PROF

ED 5
Facilitating
Learner-
Centered
Teaching
ELS 103
Unit 1: Introduction
Lesson 1: Metacognition
 Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
 Research behind Metacognition
 Benefits of Metacognition

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students must have:
1. explained metacognition,
2. applied metacognitive strategies in learning, and
3. Described the purpose and value of metacognitive observation in educational and
developmental contexts.
4.Facilitated a structured interview with a child to observe and assess metacognitive
behaviors during a learning task.

Activity:
Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check (/) in the column what is true to you.
The six parts of the questionnaire pertain to the following aspects of study habits:
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and planning your work
Part 3 Working with others; Utilizing resources and feedback
Part 4 Managing school work stress
Part 5 Note-taking and reading
Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project
PART 1
Motivation Alway Sometime Never Your
s s (0) Score
(10) (5)
1 Exert effort to find out why I need to do
a particular task
2 I reward myself when I work.
3 I see to it that I give myself regular
breaks form work.
4 I am able to keep my concentration and
does not let my mind "drift away."
5 I have ways of dealing with distractions
6 I am willing to do the work I do not
enjoy because I see it as important.
7 I seek clarification from the teacher
about her expectations and standards.
8 I go to tutorials to improve my school
work.
PART 2
Organizing and planning your work Alway Sometime Never Your
s s (0) Score
(10) (5)
1 I make a weekly timetable for the
school work I need to accomplish.
2 I make a review schedule for
examinations.
3 I plan to get the necessary resources
and equipment prior to starting work.
4 I submit all my assignments on time
5 I have a place to work where I won't be
disturbed.
6 I have time for family commitments
and relaxation as well as studying.
7 I prioritize tasks which should be done
first, second and so on.
8 I make lists of things to do.
9 I make a list of valuable references with
bibliographic details, page numbers of
quotes and so on.
10 I review my work before submitting it.
adapted from Bradford University
PART 3
Working with others; Utilizing resources and Alway Sometime Never Your
feedback s s (0) Score
(10) (5)
1 I discuss work assignments with other
students.
2 I share resources with other students.
3 I keep cuttings from newspapers and
magazines which may be of help to me
4 I make sure I see TV programs which
may be useful.
5 I read the topic assigned before a
session
6 I ask questions and generally take part
in group discussions.
7 I listen out for key ideas when someone
is talking.
8 When I am listening to someone, I try to
anticipate what they will say next.
PART 4
Managing school work stress Alway Sometime Never Your
s s (0) Score
(10) (5)
1 I get so worried about assignments that
they make me feel ill.
2 This worry about assignments makes
me feel depressed.
3 I feel miserable about doing
assignments.
4 I let these concerns about the work get
on top of me.
5 When I need to work, others always
succeed in persuading me to go out.
6 I have difficulty in talking to others
about my worries.
7 I ignore my personal fitness through
worrying about assignments.
8 The stress of assignments causes me to
 get behind and I never seem to catch
up.

PART 5
Note-taking and reading Alway Sometime Never Your
s s (0) Score
(10) (5)
1 My notes indicate the main ideas,
rather than merely repeat what has
been said.
2 I listen for key ideas when listening to a
speaker.
3 I approach tutors for help
4 I organize or file my notes regularly.
5 I re-write my notes under key ideas,
headings, using numbering or lettering
schemes.
6 I have a shorthand technique of my
own.
7 I underline or highlight key ideas so
they stand out.
8 I decide before reading a book whether
it is vital or background reading.
9 I go over a book before diving into
chapter one.
I check the contents page for relevance
before reading a book.
I look for summaries at the end of
chapters.
PART 6
Preparing an assignment/project Alway Sometime Never Your
s s (0) Score
(10) (5)
1 I see to it that I understand what is
really being asked for in the
assignment/project.
2 I read other references and read about
the topic.
3 I make an outline/plan before doing my
assignment/project.
4 I check for spelling mistakes.
5 My essays have clear introductions.
6 My essays have a conclusions.
7 I frequently check back to the title
during the writing of an essay.
8 My essay/research paper has a full set
of references and a bibliography.
9 I review project/assignment before
submitting it.
10 I request someone else to look at/read
my project/assignment before
submitting it.
REFLECT:
Write your score in the Study Habits Questionnaire based on the score provided by the
teacher.

Ascpect of Study Habits My Score Interpretati

on
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and planning your work
Part 3 Working with others; Utilizing resources and
feedback
Part 4 Managing school work stress
Part 5 Note-taking and reading
Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project
Analysis:
Reflecting on your score from the questionnaire:
1. What insights did you gain about yourself through this assessment?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Which areas do you feel confident and strong in?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

3. Which aspects do you recognize as needing improvement or further development?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

While answering the questionnaire and analyzing your scores is an exercise in

metacognition.
You stopped for a moment and thought about how you study and learn. You were
reminded of your strengths and weaknesses, then you wrote what it is that you can do
to improve your study habits.

The most important goal of education is to teach students how to learn on their own.
The quotation on the side margin stresses this. It is vital that students acquire the skills
of how to learn; and that these skills enable them to learn not just while they are in
school but for a lifetime. This entails a deeper awareness of how one processes
information, the ability to evaluate person his own thinking and to think of ways to
make his own learning process more effective. All these involve metacognition.

What is metacognition?
This appears to be such a high-sounding word that some people are confused about
even before they actually spend time to find out what it really means. It is not at all
that complicated. In fact, we do metacognitive activities so often in our daily lives.
The term "metacognition" was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979,
1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is "thinking about thinking" or
"learning how to learn". It refers to higher order thinking which involves active
awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive
knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that
can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive
knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables
and strategy variables.

Person Variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker.
Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and
process information, as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning processes.
For example, you may be aware that you study more effectively if you study very early
in the morning than late in the evening, and that you work better in a quiet library
rather than at home where there are a lot of things that make it hard for you to focus
and concentrate.

Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of
the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the
individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its
difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. For example, you may
be aware that it takes more time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational
philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the

strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective.
If you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of various strategies and
try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like meta-attention and meta-
memory are related to strategy variables.
Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of
memory strategies that work best for you.

These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition. Omrod
includes the following in the practice of metacogniton:
 Knowing the limits of one's own learning and memory capacities.
 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain
amount of time.
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not Planning an
approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material Monitoring
one's own knowledge and comprehension. In other words, knowing when
information has been successfully learned and when it's not.
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner
to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in planning
how to do homework "I know that I (person variable) have more difficulty with my
science assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable),
so I will do my homework in science first, then Language Arts, then Araling
Panlipunan. (strategy variable)." If one is only aware about one's cognitive
strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task but does not use this to guide
or oversee his/her own learning, then no metacognition has been applied.
Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following
types of questions:
 What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
 Do I know what I need to know?
 Do I know where I can go to get soine information, knowledge? How much time will
I need to learn this?
 What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
 Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
 How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
 How can I spot an error if I make one?
 How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?

Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate

Learning
Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness was
evident in preschoolers and in students as young as eight years old Children already
have the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their own learning. However, not
many have been taught and encouraged to apply metacognition.

The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities that would
build your students’ capacity to reflect on their own characteristics as learners (self-
knowledge), the tasks they are to do (task knowledge) and the strategies that they can
use to learn (strategic knowledge). Remember, metacognition is like any other thing
you will teach. Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you and your
students can learn and master.

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

(Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely be a
rewarding learning experience for you.)
1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a student
monitor a peer's learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR - This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a

metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or presentation.

T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is
paying attention, and that he is ready to learn.

Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about what
he will soon learn.

L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes aware
if he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.

R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was
learned.
PQ4R-This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This
strategy is used to study a unit or chapter.

P - Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the
objectives. Look for outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about
the important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the summary of the chapter
first. (But please don't stop at the summary alone. This is not a good idea at all. Read
the whole chapter!)

Q- Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about
the topic.

R- Read. Check out sub headings as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed
in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a
marker or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases. (Do not highlight the
whole paragraph!)

R-Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.

R-Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in order to understand
better.
R-Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main
points you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on

what they have read.

4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important

to have relevant knowledge structures well learned.)

5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going
on around them (Have you asked a good question today?)

6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to self-monitor;
require students to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their
own.)

7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other

situations or tasks.

Novice and Expert Learners

In the the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the distinctions
among learners in the manner they absorb or process information They are able to
differentiate expert learners from novice learners. A very important factor that
separates these two types of learners mentioned is metacognition Expert leamers
employ metacognitive strategies in learning They are more aware of their learning
process as they read, study and do problem solving. Expert learners monitor their
learning and consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.

The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an expert learner.
Differences Between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Novice Learners Expert Learners

Learning
Knowledge in Have limited knowledge in Have deeper knowledge in
different subject the different subject areas different subject areas
areas because they look for
interrelationships in the
things they learn
Problem solving Satisfied at just scratching First try to understand the
the surface; hurriedly problem, look for
gives a solution to the boundaries, and create a
problem mental picture of the
problem
Learning/thinking Employ rigid strategies Design new strategies that
Strategies that may not be would be appropriate to the
appropriate to the task at task at hand
hand
Selectivity in Attempt to process all Select important information
Processing information thy receive to process; able to
breakdown information to
manageable chunks
Production of output Do not examine the quality Check their errors and
of their work, nor stop to redirect their efforts to
make revisions maintain quality
Stop and pause a while. Are you a novice learner? Or an expert one? Strive to apply the
concepts of metacognition in your world of learning, and for sure you will be on your
way to be an expert learner, probably an expert teacher, too!

Application:

Watch this video of the author’s daughter sharing how her Grade 2 teacher taught
them about TQLR.Make your own output: a song, chant, poster or question list on any
of the seven strategies discussed in the book. You may also create a video and upload
it in Youtube. Tell about its purpose, and describe the chant or song. Have a sharing in
class.

Title: TQLR metacognition in the primary grades

Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfXdWeAzgCo

Description: This shows a simple song that a primary grade teacher is using to prepare
children to listen and respond to a lesson or a selection. It is a very practical way of
teaching children to apply metacognition early on.

Assessment:

Conduct a metacognitive observation based on the procedures below:

 These will be semi-structured clinical interviews.

 Record the questions you ask and the child's answers.
 You do not have to ask the questions exactly as they are posed below, but the
questions should be very similar.
 Follow up with additional questions when the children seem like they have more
they can tell you. Remember to record any follow up questions you ask.
 You do NOT have to rewrite the notes you take while conducting the interviews, but
you do need to hand then in.
 Develop a list of 10 UNRELATED but common words.
 Take a familiar story (like a fairy tale or fable) and rewrite it so it is OUT OF ORDER
(it may help to actually write out the story so that you do tell it out of order).

For a child in kindergarten or younger, follow this procedure.

 Tell child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to
remember the words and you'll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while.
 Remind the child to listen closely, and then say the list slowly (about one word
every second or two).
 Ask the child the following series of questions:
 How many words do you think you will remember?
 What do you need to do to remember the words?
 Are you good at remembering?
 Do some filler questions (what are your favorite things, what do you like to do... to
fill up about 5 minutes between giving the list and now).
 Ask the child to list all the words you asked them to remember. (record their list)
 Ask the child what did they do to help them remember? Did it work? Tell the child
that you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them to listen
carefully and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you rewrote.
Bring a children's book of appropriate age. Using the book, ask the child questions
like, "where is the title of the book," "where does it tell who wrote the book",
"where's the beginning and where is the end of the book". (These are essentially
filler questions).
 Ask the child to retell the story, reminding him/her that he/she should retell it in the
order you told it. Thank the child for helping you.

For a child in first grade or older, do the following:

 Tell the child that you are going to say a list of 10 words, and you want the child to
remember the words and you'll ask the child to repeat the list in a little while.
 Remind the child to listen closely, and then say the list slowly (about one word
every second or two)
 Ask the child the following series of questions:
 How many words do you think you will remember?
 What do you need to do to remember the words?
 Are you good at remembering?
 What kinds of things do you do to help you remember things?
 Does your teacher give you ideas to help you remember things?
 What different ideas has your teacher given you?
 Do you remember some specific examples of things you have learned in school
to help you remember things?
 Do you use them? Do you think they are helpful?
 How do you think you learn things best - by seeing it, by hearing it, or by doing
it?
 Does your teacher help you figure out how you learn things best, or help you
learn that way?
  Do you do activities to help.you learn things in school? What kinds of activities
do you do? Do you think they help? Ask the child to list all the words you asked
them to remember. (record their list).
 Ask the child what they did to help them remember. Did it work?
 Tell the child you are also going to tell them a story and that you want them to
listen carefully and retell the story JUST LIKE YOU TOLD IT. Tell the story you
rewrote.
 Ask the following series of questions:
 Do you like to read, why or why not?
 Is there something that could change at school that might make you like
reading more (even more)? What kinds of things do you read at school?
 Do you get to choose some of the things you read at school?
 Do you read outside of school if so, what do you like to read?
 Why do you prefer to read those kinds of things/books?
 If you don't read outside of school, why?
 Do you think reading is important?
 Many people think that reading will help you do better in school do you? Why or
why not?
 What kinds of things do you do when reading to make sure you understand
what you are reading?
 Has your teacher helped you learn ways to help you read better? To help you
understand and remember what you read?
 Ask the child to retell the story, reminding him/her that he/she should retell it in the
order you told it.

TEST 1: Using the insights and information you shared during your interview, please
respond thoughtfully and thoroughly to the following questions.

1. How accurate were the children in predicting how well they would remember the
word list? How well did they remember the list? Were they able to tell you what they
did to remember the words after repeating the list? Were there any differences in age
in terms of how accurate their predictions or their lists were?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________

2. How well did the children do in retelling the story? Did the children tend to tell the
story in the "correct" order or in the order you told it? Were there age differences in
how they responded here?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Consider the older children's responses to the questions about memory and reading.
Given their responses, how well do schools seem to support children developing
metacognitive strategies for memory and reading? Did the children have a sense of
which way they learn best? Do they seem to think that teachers help them with this?
How effective do schools seem to be in creating/supporting an appreciation of reading
in children? Do the children seem to see teachers being helpful in these areas?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

(Retrieved from http://www.clt.astate.edu/grymesj/old%20courses/hgimeta-

cogobs.htm)

TEST II.

 Surf the internet for additional readings on metacognition.

 Make a collection of metacognitive strategies that can make learning more effective
and efficient.
 Make a collection of teaching strategies that develop metacognition in students.

Read a reseach or study related to metacognition. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Title and Source: (Complete APA bibliographical entry

format)

Findings Conclusions/ recommendations

Unit 1: Introduction
Lesson 2: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students must have:
1. explain the 14 principles.
2. advocate the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning process.

Advance Organizer

Cognitive and Motivational and

Metacognitive Factor (6 Effective Factors (3
principles) priciples)

14 Learner-Centered
Principles

Developmental and
Social Factors (2 Individual Differences
principles) Factors (3 principles)
Activity/ Analysis:

Examine the title, "Learner-Centered Psychological Principles Quickly jot down at least
10 words that close to your mind and why you think the word can be associated with
LCP.
Form groups of three members each. Share your responses. Summarize your group’s
responses.

We think that Learner-Centered Psychological Principles focus on

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American

Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the
learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:

They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control
of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the
principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors
that interact with these internal factors. The principles are intended to deal holistically
with learners in the context of real-world' learning situations. Thus, they are best
understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.

The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and
metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective, (3) developmental and social,
and (4) individual differences factors influencing learners and learning. from Finally,
the principles are intended to apply to all learners children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational
system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

 There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit formation in
motor learning and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive
skills and learning strategies.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can
use to construct meaning from information, experiences and their own thoughts
and beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.

 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally-relevant goals. Initially, students'
short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-
term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.

 Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of
these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or developed
may vary in different subject areas, and among students with varying talents,
interests and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with
the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains
isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer
readily to new situations.
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number
of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities,
such as concept mapping and thematis organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,

problem solving and concept learning.
 They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning
and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction
and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing,
applying and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.

 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning
or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods,
and monitor their progress toward these goals.
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are
not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate
alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility,
of the goal).
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order
(metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal
responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and

instructional practices.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with
both the learner and the learning environment.
 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning and ways of thinking.
 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of
prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and their learning and thinking strategies.
 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not,
can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to
learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and
goals, and habits of thinking.

 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals and expectations for success or
failure can enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and
information processing.
 Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence
both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual's
motivation to learn.
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate
learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance
by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying
about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or
 stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and
contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.

 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting
basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to
learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort is unlikely without coercion.

 Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex

knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that
enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards
of comprehension and understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that
enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that
increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.

 Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and
is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
 Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional and
physical domains, achievement in different instructional domains may also vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness-such as reading readiness-
may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other
areas of performance.
 The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual learners and how
they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture and
community factors.
 Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language
interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can
influence these developmental areas.
 Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with
and without emotional, physical or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation
of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication

with others.

 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions and that respect diversity
encourage flexible thinking and social competence.
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher
levels of cognitive, social and moral development, as well as self-esteem.
 Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust and caring can increase
learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a
positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative
beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety,
negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels
of thinking, feeling and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share
ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.

 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning
goals.
 Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or
modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental
conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
 Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need
to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are
accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.

13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
 The same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective instruction apply to
all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs and socioeconomic status
all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional
setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate
learning environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds,
cultures and experiences are valued, respected and accommodated in learning
tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well
as learning progress including diagnostic process and outcome assessment-are integral
parts of the learning process.

 Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process.
 Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths
and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the
selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty.
 Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular material can
provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the
learning goals.
 Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides
one type of information about achievement levels both within and across
individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
 Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the
attainment of learning outcomes.
 Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students' self appraisal
skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled

them into five areas:

1. The knowledge base. One's existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all
future learning. The learner's previous knowledge will influence new learning
specifically on how he represents new information, makes associations and filters new
experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate
their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition).

3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for
wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role
in the learning process.

4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each

person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and
environmental factors that influence him.

5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within

an individual.

Application:
Read a reseach or study related to Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP). Fill
out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Title and Source: (Complete APA bibliographical entry

format)

Findings Conclusions/ recommendations

Assessment:

Answer the following questions:

1. Describe what you can do to advocate the use of 14 Learning-Centered Psychological
Principles.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Advocate the use of the 14 learning principles by means of any of the following:
a 3-minute speech

B. PowerPoint presentation consisting of 5 slides or less.