control
R. echinobothrida (Table 2). When the parasites were treated with different test materials,
changes were observed in the AlkPase activity and the maximum inhibition was recorded
in crude extract exposed parasites (35%) followed by α-viniferin (16%), PZQ (15%) and
resveratrol (7%) [50,51]. Likewise, ATPase showed highest activity at an extent of 29.1 ±
0.54 U/mg tissue protein in control parasite. Crude root-tuber extract was found to be more
effective against ATPase activity (21% inhibition) followed by α-viniferin (18%), resveratrol
(13%) and PZQ (9%) treated parasites [50,51].
AcPase %IN AlkPase %IN ATPase %IN
Control 5.04±0.16 -- 19.41±0.51 -- 29.1±0.54 --
C. baccans 4.81±0.17 4 12.56±0.27* 35 22.74±0.48* 21
Resveratrol 4.93±0.11 2 17.96±0.33 7 25.2±0.43* 13
α-Viniferin 3.74±0.14* 26 16.24±0.25* 16 23.66±0.12* 18
PZQ 4.91±0.13 2 16.48±0.53* 15 26.25±0.6* 9
Table 2: Biochemical changes in the tegumental enzymes of Raillietina echinobothrida treated with Carex baccans crude
extract, resveratrol, α-viniferin and praziquantel.

Enzyme activity represented as specific activity = µmole of product/min/mg tissue

protein, values are given as mean (±SEM) from five replicates (N = 5); IN = Inhibition, PZQ =
Praziquantel, Students t-test *P ≤ 0.05.

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 Adapted from Parasitology International, 63, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Resveratrol induced
structural and biochemical alterations in the tegument of Raillietina echinobothrida, 432-
37, Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier.
Adapted from Microscopy and Microanalysis, 21, B. Roy and B.R. Giri, α-Viniferin induced
structural and functional alterations in Raillietina echinobothrida, a poultry tapeworm, 377-
384, Copyright (2015), with permission from Cambridge University Press.
Neurotransmitter related enzymes acetylcholinesterase and nitric oxide synthase
(ache and nos): AchE activity was found to be 1.6 ± 0.01 U/mg tissue protein in control
parasites. Highest reduction in AchE activity was observed in parasites treated with
α-viniferin (53%) followed by resveratrol (46%), crude extract (26%) and PZQ (9%) [56]. In
control R. echinobothrida the NOS activity was recorded to be 8.18 ± 0.13 U/mg tissue
protein. However, resveratrol exposed parasites showed highest inhibition (61%) followed by
α-viniferin (55%), crude extract (28%) and PZQ (14%) as shown in Table 3 [56].
AchEx10 %IN NOS %IN
Control 1.6±0.01 -- 8.18±0.13 --
C. baccans 1.17±0.01* 26 5.87±0.24* 28
Resveratrol 0.85±0.008* 46 3.17±0.18* 61
α-Viniferin 0.74±0.006* 53 3.67±0.04* 55
PZQ 1.45±0.01* 9 6.96±0.19* 14

Table 3: Biochemical changes in neurotransmitter related enzymes of Raillietina echinobothrida treated with Carex baccans
crude extract, resveratrol, α-viniferin and praziquantel.
Enzyme activity represented as specific activity = µmole of product/min/mg tissue protein, Total activity (in NOS) = the total
units/wet weight of the sample taken, values are given as mean (±SEM) from five replicates (N = 5); IN = Inhibition, PZQ =
Praziquantel, Students t-test *P ≤ 0.05.
Adapted from Parasitology Research, 114, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Resveratrol and α-viniferin induced alterations of
acetylcholinesterase and nitric oxide synthase in Raillietina echinobothrida, 3775-3781, Copyright (2015), with permission from
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Energy metabolism related enzymes

Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH): Control R. echinobothrida showed high LDH activity
(4.06 ± 0.02 U/mg tissue protein). However, resveratrol exposed parasite showed significant
inhibition (38%) followed by crude extract of C. baccans (33%), praziquantel (31%) and
α-viniferin (21%) as shown in Table 4 [57].

MDHx10
LDH x10 %IN PEPCK x10 %IN FRD x10 %IN
CTH %IN CYT %IN MIT %IN

CN 4.06±0.02 -- 5.6±0.04 -- 1.24±0.01 -- 2.44±0.02 -- 1.61±0.02 -- 0.94±0.02 --

C. baccans 2.72±0.01* 33 5.32±0.05 4 0.96±0.02* 22 1.53±00.02* 37 1.04±0.02* 35 0.62±0.02* 34

Resveratrol 2.5±0.01* 38 4.27±0.01 23 0.83±0.02* 33 1.58±0.002* 38 1±0.004* 37 0.57±0.003* 39

α-Viniferin 3.2±0.009* 21 3.25±0.007* 41 0.79±0.011* 36 1.52±0.003* 37 0.98±0.002* 39 0.6±0.002* 36

PZQ 2.78±0.01* 31 5.12±0.02 8 1.04±0.01* 16 2.14±0.02* 12 1.28±0.01* 20 0.9±0.02 4

Table 4: Biochemical changes in the energy metabolism related enzymes of Raillietina echinobothrida treated with Carex baccans
crude extract, active components resveratrol, α-viniferin and praziquantel.

Enzyme activity represented as specific activity = µmole of product/min/mg tissue protein, values are given as mean (±SEM) from
five replicates (N = 5); CN= control, CTH = Crude Tissue Homogenate, CYT = Cytosolic, MIT = Mitochondrial, IN = Inhibition, PZQ =
Praziquantel, Students t-test *P ≤ 0.05.

Adapted from Acta Tropica, 154, B. Roy and B.R. Giri, α-Viniferin and resveratrol induced alteration in the activities of some energy
metabolism related enzymes in the cestode parasite Raillietina echinobothrida, 102-106, Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier.

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 Adapted from International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 7, B. Roy and B.R. Giri, Fumarate reductase inhibitory
potential of phytostilbenes, resveratrol and α-viniferin, 134-137, Copyright (2016), with permission from IJPBS.

Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK): The enzyme activity of PEPCK was

found to be 5.6 ± 0.04 U/mg tissue proteins in untreated control R. echinobothrida. However,
on exposure to different treatments showed significant alterations in the PEPCK activity.
α-Viniferin exposed parasites showed highest inhibition (41%) followed by resveratrol (23%),
PZQ (8%) and crude extract (4%) as shown in Table 4 [57].
Fumarate Reductase (FRD): Control R. echinobothrida showed FRD activity to be 1.24
± 0.01 U/mg tissue protein. However, when parasites were exposed to different treatments,
showed significant alterations in the FRD activity. Parasites treated with α-viniferin showed
highest inhibition of enzyme activity by 36% followed by resveratrol (33%), crude extract of
C. baccans (22%) and PZQ (16%) as shown in Table 4 [58].
Malate Dehydrogenase (MDH): The enzyme activity of MDH in control parasites showed
to be 2.44 ± 0.05 U/mg tissue protein in the crude tissue homogenate of control parasite.
MDH activity was observed to be higher in cytosol (1.61 ± 0.01 U/mg tissue protein)
compared to mitochondria (0.94 ± 0.03 U/mg tissue protein). When parasites treated with
resveratrol showed highest inhibition (38%) followed by α-viniferin (37%), C. baccans crude
extract (37%) and PZQ (12%), compared to the control (Table 4) [57].
Chromosome condensation and DNA fragmentation
Transverse sections of resveratrol exposed worm (Figure 8E-H) revealed increased
trend of chromatin condensation as the time of exposure increased compared to control
R. echinobothrida (Figure 8A-D) [54]. DNA fragmentation in the resveratrol exposed R.
echinobothrida was confirmed through TUNEL assay. Control parasite didn’t reveal any
apoptotic nuclei (Figure 9A-D), whereas parasites exposed to resveratrol showed an increase
in the number of apoptotic nuclei with increasing time of incubation (Figure 9E-H) [54].

Figure 8: Photographs showing DAPI stained control (A-D) and resveratrol exposed (E-H) R. echinobothrida.
Figure 8 reprinted from Research in Veterinary Science, 101, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Apoptosis like cell death in Raillietina
echinobothrida induced by resveratrol, 220-225, Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier.

Figure 9: TUNEL-stained light microscopic photographs of control (A-D) and resveratrol exposed (E-H) R. echinobothrida.
Figure 8 reprinted from Research in Veterinary Science, 101, B.R. Giri and B. Roy, Apoptosis like cell death in Raillietina
echinobothrida induced by resveratrol, 220-225, Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier.

Mitochondrial membrane potential

Rhodamine123 stained control parasites at different time intervals showed almost similar
relative fluorescent intensity at 6, 12, 18 and 23 h of incubation. Whereas, resveratrol

70
exposed group showed significant decrease in the relative fluorescence intensity at 18 and
23 h of incubation, compared to the respective control [54].
Pro-caspase activity
Control parasites showed a negligible or less activated caspase-3/7 at different time
intervals from 12 to 23 h (Figure 10A-D). However, resveratrol exposed parasites showed
increased levels of activated caspases 6 to 23 h of incubation (Figure 10E-H) [54].

Discussion
Exposure of R. echinobothrida to root-tuber extract of C. baccans and its active compounds
(resveratrol and α-viniferin) revealed anthelmintic potency of the plant which execute
through paralysis followed by death of the parasite in a dose-dependent manner [56]. Thus
the finding justifies the traditional use of the plant C. baccans in folklore medicine. Similar
to the present observations leaves of Senna occidentalis had been evaluated for anthelmintic
activity against Nippostrongylus braziliensis and Ascaris suum, and showed promising
anthelmintic effects [59,60]. Biffa et al., and Eguale et al., also observed a similar types
of in vitro anthelmintic potential of the plants Albizia gumnifera [61,62]. Roy and Tandon
studied the anthelmintic activity of Alpinia nigra on intestinal giant fluke Fasciolopsis buski
and showed that the alcoholic crude extract could paralyze the parasite within 9.5 to 10.5,
6.5 to 6.8 and 4.0 to 4.5 h of incubation at 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/ml of PBS, respectively, which
corroborated with the present study [63]. Similarly, Lyndem et al., studied the anthelmintic
activity of root tuber peel extract of Flemingia vestita, a concoction of rhizome pulp of
Stephania glabra with aerial roots of Trichosanthes multiloba against intestinal helminth
Ancylostoma ceylanicum and revealed paralysis of the worm in less than half the survival
time of control (56.5 ± 0.05 h) at a concentration of 5 mg/ml of PBS [64]. Recent studies
showed that paralysis of R. echinobothrida occurs at 6.12, 3.92 and 2.93 h when incubated
at 5, 10 and 25 mg of Acacia oxyphylla extract per ml of PBS [65]. However, the isolated
active compound F5-2d of A. oxyphylla at 1, 0.1 and 0.05 mg/ml of PBS causes paralysis
of R. echinobothrida at 0.5, 5.25 and 9.31 h respectively [52]. Similarly, Challam et al.,
reported that the ethanol extract of Lysimachia ramosa and reference drug paralyzed and
kill the parasite in a dose dependent manner when tested against Ascaris suum, F. buski
and R. echinobothrida [66].
The results of in vivo study showed a noteworthy decrease in EPG counts and worm
(H. diminuta) burden when exposed to crude extract of C. baccans and resveratrol, thus
re-confirm anthelmintic potential of the plant [54]. Reduction in EPG count and recovery
of worms at necropsy have also been used as criteria to evaluate the anthelmintic efficacy
of different traditionally used plants by several workers [67,68]. Hu et al., investigated the
in vivo anthelmintic activity of Bacillus thuringensis derived crystal protein Cry5B against
mice chronically infected with Heligmosomoides bakeri and Ancylostoma ceylanicum, and
revealed reduction in EPG and worm burden to an extent of 98% and 70% at a dose 90 and
100 mg/kg body weight, respectively [69]. Similarly, drugs tribendimidine showed a notable
decline Nector americanus infection better than those achieved by the metabolite dADT [70].
Yadav and Tangpu tested in vivo efficacy of Adhatoda vasica and found that 800 mg of
extract/kg double doses reduced EPG count by 79.57% and worm recovery rate by 16.60%,
which showed improved results than 5 mg/kg single dose of PZQ [71]. Similarly, the leaf
extract of Clerodendrum colebrookianum possesses a dose-dependent efficacy against the
larval, immature and adult stages of H. diminuta when tested in vivo. However, the extract
was most effective against the adult stages of the parasite [72]. Sapaat et al., studied the
anthelmintic activity of papaya seeds against H. diminuta in rats and showed the profound
activity at a dose 0.6 and 1.2 gm/kg body weight by reducing the EPG to an extent of 96.8%
and 96.2%, and the worm burden 90.77% and 93.85%, respectively [73].

71
 It is well documented that one of the hallmark effects of any anthelmintic is the
destruction of the worm’s surface topography. This is due to the fact that the tegument
is the primary host-parasite interfaces, vital for absorption of nutrients and perception
of the surrounding micro-environment provided by the host [74,75]. Stereoscan studies
showed that crude extract caused ample distortion and destruction of surface tegument
of R. echinobothrida, similar to the alteration of surface topography caused by the broad
spectrum anthelmintic drug PZQ [28]. Similarly, Roy et al., observed that the crude extract
of M. pachycarpa and A. nigra as well as anthelmintic drug, PZQ caused extensive damage
in the surface tegument of R. echinobothrida and F. buski leading to paralysis and death of
the parasites [76,77]. Destruction and disintegration of tegument of cestode parasites was
also observed when treated with different phytochemicals from different traditionally used
medicinal plants [78,79]. Alcoholic extract of A. oxyphylla (Leguminosae) and L. ramosa
(Primulaceae) caused pronounced deformation and distortion of body surfaces of F. buski,
A. suum and R. echinobothrida [66,80]. Similar extent of damage such as surface lesions and
loss of spines have also been observed in F. hepatica when treated with deacetylated (amine)
metabolite of diamphenethide [81]. Likewise, on exposure to different broad spectrum
commercial drugs such as benzimidazole derivatives, triclabendazole, PZQ, oxyclozanide,
miltefosine and extract of several plants and their active components causes destruction of
absorptive surface as seen in different helminth parasites [65,82-87]. Damaged tegument
as observed in the present investigation might have caused severe nutrient deficiency
within the parasite. Other than nutrients absorption, spine like microtriches may have a
role in holding with its host to maintain its position in the gut. Consequently, alteration of
microtriches leads to loss of holding capacity of the parasites to the host.
The ultrastructural characters of cestode tegument revealed to have upper glycolcalyx
layer followed by the tegument, the sub-tegument, distal cytoplasm, the basal lamina,
the muscle layers and the sub-tegumental cyton. Location of sub-tegumental cyton and
important cellular elements away from the outer surface of the parasite is an essential
adaptation to avoid immunological attacks by the host. Following in vitro incubation with
root-tuber extracts, tegument of R. echinobothrida showed severe damage as observed by
TEM. Damage in the sub-tegumental cyton as observed here is indicative of its adverse
effect on the physiology of the parasite. Some other effects noticed like altered nucleus,
condensed chromatin, detection of vacuoles and granular cyton, mitochondrial alterations
are attributes of a general stress compared to the control group of R. echinobothrida [65].
This kind of cellular alterations has already been described in different helminthes under
different drug insult corroborated with our present study [82,88,89]. However, tegumental
damage, as observed in the phyto-products assaulted R. echinobothrida leading to exposure
of the cellular components to host immune attack and metabolic stress that ultimately
results in to reduction in physical activity of the parasite [80]. Disruption of tegumental
surface as observed in the present study may be correlated with osmotic imbalances in the
parasite resulting in impaired ion transfer as reported previously in Opisthorchis viverrini
when exposed to amoscanate [90]. Similar to the severity of destruction and deformation
observed in R. echinobothrida exposed to the active compounds of C. baccans, the phyto-
products of A. oxyphylla, S. virosa also reported to caused extensive tegumental alteration in
the cestode [65,54]. Other than surface topographical alterations, ultrastructural changes
were also observed when H. nana exposed to PZQ [91]. Similar to the present observations,
H. diminuta exposed to Cyclosporin-A revealed damaged surface and mitochondria beneath
the syncytium layer [92]. Kundu et al., reported the depletion of parenchyma cells and
destruction in the connective tissues in H. diminuta when treated with Casia alata L. [93].
Similarly, extensive distortion and damage of the surface topography of the tegument with
eroded microtriches, disruption of muscle layers, vacuolization of tegumental and sub-
tegumental layers, swelling and vacuolization of mitochondria has been observed in R.
echinobothrida when the parasite was exposed to the extracts of Potentilla fulgens [64].
Exposure of C. baccans derived phytoproducts to flat worm resulted an extensive tegumental

72
damage as observed in our study indicates that the root-tuber extract of the plant and its
active compounds disturb the membrane permeability, disturbance in ion flux across the
membrane together with inhibition of neuromuscular activities, finally resulting in paralysis
and subsequent death of the parasite. Similar type of ultrastructural changes also observed
within the tegumental syncytium and tegumental cells of F. hepatica when exposed to
triclabendazole and clorsulon [94].
The helminth body surface or tegument is known to be a dynamic, living cellular structure
that plays vital role in the physiology of cestodes, being involved in nutrient absorption,
defense against enzymatic and immunological attack by the host, in excretion and ionic
exchange [95-97]. The tegumental enzymes viz. AcPase, Alkpase and ATPase were observed
in the tegument, sub-tegument and somatic musculature region of the control as well as in
crude extract, resveratrol, α-viniferin and PZQ exposed worms, and however the enzymes
were noted to be diminished in all the treated groups. A similar type of reduced enzymes
activities was also reported by different workers in various cestodes and trematodes when
treated with different phytoproducts [98-101]. Phosphatases are important tegumental
proteins whose association with membrane transport has been implied by their ubiquitous
presence in the tissues of secretory or absorptive function [102]. Physiological transport
is mediated directly by enzymes located on or within cytomembranes has received much
support in recent years [103]. The widespread and impressive amounts of certain tegumental
enzymes demonstrated in several cestodes suggest that they might play a highly significant
role in digestion and/or absorption [104]. Diminished AcPase activity, as observed in the
cestode exposed to C. baccans derived phytochemicals indicate that the permeability of
the glycocalyx-plasmalemma system is disrupted causing the AcPase to diffuse out to
digest the damaged membrane parts leading to a decrease in the tegumental AcPase level.
High ATPase activity was observed in the tegument, sub-tegument, muscle layer and
intestine of the control parasite compared to the C. baccans and its active compounds
exposed cestode. A similar type of observation was also recorded in F. buski treated with
crude extract of Flemingia vestita and its active principle, genistein [105]. In case of R.
echinobothrida the localization of ATPase in somatic musculature strongly suggests that
one of the roles of this enzyme to hydrolyze the ATP in this tissue, active transport and lipid
synthesis [106]. It has also been hypothesized that the decrease in the tissue ATPase activity
disrupts the permeability of the glycocalyx-plasmalemma system causing damage to the
plasmalemma parts which in turn causes the AcPase to diffuse out of the cell to digest the
damaged membrane parts leading to a decrease in the tegumental AcPase levels. Damage
of the parasite membrane also causes an increase inflow of salts from the external media
which accumulates in the basal infolds [107]. Recent reports have revealed the potential
anthelmintic properties of several traditionally used medicinal plants such as A. oxyphylla,
Artemisia sp., L. ramosa and Spilanthes oleraceae which modulate anthelmintic activity
through inhibition of all the three above mentioned tegumental enzymes [64,66,108].
A significant reduction in the activities of AchE in the paralyzed worm as observed in R.
echinobothrida was corroborated with results reported by Sung et al., [109]. Similar kind of
in vitro studies in helminths exposed to commercial drugs and phytochemicals revealed to
reduce activity of AchE [110,111]. Anthelmintic plants Allium sativum, Punica granatum and
Flemingia vestita revealed to have an inhibitory neuromuscular mode of action [98,112,113],
as they alter the nerve transmission at neuromuscular junction by inhibiting the AChE
[114]. Flaccid paralysis of R. echinobothrida due to exposure to C. baccans and its active
principles as recorded herewith may be a result of neuromuscular blockage and a persistent
muscle contraction. Anthelmintic drugs levamisole, pyrantel and morantel are revealed to
be nicotinic receptor agonists; elicit spastic muscle paralysis due to prolonged activation of
the excitatory nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the muscles of body wall [115]. However,
Ivermectin a commercial drug exerts a persistent anthelmintic activity through paralysis
of nematode pharyngeal musculature [116]. Similarly, Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica
show flaccid paralysis when exposed to carbon tetrachloride, diamphenethide and essential

73
oils of Allium sativum and Piper longum [117,118]. The inhibition of acetylcholinesterase as
observed in the present study resulting paralysis of the worm, that may leads to quickly
loosening of suckers and once rendered immobile, the worms are expelled from host, similar
to the mode of action of levamisole, pyrantel, morantel and oxantel [119].
Histochemical localization showed strong NOS stained cell body of nerve in the sub-
tegumental nerve plexus of control R. echinobothrida. Intensity of stain revealed to be less
throughout the tegument and sub-tegument of the parasite exposed to crude extract of the
plant, its active compounds and drug, compared to the control. Histochemical studies were
corroborated with biochemical assay where a decrease in activity of NOS was observed in
the treated parasites compared to control.
In parasitic flatworms a sandwiched between outer syncytial tegumental layer and
an inner parenchymal layer is the somatic musculature, which performs the function of
movement. According to McKay et al., the somatic musculature of the flat worm is controlled
partially by an inhibitory cholinergic and an excitatory serotoninergic system [120]. Nitric
oxide produced by NOS of nitrergic nerves reported to stimulates NO-sensitive gunyl cyclase
in its effector cells, thereby decreasing the tone of various smooth muscles [121]. Changes
in the mitochondrial membrane potential followed by disruption and disintegration of
mitochondria in R. echinobothrida exposed to crude extract of C. baccans as recorded
herewith supports the finding of Brown, who observed that a high level of NO under the
influence of NOS changes mitochondrial membrane permeability resulting disruption of
mitochondrial respiration, inhibition of glycolysis, thus leading to energy depletion [122].
Reduced activities of AChE and NOS as observed in the crude extract and phytochemicals
exposed parasites compared to control may be explained by the fact that the normal functions
of strong muscular attachment organ in the control worms having higher activities of AChE
and NOS are lost due to consumption of crude extract leading to paralysis and detachment
from the intestine of host [123].
Characteristically, glycolysis is the major energy-yielding pathway shown to breakdown
carbohydrate to reduced organic acids or more rarely alcohols that are then excreted, since
the Krebs’ cycle and hexose monophosphate pathways are less functional in helminth
parasites. Visible changes in the stain intensities were observed for LDH and MDH activity
on treatment with the phytoproducts of C. baccans and PZQ. Quantitative enzyme assays
of key energy metabolism enzymes such as MDH, LDH, PEPCK and FRD also showed
reduced activities in the treated parasites compared to control. PZQ showed more or less
similar extend of enzyme inhibition as that of crude extract of C. baccans, resveratrol,
α-viniferin treated parasite. Similar to these observations, Pampori and Srivastava recorded
a significant inhibition of different glycolytic enzymes activities like PEPCK, HK, G6PDH
and MDH in Cotugnia digonophora when treated with different anthelmintics like MBZ,
niclosamide and PZQ [124]. Ahmad and Nizami showed that the commercial anthelmintic
mebendazole has influenced the activities of some glycolytic enzymes such as phosphorylase,
phosphoglucomutase and G6Pase, and also caused glycogen depletion and the inhibition
of glucose uptake in vitro [125]. PEPCK’s main role in helminth parasites is the degradation
of glucose rather than its synthesis through the gluconeogenic pathway as in case of
mammalian host [104].
Many anthelmintics like benzimidazoles, artemther, isatin act primarily by inhibiting
LDH in different helminth parasites, which catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to lactate
[126,127]. Anthelmintic medicinal plants namely A. sativum and F. vestita reported to inhibit
the activity of LDH in H. contortus and R. echinobothrida when treated in vitro [128,129].
Similarly many plants like Ocimum sanctum, Lawsonia inermis, Calotropis gigantean,
Azadirachta indica, A. nigra and P. fulgens revealed to inhibit activity of MDH in nematode
and trematode parasites [130,131].

74
 Activity of FRD, a well-known drug target was significantly decreased by 1.29 fold and
1.19 fold, when R. echinobothrida were treated with crude root tuber extract and PZQ,
respectively. In various helminth groups FRD system has been detected and proved to be an
anthelmintic target [132]. During the life cycle of R. echinobothrida, the parasite undergoes
two different host shifts and also a change in energy metabolism pathway. The larval parasite
lives mainly in the cavity of intermediate host, whereas the adult worm resides inside the
small intestine of the definite host. The adult worms living in reduced oxygen situation,
use the anaerobic PEPCK (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase)-succinate pathway. In
this pathway the last step is the NADH-fumarate reductase system, which is composed of
complex I and complex II. It is well noted that the variation in the redox potential between
NAD+/NADH and fumarate/succinate ample to drive ATP synthesis [133].
This review revealed the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activity of crude root-tuber extract
of C. baccans and its active principles. Stereoscan and ultrastructural changes brought
about by the exposure of C. baccans, resveratrol, α-viniferin and PZQ in the tegument of
the parasite responsible for the loss of active movement leading to death of the parasite. As
tegument is the protective layer of the parasites, so it seems that the tegument faces the
first line interaction with the phytochemicals, which exerts the anthelmintic activity. The
level of ultrastructural changes observed in C. baccans and its active compounds exposed
R. echinobothrida seems to alter the normal functioning of the tegument. On the other
hand, inhibition of some key tegumental enzymes by the plant extract caused alteration
in their normal physiological functions related to nutrient absorption and transportation
in the parasite. Similarly, inhibition of neurotransmitter related enzymes such as AChE
and NOS by the phytochemicals revealed neurotransmitter inhibitory potential of the test
materials leading to paralysis and death of the worm. The presence of energy metabolism
related enzymes such as PEPCK, LDH, MDH and FRD and their inhibition on exposure
to crude extract and its active principles proved the anthelmintic efficacy of C. baccans.
Further, condensation of chromosomes, DNA fragmentation and decrease in mitochondrial
membrane potential together with increase in proapoptotic caspase indicate that the
probable mode of action of the phytoproduct/s is via mitochondria mediated apoptosis.

Conclusion
The present review illustrates the anthelmintic properties of C. baccans, a traditionally
used medicinal medicinal plant of Northeast India. Though the aqueous extract of the plant
is regularly consumed by different tribes to cure different ailments, scientific validity of its
use is restricted to anthelmintic properties only. Further, toxicological affect, if any, due to
consumption of crude extract of the plant is very much limited. Therefore, further studies
should be carried out to evaluate the extent of toxic potential of the plant and its active
compounds so as to know the safe doses for consumption.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank University Grant Commission and Department of Science and
Technology (Government of India), New Delhi for financial support to carry out the study.

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 eBooks

A Review on Clitoria ternatea(Linn.):

Chemistry and Pharmacology
Niraj Kumar Singh1, Jeetendra Kumar Gupta1, Kamal Shah1, Pradeep
Mishra1, Atul Tripathi2, NagendraSingh Chauhan3, and Neeraj Upmanyu4*
1
Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh-281406,
India
2
Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
3
Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhan Kendra, Raipur Chhattisgarh, India
4
School of Pharmacy & Research, People’s University, Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh-462037, India

*Corresponding author: Dr. Neeraj Upmanyu, School of Pharmacy &

Research, People’s University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462037, India; E-mail:
drneerajupmanyu@gmail.com

Abstract
The value of mankind is inextricably linked with the wellbeing through natural resources
specially the plants around him. Medicinal plants are gift of God, to cure infinite number
of diseases in human beings and other living organism. These Plant materials have been
extensively used in the indigenous system of medicine which is mention in the Ayurveda
and other Indian literature. In all ancient scriptures of Ayurveda, Aparajita is mentioned
as one of the important herb. It is a good looking twing herb and very common garden
flower plant found all over India especially in southern India Aparajita’s botanical name
is Clitoria ternatea and belongs to Fabaceae (Pipilionaceae) family. C. ternatea is a garden
plant of India, which has been used the traditional and folkloric medicine in the various
diseases. It is scientifically evaluated for anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, larvicidal,
insecticidal, antimicrobial, anxiolytic, antidepressant, hepatoprotective, tranquilizing
and sedative property. This paper reviews plant distribution, agronomic characteristics,
pharmacognostical description, ornamental value, traditional properties and uses, phyto-
contituents, pharmacological activity of butterfly pea. Thus, the present study is an effort to
compile a detailed account and literature survey of Clitoria ternatea plant.

Keywords: Clitoria ternatea; Pharmacological Properties; Phyto-Constituents; Traditional

Uses

Introduction
Since long time immemorial nature has been a mere source of medicinal plants. These
medicinal plants are gift of God, to cure infinite number of diseases in human beings and
other living organism. They have been the major source of drugs in all system of medicine and

82
other ancient systems in the world. Such exhaustible source of active ingredients invaluable
in the management of many intractable diseases which is harbored by plant kingdom. In
the various systems of medicine, many plantsandherbs are used to treat various infirmities.
In all ancient scriptures of Ayurveda, Aparajita is mentioned as one of the important herb.
It is a good looking twing herb. Aparajita’s botanical name is Clitoria ternatea and belongs
to Fabaceae (Pipilionaceae) family (Figure 1). It is probably originated in tropical Asia [1].
It is widely distributed throughout the humid, lowland tropics of Africa, Asia and Central
America. It is found in low and medium altitudes of the settled areas. C. ternatea is a strongly
persistent, sparsely pubescent, legume. It is perennial climber with slender downy stem,
found throughout the tropical regions of the country being cultivated in gardens everywhere
and often also found growing over hedges and thickets. It is seen that Aparajita is being
adapted to clay soils and has been tested as a forage and cover crop, but never developed
as a pasture cultivar [2].In various Ayurvedic preparations different parts of this plant have
been used as an active ingredient which is used for treatment of several disorders. There
are several reported Ayurvedic ‘medha’ drugs which contain C. ternatea along with other
plants. This plant has been scientifically studied for various pharmacological activities like
antihistaminic, anthelmintic, hypoglycemic, antidepressant, sedative etc. [3].

Figure 1: Plant of Clitoria ternatea (Linn).

Vernacular names
The shape of flowers of the Clitoria plant is a reflection of its genus name. The flowers of
this plant resemble in shape with human female clitoris, hence the Latin name of the genus
“Clitoria” belongs to “clitoris” and “Ternatea”, the name of the species, which comes from
Ternate, an Eastern Indonesian island. Similarly in different languages various vernacular
names of the flowers are based on reference to a woman’s genital organ.
In India:
Sanskrit: Ashphota, Aparajita Saukarnika, Ardrakarni, Girikarnika, Supuspi,
Mohanasini Vishadoshaghni, Shwetanama , Vishnu-Kranta, Ashwakhura.
Hindi, Beng, and Oriya: Aparajita or Aparajit.
Gug: Bismar, Garani, Koyala
Kan: Billisaiuga, Satugadagida.
Tel: Dintana, Gilarnika, Neela-ghentana, Sankhupuvvu.
Tam: Kakkanam, Kakatan, Kavachi, Kuruvilai.
Punjab: Dhanattar.
Rajasthan: Koyalri, Titlimatar.
Mar.: Gokurna

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 Mal.: Aral, Shankapuspam, Malai-amukki.
English: Butterfly pea, Blue pea vine, Mussel-shell climber, Pigeon wings.
In other countries: Butterfly-pea (Australia); Blue-pea, Cordofan-pea, honte (French);
blaue Klitorie (German); Fula criqua, Clitoriaazul (Portugese); Azulejo, Conchitis, Papito,
Zapatico de la reina, Zapotillo, Conchita azul, Campanilla, bandera, Choroque, Lupita, pito
de parra, Bejuco de conchitas (Spanish); Cunha (Brazil); Pokindang (Philippines); Zapatillo
de la reina (El Salvador); Kordofan pea (Sudan); Nagar hedi (Kannada); Mavi Kelebek
Sarmaşığı (Turkish).
Geographic distribution
Clitoria genus is inconsequential, indigenous climber and a common garden flower found
throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Now the genus becomes rare
in humid and sub-humid lands of Asia, America, and Africa and also in semi-arid tropical
Australia [1]. It grows from sea level to 1800 and also grown as an ornamental in the
warmer parts of the world and outspread from about 20°North latitude to the Salta district
in Argentina at about 24°South latitude.
In Africa it grows in grasslands, often on seasonally-waterlogged black clays and in old
cultivations whereas in Sudan it is grown for fodder or grazing and in Kenya it is grown
in a mixture with Chloris gayana [2]. In America, the species of this plant is spread from
Florida to Texas and from New Jersey to Kentucky & Arkansas. It is commonly found in
Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Turks, and Caicos Islands etc. It is found in all over India, especially
in southern India up to an altitude of 1,500 m and in the Andaman Islands [4].
Taxonomic hierarchy
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiosperms
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Clitoria
Species: C. ternatea
Other species of Clitoria
Clitoria albiflora Mattei
Clitoria amazonumBenth
Clitoria Andrei Fantz
Clitoria angustifoliaKunth
Clitoria annua J. Graham
Clitoria arborea Benth.
Clitoria arborescens R. Br.
Clitoria australis Benth.
Clitoria biflora Dalziel
Clitoria brachystegia Benth.
Clitoria bracteata Poir.
Clitoria brasiliana L.
Clitoria cajanifolia (C. Presl) Benth.

84
 Clitoria capitata Rich.
Clitoria dendrina Pittier
Clitoria fairchildiana R. A. Howard
Clitoria falcata Lam.
Clitoria fragrans Small
Clitoria glycinoides DC.
Clitoria guianensis (Aubl.) Benth.
Clitoria javitensis subsp. javitensis
Clitoria laurifolia Poir.
Clitoria linearis Gagnep.
Clitoria mariana L.
Clitoria mearnsii De Wild.
Clitoria mexicana Link
Clitoria moyobambensis Fantz
Clitoria nana Benth.
Clitoria pedunculata Bojer ex Benth
Clitoria pinnata (Pers.) R. H. Sm. & G. P. Lewis
Clitoria plumieri Turpin ex Pers.
Clitoria polyphylla Poir.
Clitoria racemosa G. Don
Clitoria racemosa Benth.
Clitoria rubiginosa Pers.
Clitoria sagotii Fantz
Clitoria schiedeana Schltdl.
Clitoria stipularis Benth.
Clitoria tanganicensis Micheli
Clitoria ternatea L.
Clitoria virginiana L.
Clitoria woytkowskii Fantz
Clitoria zanzibarensis Vatke
Clitoria zanzibarensis mengkoemieng
Agronomic characteristics
Soil: Clitoria is well adapted to grow in wide range of soil types (in between pH range
5.5-8.9) from deep alluvial to sandy including calcareous soils. It extremely well adapted to
heavy clay alkaline soils, and especially on clay soils but also grows well in moderate fertile
soils [1]. Clitoria ternatea likes a rich, moist soil (peat moss: loam: part sand or perlite 2:1:1)
therefore the soil should be evenly moist at all times for well growth.

Water: It requires approximately 400 mm of rainfall but also performs well under
irrigation areas and grows from drier areas like Kordofan in the Sudan to the fairly drought
tolerant in Zambia. Due to the nature of C. ternetea, it cannot tolerate prolonged inundation
or water logging but can tolerate short term flooding.

Sun light: It is moderately shade-tolerant but can normally grow in full sunlight.

85
 Temperature: It needs moderate temperature down to 25ºC but not suited to locations
with frequent or severe frosts, but it stands up well in hot summer temperatures and having
low frost tolerance.
Fertilizer: C. ternetea is normally grown in soil containing phosphorous (P) and sulphur
(S) which may be required as fertilizers if sown in the infertile soils.
Propagation: It contains around 20% of hard seed according to the seasonal conditions
in where it is produced and grows rapidly in warm-moist weather. It is harvested manually
by hands and is propagated from seed by cuttings [5]. The seeds of Clitoria ternatea are
covered by hard seed coats therefore do not germinate or imbibe water, but when stored
for 6 months 15-20% germination can be obtained. The use of hot water, sulphuric acid
(H2SO4), potassium hydroxide and soaking in 100 mg/L solution of Sodium cyanide (NaCN)
has also improved germination and early plant growth while mechanical scarification
increased germination of 6-month-old seed from 30% to 71% [2].
Pharmacognostical description
Different growing conditions can affect its morphology. It is extensively grown in gardens
for its flowers as an ornamental plant and it belongs to the sub family papilionaceae and
family Fabaceae (Leguminoseae) botanically, butterfly pea (C. ternatea) [6].It has various
synonyms like C. purpurea and C. ternatea, some have potential for foraging use and some
are partially domesticated. The plant is a long-lived perennial herb 90 to 162 cm tall with
an erect habit. It has two types one has white-flower and other blue flower. Clitoria have
cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers i.e., self-pollinating and insect pollinating
respectively. Physical properties of flower like color, structure and position vary from species
to species they may 60 to 120 mm long like beans and blue scabbards flat and linear [1].
The flowers of this plant are papilionaceous, axillary, solitary, pedicel 0.8 to 1.3 cm long
with bright blue or white with yellow or orange center. Calyx 13 to 20 mm long, corolla 38
to 50 mm, oblong, seeds 8 to 11/pod, Pods 50 to 100 mm by 0.8 to 1.3 cm, nearly straight,
somewhat flattened, sharply beaked sparsely hairy, 0.3 to 0.4 cm wide, shiny, often mottled,
minutely pitted, olive brown to almost black. Pinnate leaves with 5 or 7 leaflets; stipules
persistent, narrowly triangular, 1 to 6 mm long, subulate, prominently 3-nerved; rachis 10
to 70 mm long; petioles are 15 to 30 mm long; stipels are filiform, leaflets are elliptic, oblong,
ovate or nearly orbicular, 20 to 50 mm long, 3to 30 mm wide, with apex acute or rounded,
often notched, and base cuneate or rounded, both surfaces sparsely appressed pubescent [7].
Flattened pods are 40 to 130 mm long, linear to oblong and 8 to 12 mm wide, are style
persistent, pale brown, dehiscent when dry, sparsely pubescent when mature and with
thickened margins. The bracteoles are persistent and 0.4 to 1.2 cm long, broadly ovate or
rounded, calyx is 17 to 22 mm long with a few fine hairs; lobes triangular or oblong; tube
campanulate, 8 to 12 mm long 7 to 10 mm long, acute or acuminate [8]. The physiochemical
properties of roots are buffy brown in color, with characteristic odor and bitter in taste.
Clitoria ternatea have both primary and secondary roots are thick, hard with smooth surface
and later are thin, fibrous in nature respectively. Its roots fix nitrogen; therefore this plant
has been used to improve soil quality. The thick horizontal roots may grow bearing one to
several purplish, glaucous, wiry stems with more than 2 m length.
Ornamental values
C. ternatea widely grows in the warm climatic conditions as an ornamental plant,
attractive for its blue flowers and requires very little care while cultivation. It has various
types of species of Clitoria present in the world which improves the quality of soil by fixing
the nitrogen through its roots, but out of them only C. ternatea has attractive flowers. The
physiological characters of flowers are creamy white and dark blue colored papilionaceous
flowers which are very attractive and solitary. It is very valued plant for garden lovers as
an important ornamental crop due to its attractive nature. New hybrids were developed

86
between C. ternatea and C. purpurea which produced somewhat bigger in flower size when
compared with parents and intermediate colored (light blue) flowers. In the segregating
progenies variation in flower colors were noticed viz., medium blue, cream flower with blue,
light pink color, dark blue with velvety appearance, borders, violet, dark violet, besides the
parent colors [1]. For ornamental purposes species with less numbers of leaves and medium
heighted segregants with attractive flower such as light pink, deep violet, and velvety blue
can be exploited.
Traditional properties and uses
Clitoria is pungent in the post digestive effect, has cold potency, bitter in taste, and
possesses light dry and sharp attributes. In Ayurveda ‘Sankhapushpi’ is one of the
formulations which consists of the seeds and roots of C. ternatea, is used as a ‘nerve tonic’,
alternative and laxative. It has been used for the treatment of various neurological disorders
as an active ingredient in ‘Medhya Rasayana’. By various group of persons it is considered
as medicine which is useful in skin diseases, eye and throat infections also in urinary
disorders, ulcers and antidote activity [9].
Root: The roots have a sharp bitter or acrid taste and credited with cooling, laxative,
diuretic, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory properties. In the scientific studies it was found
that extracts of C. ternatea can raise the acetyl choline content and acetyl choline esterase
activity in rat brain in a similar fashion to the standard cerebral drug pyritinol [9]. In other
treatments of various ailments like infections, as anthelmintics, antidote to animal stings,
urinogenital disorders and body aches C. ternatea is also used [10]. Especially the roots of
C. ternatea are useful in severe asthma, remittent fever and bronchitis. These are used to
administer with ghee and honey as a tonic to children for boost up in their mental abilities,
muscular strength, complexation, whooping cough, goiter and epilepsy [11]. Roots used
by tribal to cause abortion and its paste applied on cattle stomach for curing abdominal
swelling [12]. Research suggested that the methanolic extract of C. ternatea roots shown
nootropic, anxiolytic, anti-depressant, anticonvulsant and anti-stress activity in animals.
The decoction or powder of root is given in rheumatism and ear disease. Root and leaves
have emetic and antiperiodic [13].
Seed: The use of seeds of Clitoria ternatea for medicinal purpose is both for external and
internal applications. Fried seeds are recommended in ascites when given orally with hot
water in powdered form with ghee and fennel [13]. Seeds are also used in digestive disorders
because they have purgative, cathartic and laxative action when used in combination with
ginger powder. Seeds are also prescribed in cough, hepatic disorders, spleen and rheumatic
infections. The seeds are safe for abdominal viscera, colic, dropsy and also for arthritis.
Leaves: Leaves are used as emetic, diuretic, antiperiodic and laxative. The leaves are
also very useful in the inflammation of mastoid lymph nodes when used with salt in paste
form. The juice form has the ability to mitigate the toxins [10]. In combination with ginger
juice, the fresh leaves are useful in hepatic fever, excessive sweating and also useful in
inflammation around the ear and neighboring glands in juice form with common salt.
Flower: Flowers are suggested and used for the treatment of scorpion sting and snake
bite. In Cuba decoction of flowers with roots are considered emmenagogue [10]. An infusion
of flowers is used to promote menstruation and induce certain contraction. Flowers are also
used to treat chlorosis and intestinal problem [13]. In experimentally induced diabetic mice,
the ethanolic extract of flowers significantly lowers the serum sugar level.
Stem: Stem is recommended for the treatment of snake bite and scorpion sting. The
stem of the plant contains the phytochemicals which are mainly considered as brain tonic
and is also useful for eye and throat infections, skin diseases, urinary troubles [13].

87
Phyto-contituents
Butterfly pea yields up to 30 tons dry matter per hectare per year in favorable conditions.
Plant can be exploited as a source of calcium in herbal drink due to its high calcium
concentration. It contains antifungal proteins (Figure 2-12).

HO

Figure 2: Taraxerol.

Figure 3: Taraxerone.

HO

COOH
Figure 4: p-Hydroxycinnamic acid.

88
 CH3

H3C

CH3
CH3
H3C

CH3

HO
Figure 5: β-sitosterol.

OH

O
OH

HO OH OH

OH
Figure 6: Delphinidin.

O
HO OH

OH

OH O
Figure 7: Kaempferol.

89
 O
HO OH

OH O
CH3
O O
O OH

H3C O
HO
O OH
OH
HO OH

OH OH
OH
Figure 8: Clitorin.

OH

O
HO OH

O
OH
OH
OH OH
OH
O

OH
Figure 9: Delphinidin 3-O-β-glycoside (anthocyanins).

OH

O
HO OH

O
OH
OH
OH O OH
OH
O

OH
Figure 10: Myricetin 3-glycoside.

90
 OH

O
HO OH

O
H
OH
OH O OH
OH
O

OH
Figure 11: Quercetin 3-glocoside.

O
HO OH

O
H
OH
OH O OH
OH
O

OH
Figure 12: Kaempferol 3-glocoside.

Leaf: The content of crude fiber and protein in the leaves were 21.5% and 21.5-29%
respectively. From leaves, clitorin and kaempferol have been isolated [1]. The leaves also
contain 3-monoglucoside, 3-rutinoside, 3- neohesperidoside, 3-o-rhamnosyl-glucoside,
3-o-rhamnosylgalactoside of kaemferol, besides kaemferol-3-o-rhamnosylo- rhamnosyl-
glucoside. It also contains aparajitin and β- sitosterol [13]. The flowers (blue in color)
contain delphinidin-3,5- diglucoside, delphinidin-3β-glucoside, and its 3 methyl derivative,
malvidin-3β-glucoside, kaemferol and cynidin chloride. A lactone- aparajitin from leaves [1].
Root: Taxaxerol and taxaxerone are present in the roots of plant. The bark of roots
contains sresin, tannin, starchand flavonol glycosides. The root nodule contains glycine,
alanine, valine, lecine, α-aminobutyric acid, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, arginine, ornithine,
histadine, γ-aminobutyric acid [10,14].
Seed: The seed contains bitter acid resin as an active principle with fixed oil, tannic acid
and glucose, also contains a cotyledon, which is full of granular starch and bitter in taste.
There are two chemicals which are isolated from seeds viz. Sitosterol and anthoxanthin.
Other than that seed-oil yields palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. Oils
from blue and white-flower varieties have been found to have almost similar composition.
Seeds also contain cinnamc acid, hexacosanol, nucleoprotein with its amino acid sequence
somewhat similar to insulin [12].
The seeds are very high in protein content (15-25%). The seeds contains
p-hydroxycinnamic acid, flavonol-3-glycoside, ethyl-α-D-galactopyranoside, adenosine,
3,5,7,4-tetrahydroxyflavone-3-rhamnoglucoside, polypeptide, hand exacosanol.
Oligosaccharides or flatulene are also present in seeds. A food dye, delphinidin 3,3’,5’-
triglucoside also reported in seeds [4]. Lecin represents about 2.8% of the total extractable

91
protein from seed meal or 30 mg of lectin/30 g of C. ternatea seeds in contrast 9 mg fetuin/30
g of seeds. Tryptophan and tyrosine is also reported in the seeds [15].
Flower: Two acyl moieties were determined as E-4-0-β-D-glucopyranosyl-p-coumaric
acid and 6—0-malonyl-D-glucopyranose. Other six ternatins A1, A2, B1, B2, D1 and D2
in C. ternatea flower ware isolated by reverse phase HPLC [16]. The white flower yield
only kaeferol. From the petals of Clitoria ternatea L. some flavonol glycosides isolated are
kaempferol 3-O-(200-O-a-rhamnosyl-600- O-malonyl)-b-glucoside; quercetin 3-O-(200-
O-arhamnosyl- 600 -O- malonyl) -b- glucoside; myricetin 3 -2G -rhamnosylrutinoside;
quercetin 3-2G-rhamnosylrutinoside 4. Flower also contains kaempferol
3-2G-rhamnosylrutinoside; kaempferol 3- neohesperidoside; quercetin 3-neohesperidoside;
myricetin 3-neohesperidoside; kaempferol 3-rutinoside; quercetin 3-rutinoside; myricetin
3-rutinoside; kaempferol 3- glucoside; quercetin 3- glucoside; myricetin 3-glucoside [13].
Cyanine chloride and kaempferol are isolated and identified from the flowers. Isolation of Six
acylated anthocyanins A, B, C, D, E and F from blue flowers has been done with the partial
characterization of kaempferol and its 3- glucoside, robinin, quercetin and 3-glucoside
and ternatins A and B [17]. Blue flower of butterfly pea also contain lobelinins, which has
the 3,5,3’,5’-tetraglucoside substituted pattern. Deacylternatin is also reported in the blue
flower petals [18].
Various types of C. ternatea lines with different petal have been investigated for flavonoids.
The newly isolated glucoside from the petals of mauve line is Delphinidin 3-O-(2″-O-α-
rhamnosyl-6″-O-malonyl)-β-glucoside. Also, a group of ternatins identified from the entire
blue petal lines i.e. 15 (poly) acylated delphinidin. The white petal lines do not contain
anthocyanins.While ternatins are identified in all blue petal lines as 3′,5′-disubstituted
polyacylanthocyanins, the mauve petal line accumulated delphinidin 3-O-(6″-O-myl)-β-
glucoside instead [19]. Researchers found that the difference in flower color from blue to
mauve is due to the lack of (polyacylated) glucosyl group substitutions at both the 3′- and
5′-positions of ternatins but not due to a change in the structure of an anthocyanidin from
delphinidin.
Pharmacological properties
Anthelmintic activity: Anthelmintic activity was found in ethanolic and aqueous
extract of C. ternatea leaves at the dose of 100 mg/ml. This was performed at three different
concentrations (100, 50, 25 mg/ml) of ethanolic and aqueous extracts respectively by using
Eisenia foetida. The study was focused at the in-vitro comparative study of aqueous and
ethanolic extracts of leaves of C. ternatea for anthelmintic activity. Thus, the study involved
in the determination of time of paralysis (P) and time of death (D) of the worms. While
determination for both extracts, the time of paralysis and death time of aqueous extract was
observed as 18 ± 1.57 and 53.33 ± 0.33 and in case of ethanolic extracts 12.33 ± 0.80 and
32.33 ± 0.71 respectively. At last, the anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of C. ternatea
was found more potent than aqueous extract of C. ternatea [5].
Antihistaminic activity: Antihistaminic activity was found in the ethanolic extract of C.
ternatea roots in dose dependent manner. Evaluation for antihistaminic activity was done
using clonidine and haloperidol induced catalepsy in mice for Ethanol Extract of C. ternatea
Root (ECTR) at doses 100, 125 and 150 mg/kg IP. Dose dependent catalepsy was induced
in mice by Clonidine, a α2 adrenoreceptor agonist which was inhibited by histamine H1
receptor antagonists but not by H2 receptor antagonist. Clonidine, which is responsible for
the release of histamine from mast cells, is responsible for different asthmatic conditions.
A non-selective D2 dopamine antagonist (Haloperidol) induces catalepsy is primarily due
to blockade of dopamine receptors in the straiatum. The agents responsible for increase
in dopamine transmission inhibit haloperidol-induced catalepsy. Findings showed that
ethanol Extract of C. ternatea Root (ECTR) and Chlorpheniramine Maleate (CPM) inhibit
clonidine induced catalepsy significantly P < 0.001 when compare to control group, while

92
ECTR and CPM fail to inhibit haloperidol induced catalepsy. So it is concluded that the
agents increasing dopamine transmission inhibits haloperidol-induced catalepsy and the
present study shows ECTR possesses antihistaminic activity [20].
Antimicrobial activity: The antimicrobial screening was evaluated against Extended
Spectrum Beta Lactamase (ESBL) producing Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhimurium,
Klesiella pneumonia, Enteropathogenic E.coli, Uro-pathogenic E.coli, and Pseudomonas
aureginosa isolated from patients with urinary tract infection and acute gastroenteritis.
Disc diffusion method was used to test the above mentioned extracts for their activity.
Water, methanol and chloroform extracts of C. ternatea flowers was exhibited activity
against uropathogenic E.coli, Enteropathogenic E.coli, Enterotoxigenic E.coli, Salmonella
typhimurium, Klesiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aureginosa. Methanol extract of C.
ternatea exhibits comparatively high activity as compared with chloroform and aqueous
extracts. The inhibitory zone produced by water, methanol and chloroform extracts at
a concentration of 4 mg/disc was found 12 mm, 16 to 26 mm and 14 mm to 18 mm
respectively while petroleum ether and hexane extracts did not exhibit any activity [21].
Cytotoxic activity: The crude methanol extract of stem-bark, leaves and seeds of C.
ternatea demonstrated a significant cytotoxic activity in a brine shrimp lethality bioassay
test. The LC50 values of the crude methanol extract of stem-bark, leaves and seeds were
found to be 179.89, 25.82, 110.92 µgm/ml) respectively. Among them crude methanol
extract of leaves (25.82 µgm/ml) and methanol fraction of leaves (22.28 µgm/ml) showed a
very promising cytotoxic activity [22].
Central cholinergic activity in rats: Researcher has reported the alcoholic extract of
roots of C. ternatea on spatial memory retention and associated changes in Acetylcholine
(ACh) and Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in the brain after electroshock or
scopolamine induced amnesia. The preselected trained rats were administered with either
alcoholic extract of C. ternatea or standard Shankhapushpi syrup for 10 days once a day.
The animals of respective groups were subjected to electroshock or scopolamine treatment
followed by radial arm maze task performance1 h after the last dose. Thereafter, the brain
were immediately isolated and ACh as well as AChE levels were estimated. Study shows
significant memory retention against scopolamine and electroshock induced amnesia in
root extract treated rats. The extract was found to be more effective in scopolamine induced
amnesia model. This action was found to be associated with significant decrease in AChE
activity and increase in ACh content of whole brain in different regions of the brain compared
to respective controls qualitatively [23].
Hypoglycemic Effect: The effect of orally administered aqueous extracts (400 mg/kg
body weight) of C. ternatea leaves and flowers were examined in control and test group of
rats on insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin and serum glucose. The aqueous extracts of C.
ternatea leaves and flowers significantly (P<0.05) increased the liver and skeletal muscle
glycogen, the activity of the glycolytic enzyme and glucokinase serum insulin but able to
reduce the serum glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin and the activities of gluconeogenic
enzyme, glucose-6- phosphatase. After all the biochemical tests, the group of leaf extract-
treated rats indicated essentially the same profile as those treated with the group of flower
extract [24].
Previously, the leaves and flowers of C. ternatea have been reported for antidiabetic
property; hence current study is an attempt to evaluate the antidiabetic potential in seeds of
C. ternatea. Methods: Preliminary phytochemical investigations of Ethanol extract of seeds
of C. ternatea Linn. was done. The seed extracts were screened for hypoglycaemic activity
in Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats (60 mg/kg, i.p.) at two dose levels like 200 mg and
400 mg/kg body weight. Results: Presence of various phytoconstituents in ethanolic extract
viz. alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, phenolic compounds, carbohydrates, proteins,
sterols, and flavonoids. The ethanol extract at 400 mg/kg.b.wt dose showed significant

93
decreased blood glucose (p < 0.001), cholesterol (p < 0.05), alkaline phosphatase (p < 0.001),
aspartate amino transferase (p < 0.001) and alanine amino transferase (p < 0.001), when
compared to diabetic control. Further study is required to isolate active phytoconstituents
from ethanolic extract of seeds of C. ternatea Linn [25].
Neurogenic potential: In Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine, extracts derived from C.
ternatea Linn have been used as an ingredient of “Medhya rasayana”, intentionally used for
improving memory and longevity in humans and also in treatment of various neurological
conditions. Our earlier experimental studies with oral intubation of C. ternatea aqueous
root extract had shown significant increase in learning and memory of postnatal and young
adult Wistar rats. In the present study we were designed to elucidate the in vitro effects of
200 mg/ml of C. ternatea aqueous root extract on proliferation, differentiation and growth of
anterior sub ventricular zone neural stem cells derived from prenatal and postnatal rat pups.
Results shown significant increase in proliferation and increase in the yield of differentiated
neurons of a SVZ neural precursor cells at 7 days in vitro and growth of neurospheres when
treated with 200 ng/ml of C. ternatea aqueous root extract as compared to age matched
control. Results indicate that CTR has growth promoting neurogenic effect on a SVZ neural
stem cells and their survival similar to neurotrophic factors like Survivin, Neuregulin 1,
FGF-2, BDNF possibly the basis for enhanced learning and memory [26].
Proteolytic activities: The activities of endopeptidases (pH of hemoglobin is 3.5 and
pH of azocasein is 6.0), carboxypeptidase (pH of CBZ-Phe-Ala is 5.2), and arylamidases
(pH of LPA is 7.0 and pH of BAPA is 7.6) were assayed in extracts of cotyledons and axis of
resting and germinating seeds of C. ternatea L. All the activities were low in resting seeds
but the endopeptidases at pH 3.5 and the arylamidase at 7.0 were high in cotyledons. The
activities of endopeptidases showed an increase at the day 3 followed by a decrease, while
the carboxypeptidase and the arylamidases increased in cotyledons reaching a maximum at
the day 9. In the axial tissue the endopeptidases and carboxypeptidase activities showed an
increase until the day 9 followed by a decrease and the arylamidases were low. The increase
of acidic endopeptidase and carboxypeptidase activities in germinating cotyledons has been
suggested as an indication of their participation in the degradation of the storage proteins [27].
Wound healing activity: The effects on wound healing were investigated using excision,
incision and dead-space models in rats. Seed and root extracts significantly improved
wound healing property when administered orally by gavages as well applied topically as
ointment which are comparable to that of cotrimoxazole ointment. The finding of this study
suggested that plant possesses effects on all three phases of wound healing: inflammatory,
proliferative and remodeling phase [28].
Larvicidal activity: Screening of natural products for mosquito larvicidal activity
against three major mosquito vectors Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex
quinquefasciatus resulted in the identification of three potential plants extracts viz., Saraca
indica/asoca, Nyctanthes arbortristis, and C. ternatea for mosquito larval control. In the
case of S. indica/asoca, the chloroform extract of the bark and the petroleum ether extract
of the leaves were effective against the larvae of C. quinquefasciatus with respective LC50
values 227.9 and 290.5 ppm. The LC50 values of chloroform extract of C. ternatea leaves
were 302.2, 517.2, and 422.2 ppm against A. aegypti, A. stephensi, and C. quinquefasciatus,
respectively. The methanol and chloroform extracts of flowers of C. ternatea showed larvicidal
activity against larvae of A. stephensi with the respective LC50 values of 245.4 and 748.7
ppm. Among the methanol extracts of C. ternatea leaves, roots, flowers, and seeds, the seed
extract was effective against the larvae of all the three species with LC50 values 66.2, 155.5,
and 55.4 ppm, respectively, for A. stephensi, A. aegypti, and C. quinquefasciatus. Among
the three plant species studied for mosquito larvicidal activity, C. ternatea was showing the
most promising mosquito larvicidal activity [29].
Enhancementof acetylcholine content in rat hippocampus: Significant increase in
Acetylcholine (ACh) content in hippocampi as compared to age matched controls after the

94
treatment with 100 mg/kg of C. ternatea aqueous root extract (CTR), for 30 days in neonatal
and young adult age groups of rat. Increase in ACh content in their hippocampus may be
the neurochemical basis for their improved learning and memory [30].
Antipyretic activity: Evaluation of anti-pyretic potential Of Methanolic Extract of
C. ternatea L. Root (MECTR) of blue flowered variety (Family: Fabaceae) on normal body
temperature and yeast-induced pyrexia in albino rats. Increase in rectal temperature was
observed after 19 hours of Yeast suspension (10 ml/kg body wt.) subcutaneous injection.
The extract produced significant reduction in normal body temperature at doses of 200,
300 and 400 mg/kg body wt., p.o., and yeast-provoked elevated temperature in a dose-
dependent manner. The effect extended up to 5 hours after the drug administration. The
anti-pyretic effect of the extract was comparable to that of paracetamol (150 mg/kg body
wt., p.o.), a standard anti-pyretic agent [31].
Effects on growth and morphogenesis of Aspergillus niger: The extract showed a
favorable antifungal activity against A. niger with a minimum inhibition concentration 0.9 mg/
mL and minimum fungicidal concentration 1.7 mg/mL, respectively. The leaf extract exhibited
considerable antifungal activity against filamentous fungi in a dose-dependent manner
with 0.5 mg/mL IC50 value on hyphal growth of A. niger. The main changes observed under
scanning electron microscopy after C. ternatea extract treatment were loss of cytoplasm in
fungal hyphae and the hyphal wall and its diameter became markedly thinner, distorted, and
resulted in cell wall disruption. In addition, conidiophore alterations were also observed when
A. niger was treated with C. ternatea leaf extract [32].
The effect of leaves extracts against the fish pathogens: The extracts of C. ternatea
was tested against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, K. pneumonia, B. subtilis, A. formicans, A. hydrophila
and S. agalactiae by the agar well diffusion method. Different extracts of C. ternatea showed
inhibitory effects against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, K. pneumonia, B. subtilis, A. formicans, A.
hydrophila and S. agalactiae. Ethyl acetate extracts of C. ternatea showed maximum of zone
of inhibition against A. formicans (19 mm), A. hydrophilia (20 mm), B. subtilis (20 mm) and
P. aeruginosa (22 mm) next to that ethanol extract of C. ternatea showed A. formicans (19
mm) and E. coli (15 mm) followed by Acetone extract showed maximum zone of inhibition S.
agalactiae (20 mm) and K. pneumonia (19 mm) [33].
Hepatoprotective activity: The methanol, chloroform, and petrolium ether extracts
of roots of blue and white flowered varieties of C. ternatea (CT) were found to have
hepatoprotective property. This was assessed by evaluating their hepatoprotective potential
against Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4) induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Methanolic extracts of
roots of blue and white flowered varieties at dose 250 and 500 mg/kg b. w. were showed
significant (P<0.001) reduction in the serum TB level. The white flowered variety of CT
showed much more reduction in TB level as compared to blue flowered variety of CT
[10]. Hepatoprotective activity of C. ternatea seed and root and Vigna mungo seed against
acetaminophen- and carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated rats was investigated. C. ternatea
and V. mungo seed extracts significantly (p<0.05) decreased SGOT, SGPT, ALP and Total
Bilirubin (TB) in both acetaminophen and CCl4 - intoxicated rats. The C. ternatea root
extract, showed similar results only in CCl4 - intoxicated rats. These findings were further
supplemented by histopathological studies of liver tissues. Hepatic collagen content as
evident from decreased (p<0.05) hydroxyproline levels and hepatic mast cell infiltration
were significantly decreased in extracts pre-treated animals. In addition, C. ternatea and
V. mungo seed extracts significantly (p<0.05) reduced hepatic lipid peroxidation as evident
from the decreased MDA, increased antioxidant enzymes activities and GSH levels in the
liver tissues. The findings of study suggested that C. ternatea and V. mungo possess potent
hepatoprotective activity. The hepatoprotective activity of C. ternatea could be attributed to
antioxidant properties and prevention of pre-inflammatory changes [34].
Antioxidant activity: The chemical composition of the flowers of C. ternatea suggest
that they may have antioxidant activity, ethanopharmacological evidences shows that

95
the extracts of C. ternatea (butterfly pea) flowers are used in Thailand as a component of
cosmetics. The aqueous and ethanolic extract of C. ternatea was found to have antioxidant
potential. Aqueous extracts were shown to have stronger antioxidant activity than ethanol
extracts (IC50 values were 2 mg/mL and 5 mg/mL, respectively). This was assessed by
performing DPPH scavenging activity test. The total phenolic content was 2.0 mg/g extract
as gallic acid equivalents. The data from this study support the use of C. ternatea extracts
as antioxidant inclusions in cosmetic products [35].
In-vitro cytotoxic activity: This study evaluates the in-vitro cytotoxic effect of petroleum
ether and ethanolic flower extracts of C. ternatea Linn by using trypan blue dye exclusion
method. Both extracts exhibit significant cell cytotoxic activity. For both the extracts
decrease in cell count was observed with increase in concentration of the extract. There was
a dose dependent increase in cytotoxic activity for all the concentrations tested [36].
Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic Properties: C. ternatea roots methanol
extract when given by oral route to rats was found to inhibit both the rat paw oedema
caused by carrageenin and vascular permeability induced by acetic acid in rats. Moreover,
the extract exhibited a significant inhibition in yeast-induced pyrexia in rats. In the acetic
acid-induced writhing response, the extract markedly reduced the number of writhings at
doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg (p.o.) in mice [3].

Conclusion and Future Perspectives

Nature has been a source of medicinal agents since time immemorial. The plant kingdom
harbors an in exhaustible source of active ingredients invaluable in the management of
many intractable diseases. They are well known in traditional herbal medicine for their
diseases curing property. Aparajita is one of the herbs mentioned in all ancient scriptures
of Ayurveda. C. ternatea belongs to family ‘Fabaceae’; is cultivated throughout India. It is
a perennial twing herb; steams are terete, more or less pubescent and persistent legume
found in India, China, Philippines and Madagascar etc. It is native to tropical Asia and
widely distributed thought the world mainly in tropical countries. It is a very common garden
flower plant found all over India especially in southern India. Butterfly pea is recognized
as being adapted to clay soils. It is reported to be a good “Medhya” (brain tonic) drug and,
therefore, mainly used in the treatment of “Masasika” roga (mental illness). In Ayurveda,
the roots, seeds and leaves of C. ternatea have long been widely used as a brain tonic and
is believed to promote memory and intelligence. C. ternatea has been widely screened for
its various pharmacological activities especially well documented for neuropharmacological
action. The root and root barks are used in ascathartic, diuretics and has laxative effects.
Juice of roots is used in the treatment of chronic bronchitis. The leaves are useful in
otalgia and hepatopathy, whereas seeds are cathartic. The flowers and leaves are used to
make collyrium, leaves are also used to relieve joint pain in arthritis, and hepatic disorder,
the seeds have laxative effects, and are cathartic, and it contains antifungal proteins. C.
ternatea plant has the most promising mosquito larvicidal activity. C. ternatea have number
of pharmacological activities such as possessing nootropic, anxiolytic, antidepressant,
anticonvulsant, sedative, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities, memory
enhancing, acetylcholine content increasing and acetylcholinesterase activity. Future
scope of present investigation is isolate active phytoconstituents which is responsible for
various pharmacological activities. The detailed chemical natures and structure of the
active principles responsible for its activity are not known. Hence, further studies should be
carried out to elucidate the active principles of C. ternatea.

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 eBooks

Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and

Pharmacology of Cissampelos pareira: A
Review
Kamal Shah1*, Shaiba Sana Qureshi1, Jeetendra Kumar Gupta1, Neeraj
Upmanyu2 and Nagendra Singh Chauhan3
1
Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura(U.P.), India
2
School of Pharmacy &amp; Research, People’s University, Bhopal(M.P.), India
3
Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhan Kendra, Raipur (CG), India
*Corresponding author: Dr. Kamal Shah, Asst. Professor, Institute of Pharmaceutical
Research, GLA University, Mathura(U.P.), India; E-mail: kamal0603@gmail.com

Abstract
The plant Cissampelos pareira is a sub-erect or climbing herb, belongs to the family
Menispermaceae. It is commonly known as Bhatindupat in Punjab and laghupatha or
ambastha in Indian traditional medicine. There are around 30 plant species summarized
under this botanical name “Cissampelos pareira”, found in all over the world. Only one
species is found in tropical and subtropical parts of India. The plant is commonly found
on the hilly tracts along watercourses, orchards, parks, hedges and gardens of moist soils,
either twining or creeping around other plants. This plant mainly occurs in Asia, East
Africa and America. It is a climbing shrub with green leaves, orange to red drupe berries,
horseshoe shaped seeds and brown to yellowish roots. Its aerial parts contain number of
secondary plant metabolites like alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, volatile oils and glycosides.
In the last two decades of the century the scientists are trying to evaluate many plant drugs
used in traditional system of medicine. The pharmacognostical study is one of the major
criteria for identification of plant drugs. The present review on C. pareira provides useful
information for its correct identity. Studies on pharmacology and phytochemical screening
serve as a valuable source of information and provide suitable standards to determine the
quality of this plant material in future investigations.

Keywords: Ayurvedic; Cissampelos pareira; Extracts; Medicine

Introduction
Cissampelos pareira was first described from Latin America, but actually occurs
throughout the tropics [1]. It is a dioecious climbing plant which belongs to the family
Menispermaceae of tribe Cocculeae [2]. Cissampelos consist of approximately 30 species,
spreadall over tropical and subtropical forests of Asia, America, East Africa and India
[3,4]. The genus “Cissampelos” is derived from the Greek words “kissos” meaning “Ivy” and
“ampelos” meaning “vine” [5]. The name refers to the ivy-like resemblance of the growth of
this plant in green rambling branches and the grape-like racemes of fruits [6]. The species
“pareira” is derived from the Portugusename given to the roots of some wild vine [7].

99
 C. pareira is generally known as Patha in Ayurveda in classical texts of (Charaka and
Sushruta). The plant has various traditional uses, being applied for its therapeutic as well
as toxic effects [8]. It has been used for the treatment of urinary problems, fever and skin
infections. In the rainforests of South America, C. pareira is known as Abuta, commonly
known as the “Midwife’sherb” [9]. The root of this plant has a rich history, being used
by resident peoples of South America, for centuries to treat many women’s ailments i.e.
menstrual cramps, to stop uterine hemorrhages after childbirth, prevents threatened
miscarriage, ease childbirth and postpartum, because of its intense relaxant effect on smooth
muscle [10,11]. C. pareira is frequently prescribed to treat diseases of cough, abdominal
pain, heart, kidney stones, asthma, arthritis, diarrhea, dysentery kidney infections and
fever according to Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India [12,13]. However, at the same time it
was traditionally used in the preparation of curares, the famous South American arrow
poison used in hunting to cause death by asphyxiation. With greater potency and less
toxicity, the root of this plant is used as a promising muscle relaxing agent, neuromuscular
blocking agent and a substitute for tubocurarine.
The genus “Cissampelos” contain alkaloids mainly bisbenzylisoquinolines, morphines,
berberines, and aporphines [14]. Since ancient times, it has been used in Indian Ayurvedic
medicine for preparing Pathadi kwath, Mahayograj guggulu, Pusyanug churn and Agnimukh
churn. C. pareira has been used to treat coughs, delirium, fever-cerrado habitants, madness,
epilepsy and convulsions [15]. It is also used as a stimulant, sedative, analgesic, febrifuge,
anti-oxidant, tonic and narcotic in various parts of the world. It is used to treat snake bites
in Mexico and Central America. C. pareira, in combination with Mimosa pudica L., Piper
nigrum L., and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., is used for birth control in different parts of India
[16,17].

Ethnomedical Considerations
The C. pareira roots are bitter and pungent and exhibited carminative, astringent,
anthminthic, and stomachin, digestive, diuretic, expectorant and anti-inflammatory
activity [18]. The plant has been used in cough, leprosy, sensation, asthma, bronchitis,
cystitis, dysuria and lactation disorders in various parts of the earth [19]. It is also used in
skin disorders, scabies, non-healing ulcers, leprosy, migraine, leucorrhoea and gonorrhea.
Its leaves are used in skin ailments, burns, eye trouble, wounds, fever and cold. The root
decoction of C. pareira is used in malaria and pneumonia in India. The leaves of C. pareira
are used in Pakistan to treat abscesses and wounds [20]. The tubers of C. pareira are used
in pseudo-pregnancy in Malawi. The other species of Cissampelos such as C. glaberrima
and C. ovalifolia are used for delirium, madness, stimulant, convulsions, coughs, epilepsy,
sedative, analgesic and as a tonic and narcotic. Apart from the medicinal uses, this plant
is reported for other different properties such as augmenting milk production in dairy cows
and food systems for various purposes i.e. thickeners, texture modifiers, gelling agents and
stabilizers in Asia [21].

Pharmacognosy
C. pareira is a 2-5 m twinning, perennial and a climbing shrub, supported on trees [22].
The stem is flexible, slender and reaches a maximum diameter of 1 cm. The leaves are
simple, alternate, and membranous and palmately 4-8 nerved. Insertion of petiole is slightly
away from the margin of the blade. Lamina is dark green outside and grayish underneath
with silky-hairy above, hence known as “velvet leaf”. Lamina is cordate, apex notched and
broadly ovate, 2-12 cm × 4.5-12 cm. The petiole (4-7 cm long) is pulvinate at both the ends;
flowers are dioecious, small, unisexual and green in color [23,24]. The fruits are red-orange
hairy drupes, partially rounded and covered by a rounded bract. The seeds have horseshoe
shape [25].

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Microscopic evaluation of leaves
The leaf of Cissampelos is microphyll, consisting of an average length of 4.5 cm and width
of 5.2 cm. Leaves have no characteristic odor and taste. Histo-anatamical characteristics
of leaf have dorsi-ventral differentiation with adaxial and abaxial epidermis. Lamina is flat
and reduced in dimension having slender uniseriate clothing trichomes [26]. Midrib region
is slightly raised on the adaxial side and composed of epidemics, collenchyma, mesophyll
and vascular bundle. Just below the epidermis of the mid rib lies a patch of sub epidermal
collenchymas (3-4 cells wide). A chlorenchyma zone consists of 1-2 layers, located beneath
the collenchymas. Parenchymatous ground tissues (6-7 layers) occupy the large area.
Collateral vascular bundle lies in the middle of the parenchymatous ground tissue with the
xylem in the adaxial and phloem on abaxal side. Patches of 3-5 cells of sclerenchyma are
distributed around the vascular strand. Epidermis at both surfaces is uniseriate, composed
of rectangular cells. Cells of the lower epidermis are very small. Epidermal cell of the midrib
are moderately smaller in size than those of the lamina. Starch grains are distributed in
epidermal as well as in mesophyll [27].
Microscopic evaluation of stem
In microscopic view, the transverse section of young stem has a circular out line with
an undulate and smooth surface. Epidermis is single layered composed of rectangular
cells, outer wall of cells are cuticularised (< 3.2 μm) [28]. Some of the epidermal cells have
bicellular trichomes (182.1-333.8 μm in length and 13.2–14.5 μm in width). A chollenchyma
zone consists of 2 layers, beneath the epidermis, followed by 2-3 layered parenchymatous
layers. Cortex is composed of thin-walled parenchyma cells enclosing the secondary
phloem. Transverse section of the mature stem has eight vascular bundles arranged in a
ring. Adjacent vascular bundles are divided by wide bands of parenchymatous vascular
rays [29]. The vascular bundles are dispersed around the parenchymatous ground tissues.
Xylem occupies a small portion of the stem. Vessels are mostly circular and solitary in
shape. Vessels with a diameter of 40.2-54.3 μm are co-occurred with vessels bearing narrow
lumen (19.5-32.5 μm) [30].
Microscopic evaluation of root
Root is slightly curved, long, cylindrical, narrow and highly bitter in taste. Bark is dark
grey in color, surface rough, longitudinally striated with furrows and ridges. Different 10-14
radiating vascular stripes with broad medullary rays in the cross section of root resemble
a wagon wheel with spokes appearance [31]. The cork zone has a strand of thick walled
sclerenchyma, which forms a broken ring on the outside of each vascular strand. Stone
cells are pentagonal in shape; walls are striated and pitted with wide lumen. Vascular
rays are very prominent which occupy the major portion of the root. Vessels are circular
and polygonal in shape [32,33]. The Diameter of lumen ranges from 18.6 μm to 60.3 μm
with a mean diameter of 40.2 μm. Xylem vessels contain prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate, ranges from 7.4×11.6 μm to 24.7×42.2 μm. Secondary xylem tissues contain plenty
of simple and compound starch grains. The root decoction of C. pareira is used in malaria,
pneumonia, and dog and snake bite (antidote) in India [34].
Powder microscopy
Leaf powder is dark green in color and has no characteristic taste and odor. Fragments
of leaf epidermis showed uniseriate trichomes. Stem powder is light brown, and has no
characteristic taste and odor. Root powder is brown colored and highly bitter in taste. Stem
and root power contain rich pyramidal calcium [26].

Phytochemistry
Alkaloids are the chief constituents reported from the genus “Cissampelos” along with
moderate levels of non-alkaloids.

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Alkaloid constituents
Wiggers (1840) reported an amorphous bisbenzyliso-quinoline alkaloid, “pelosine” (Figure
1) from the roots of C. pareira which was later found to be identical to hayatine [35]. During
the 1950s, three bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids, hayatine (Figure 2), hayatinine (Figure 3)
and hayatidine (Figure 4) were reported from the Indian species and their stereochemistry
and chemical structure were described in the 1960s [36]. The stereo-chemistry of this plant
was confirmed by its methylation with diazomethane, which afforded O-methylcissampareine
and by reduction with sodium borohydride, which yielded dihydrocis-sampareine [37].
Boissier et al., in 1965 reported two bisbenzylisoquinaline alkaloids, hayatine or bebeerine
and (þ)-isochondo-dendrine (Figure 5) [38]. Anwer et al., in 1968 isolated cissamine (Figure
6) as chloride from the roots of C. pareira [39]. Dwuma-Badu et al., in 1975 reported
isochondodendrine, dehydrodicentrine (Figure 7), dicentrine (Figure 8) and insularine
(Figure 9) from the roots [40]. Bhakuni et al., in 1987 reported the biosynthetic pathway
for Hayatidine, (R,R)-bebeerine, (R,R)-cycleanine, (R,R)-isochondodendrine. He also revealed
that hayatidine is biosynthesised by intermolecular oxidative coupling of (R)- and (S)-N-
methylcoclaurine, stereo-specifically while (R,R)-cycleanine, (R,R)-bebeerine and (R,R)-
isochondodendrine are formed by oxidative dimerisation of (R)-N-methylcoclaurine [41].

Figure 1: Pelosine.

Figure 2: Hayatine: R1=R2=H.

Figure 3: Hayatinine: R1=R2=CH3.
Figure 4: Hayatidin: R1=H, R2=CH3.

Figure 5: Isochondrodendrine R=H.

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 Figure 6: Cissamine.

Figure 7: Dehydrodicentrine.

Figure 8: Dicentrine.

103
 Figure 9: Insularine.

Figure 10: Nuciferine.

Figure 11: Bulbocarpine.

104
Figure 12: Corytuberine.

Figure 13: Laudanosine.

Figure 14: Magniflorine.

105
 Figure 15: Pareirubrine..

Figure 16: Norimeluteine: R=OCH3.

Figure 17: Norruffscine: R=H.

Figure 18: Reserpine.

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 Ahmad et al., in 1992 observed five alkaloids, nuciferine (Figure 10), bulbo-carpine
(Figure 11), corytuberine (Figure 12), laudanosine (Figure 13) and magniflorine (Figure
14) (as hydro-chloride) from the leaves and stems of C. pareira [42]. Morita et al., in
1993 determined two tropoloisoquinoline alkaloids, pareirubrines A and B (Figure 15)
as antileukemic substances. The conformation of tropolone ring in their structures was
confirmed by NMR studies, whereas their solid-state tautomeric forms were illucidated by
XRD analysis. In addition an azafluoranthene alkaloid “norimeluteine” (Figure 16), as a
cytotoxic substance together with norruffscine (Figure 17) was reported in C. pareira [43].
The plant roots contain reserpine (Figure 18) and berberine (Figure 19) similar to that of
pelosine (a principle marker compoundl-bebeerine (Sharma et al., 2004) [44].To establish
the quality control parameters of C. pareira roots, Hullatti et al., in 2010 isolated l-bebeerine
in pure form for the authentication of C. pareira [45].

Figure 19: Berberine.

Non-alkaloid constituents
Apart from alkaloids as essential constituents of Cissampelos species, some non-
alkaloidal constituents were determined. The roots of C. pareira contain sterols, fixed oil,
d -quercitol (Figure 20) and essential oil, which contains thymol (Figure 21) as a major
constituent (Chowdury, 1972) [46]. Rosario et al., 1996 reported a chalcone-flavone dimer,
cissampeloflavone (Figure 22) from the aerial parts of C. pareira [47].

Figure 20: d-Quercitol.

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 Figure 21: Thymol.

Figure 22: Cissampeloflavone.

Singthong et al., in 2005 extracted pectin from C. pareira leaves that consist mainly of 70-
75% of uronic (galacturonic) acid (Figure 23) and a very little amount of neutral sugars [48].
This pectin showed shear thinning flow behavior, when studied for its rheological properties.
Additionally, a well known flavonoid named 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-4H-
chromen-4-one (quercetin) (Figure 24) and a saturated fatty acid, eicosanoicacid (Figure
25) were reported from C. pareira [49]. Vardhanabhuti and Ikeda in 2006 reported that the
leaves of C. pareira produce polysaccharides and pectins mainly composed of galacturonic
acid with trace amounts of neutral sugars [50].

Figure 23: Galacturonic acid.

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 Figure 24: Quercetin.

Figure 25: Arachidic acid.

Pharmacology
Anti-inflammatory activity
C. pareira extract and its polyherbal formulation in combination with Pongamia pinnata
(L.) Pierre and Vitex negundo L., exhibited in vitro anti-inflammatory activity at a dose of
600 mg/kg on carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema by 0.16 mL, respectively (Batista-
Lima, 2001) [51]. Amresh et al., in 2007 reported that ethanolic extract of the aerial parts
of C. pareira at a dose of 100 mg/kg, (p.o) showed anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity
(abdominal writhes and hot plate) in mice and rat respectively. He also showed that the
ethanolic root extract of the same plant exhibited anti-inflammatory activity on acute,
subacute and chronic rat models at a dose of 400 mg/kg, p.o [52].
Analgesic and antipyretic activity
Amresh et al., in 2007 reported that the hydroalcoholic root extract from C. pareira
showed resistance against mechanical pain in analgesiometer-induced pain in mice. The
hydroalcoholic root extract reduced the writhing episodes in acetic acid-induced writhing
(0.6%; i.p.) by protection of 51.63% at dose of 400 mg/kg, body weight, respectively. The
extract also showed protective effects against complete Freund’s adjuvant-induced arthritis
by 71.52% at similar dose. C. pareira in combination with Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
exhibited 600 mg/kg, respectively [53,54].
Immunomodulatory activity
Moreira et al., in 2003 determined that the hydroalcoholic extract of Cissampelos
sympodialis leaves showed an immunomodulatory effect on B -lymphocyte function. It has
been reported that the methanolic root extract of C. pareira at a dose of 200-800 mg/
kg hasan immunomodulatory activity in mice. Higher doses of this extract also obtained
protection against cyclophosphamide-induced myelosuppression by raising the total WBC
count significantly. The berberine-containing alkaloidal fraction of C. pareira roots showed
an immunosuppressive effect at a dose of 50 mg/kg, (p.o.) [55].
Neuroprotective activity
Hage et al., in 2010 observed that, C. pareira in combination with Anethum graveolens
(1:5) showed protection against age-related cognitive impairment in rats at doses of 10 and
50 mg/kg. He reported that this extract can be used as a food supplement for protection in
mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease [56].

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Antivenom activity
The aqueous leaf extract of C. pareira has shown toneutralize the proteolytic and
haemorrhagic effect of the venom of venomous pit viper (Bothrops asper) [57].
Memory-enhancing activity
Kulkarni et al., 2011 reported that, hydroalcoholic extract of C. pareira at 400 mg/kg
significantly improved learning and memory of mice and considerably reversed amnesia,
induced by scopolamine at a dose of 0.4 mg/kg, (p.o). This extract also lowered whole brain
acetylcholinesterase activity when compared to piracetam at a dose of 200 mg/kg [58].
Antifertility activity
Ganguly et al., 2007 reported that the leaf extract of C. pareira has antifertility effect. He
also observed that it altered the oestrous cycle in female mice and extended the length of the
oestrous cycle with significant increase in the duration of dioestrus stage [59].
Antidiarrhoeal activity
The ethanolic root extract of C. pareira has got antidiarrhoeal activity ata dose of 25 and
100 mg/kg, (p.o.) [60].
Antidiabetic activity
The hydroalcoholic leaf extract of C. pareira at a dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg, (p.o.) has
been evaluated to exhibit antidiabetic activity on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. It
significantly reduced fasting blood glucose and improved the body weight of rats compared
to glibenclamide (5 mg/kg).The study also demonstrated decrease in the gluconeogenesis
and increase in glucose metabolism as evidenced by increase in serum lipids, liver glycogen
and creatinine levels [61].
Hepatoprotective activity
Surendran et al., in 2011 reported that hydroalcoholic root extract of C. pareira exhibit
significant hepatoprotective effect against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in rats at doses of
100, 200 and 400 mg/kg. The levels for anti-oxidant Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) enzymes
were enhanced at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg. At the same doses, it has shown to decrease
cholesterol levels and increased triglyceride levels when compared to silymarin [62].
Muscle-relaxant activity
Kupchan et al., in 1960 reported that hayatin methiodide in combination with hayatinin
methochloride from Cissampelos pareira, showed muscle-relaxant properties and were
recognised as curariform drugs. The aqueous leaf extracts from Cissampelos mucronata
exhibit anti-abortifacient and uterine relaxant properties. The extract was found to have
toxic effects on the blood vessels of the kidneys of wistar rats. The ethanolic root extract of
Cissampelos mucronata showed significant in vitro relaxant activity on isolated non-gravid
rat uterine smooth muscles [63].
Anti urolithic activity
Urolithiasis is the third most common disease of the urinary tract. It is defined as the
formation of sediment in the urinary tract consisting of poorly soluble crystalloids of urine.
Ramesh C in 2010 reported that alcoholic extract of roots of C. pareira at (200 mg/kg and
400 mg/kg) doses showed curative effect in urolithiasis induced rats by preventing the
formation, reducing number and disruption of calcium oxalate calculi formed in the kidneys.
Phytoconstituent like berberine, present in C. pareira is responsible for antiurolithic activity.
It is therapeutically effective for curative aspect of calcium oxalate urolithiasis [64].

110
Cardiovascular activity
Singh et al., in 2013 reported that the ethanolic leaf extract from C. pareira has
cardioprotective activity on isoproterenol-induced cardiac dysfunction in rats. It improved
the heart weight/body weight ratio, nitric oxide, lactate dehydrogenase, and serum
calcineurin and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance levels. The hydroalcoholic extract of
Cissampelos sympodialis showed contractions (EC50 value of 76.6 μg/mL) in the presence
of functional endothelium. Leaves from Cissampelos sympodialis has shown to regulate
intracellular Ca2+ as a mechanism of spasmolytic activity in the rabbit aorta [65].
Anti-oxidant activity
Hussain et al., in 2010 proved that, ethanolic root extract of C. pareira (containing
polyphenols) exhibited anti-oxidant activity in the 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
assay at doses ranging between 50 and 300 μg/kg in vitro. He also reported that the extract
exhibited effective protective effects in an acute oxidative tissue injury on benzo(a)pyrene-
induced gastric toxicity in mice at a dose of 100 mg/kg [66]. The alkaloidal fraction from C.
pareira roots showed strong anti-oxidant activity by scavenging the superoxide ion, stable
free radical DPPH and by inhibiting lipid peroxidation in rat liver homogenate induced by
iron/ADP/ascorbate complex [67].
Anticancer activity
De Wet et al., 2009 observed that the hydroalcoholic root extract of C. pareira exhibited
activity against carcinogen metabolising phase I and phase II enzymes along with anti-
oxidant enzymes. The extract improved, the mean number of tumor, tumor incidence and the
tumor multiplicity on benzo(a)pyrene-induced gastric cancer in mice. The ethanolic extract
of C. pareira (containing quercetin) exhibited protective property on tumor multiplicity,
benzo(a)pyrene induced gastric cancer and micronucleus polychromatic erythrocytes in
mice. The other species of Cissampelos such as Cissampelos mucronata, Cissampelos hirta
and Cissampelos torulosa showed cytotoxicity against TK10 (renal) cancer cell lines, MCF7
(breast) and UACC62 (melanoma) [68]. Gessler et al., 1995 reported that, ethanolic extract
of Cissampelos mucronata exhibited cytotoxic activity in human carcinoma cell lines in vitro,
whereas cissampelo flavone had less toxicity to the human KB cell line. When administered
orally, the extract mainly polysaccharides and proteins inhibit the tumor growth in a dose
dependent fashion. Tumor growth was inhibited by seventy percent at a dose of 200 mg/
kg/day. Intraperitoneal or subcutaneous administration at a dose of 50 mg/kg/day also
improved the tumor growth [69].
Anti-ulcer activity
Nwafor and Okoye in 2005 observed that ethanolic root extract of C.mucronata, showed
an anti-ulcer effect on histamine, indomethacin and stress-induced ulcer models in rats.
Ethanolic root extract of C.pareira and its constituent quercetin, exhibited protective effects
against ulceration at doses of 25-100 mg/kg (p.o.) in various acute and chronic ulcers in
rats. The extract also improved the ulcer index with decreased perforations in acetic acid-
induced chronic ulcers [70].
Antiparasitic activity
The alkaloidal extract from the leaves of Cissampelos ovalifolia showed an in vitro
antiparasitic effect against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania chagasi parasites with an EC50
value of 64.88 μg/mL [71]. The aqueous fraction of the ethanolic leaf extract of Cissampelos
sympodialis showed anti-inflammatory effects by increased cAMP levels in intact smooth
cell cultures and inhibiting cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase activity. Cissampelo flavone
isolated from C. pareira exhibited admirable activity against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense.

111
The methanolic extract from Cissampelos torulosa exhibited in vitro anti amoebic activity
against Entamoeba histolytica with IC90 values of 410 mg/mL [72].
Antimalarial activity
Fischer et al., in 2004 reported that ethanolic extracts of Cissampelos ovalifolia exhibited
in vitro antimalarial activity with IC50 values of 165.6 and 34.8 mg/mL against a chloroquine-
sensitive strain of Plasmodium falciparum and IC50 values of 103.1 and 37.4 mg/mL against
a chloroquine-resistant strain [73]. Jannu et al., in 2011 showed that ethanolic root extract
of C. pareira repressed the propagation of the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei in vitro
on BALB/c mice [74]. Rukunga et al., in 2009 reported that hydromethanolic extract of C.
pareira revealed significant anti-plasmodial activity against chloroquine-resistant (ENT30)
Plasmodium falciparum strains in vitro. Singh and Banyal in 2011 reported that an ethanolic
root extract of C. pareira revealed potent inhibition of Plasmodium berghei with an oral dose
of 500 mg/kg in mice [75].
Antimicrobial activity
Kumar et al., in 2006 reported that an extract from the whole plant of C. pareira
showed antifungal activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger via
complete inhibition at concentrations of 1000 mg/mL in comparison to the positive controls
amphotericin B at a concentration of 3 mg/mL. Moreover, Dichloromethane extracts from
aerial parts of Cissampelos mucronata showed activity against bacteria including Salmonella
typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis and Vibrio cholera [76].
Anti-diuretic activity
Sayan SB et al., in 2014 observed that alcoholic extract of roots of C. pareira at a dose of
400 mg/kg has shown a potent diuretic activity by increasing urinary output and increased
excretion of sodium, potassium, chloride. This effect was found to be dose dependent,
i.e., among the three doses studied, higher dose produced significant effect. He made the
comparison with the standard diuretic drug furosemide (10 mg/kg). Earlier Hullatti et al.,
2011 reported the diuretic activity with methonolic extract of roots of C. pareira [77].
Anti-dengue activity
Dengue is a mosquito borne viral disease that majorly affects global public health risk
[78]. In India, dengue outbreaks are correlated to the high prevalence of the mosquito vector,
high population density and circulation of all four Dengue Viruses (DENVs). So, potent
drugs for dengue are being progressively more needed for public health [79,80].
Pigili RK et al., in 2014 reported anti-dengue activity of extract of aerial parts of C. pareira
[81]. Sood R et al., in 2015 reported that the alcoholic extract of C. pariera (Cipa extract)
is an effective inhibitor of all four DENVs in cell-based assays, assessed in terms of viral
replication, based on plaque assays and viral NS1 antigen secretion via ELISA. Cipa extract
shows virucidal effectin a time and dose-dependent manner in the type-1 assay format. This
extract exhibited statistically significant protection against dengue virus infection using the
AG129 mouse model. A preliminary evaluation of Cipa extract exhibited no adverse effects
on RBC viability and platelet counts. The effect of C. pariera extract on virus titers confirmed
a >1 log reduction compared to untreated virus, that suggests its potent efficacy in altering
the course of major dengue disease to a more favorable outcome [82].
Miscellaneous activities
Kupchan et al., in 1965 revealed that the methiodide of hayatine isolated from C. pareira,
showed powerful neuromuscular blocking activity when compared to that of d-tubocurarine
chloride. The aqueous and alcoholic extract of C. pareira exhibited anthelmintic activity
against earthworms at doses of 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg/mL. Adesina in 1982 reported that
the extract from C. pareira has anticonvulsant activity in vitro/in vivo [83].

112
Toxicity Studies
Amresh et al., 2008 showed that the hydroalcoholic extract of C. pareira has acute and
subacute toxicity and produced neither mortality, nor changes in behavior, in animals at
a dose of 2 g/kg, (p.o.) for a period of 28 days. The ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of
C. pareira was reported to be safe up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg (LD50). Ganguly et al., 2007
revealed that the acute toxicity of the leaf extract of C. pareira was found at an LD50 of 7.3
g/kg, (p.o.) in female mice [84].

Future Perspectives and Conclusions

C. pareira is potential herb belongs to the family Menispermaceae, used to treat a broad
range of ailments in folk medicine across many countries, centuries, and continents. It is
a rich source of many bioactive alkaloids including aporphines and bisbenzylisoquinolines.
This plant is gaining popularity due to their promising antiplatelet, anticancer, vasodilator
and antiprotozoal activities. The chemistry and biological activity of some species of this
plant, including C. capensis, C. sympodialis, and C. glaberrima, are well known. However,
many other species including C. friesiorum Diels, C. andromorpha DC and C. nigrescens
Diels have not been pharmacologically and phytochemically explored. Consequently, a large
field of future perspective is awaiting the researcher to discover purified fractions and lead
molecules, which may have capable biological activity. Thus, there is an urgent need for
proper documentation of traditional knowledge to lead to the selection of authentic medicines
to provide a solid basis for further research. Some research groups attempted the polyherbal
formulation concept with Cissampelos plant and found promising analgesic and antipyretic
activities. A detailed study is required to clarify the structure-activity relationships and
mechanism of action to determine the minimal side-effects and standard dose. This review
concludes that C. pareira have potential medicinal activity and can be used in the treatment
of various diseases. By going through literature review, various pharmacological activities
of this plant has been familiarized and it is also found that plant contains a wide range of
phytoconstituents which needs to be explored more and more. So that the single constituent
related activity can be performed.

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