SUPERCONDUCTORS
AND
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
SACRED HEART SENIOR SECONDRY
SCHOOL
BALODA BAZAR
ISC PHYSICS PROJECT
2024-2026
TOPIC: SUPERCONDUCTOR AND
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
By
NAME: ANURAG VERMA
ROLL NO.: 01
CLASS: 12TH
DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that the work entitled “Superconductor and
Superconductivity” is a bonafide work carried out by me
under the guidance and supervision of Mrs. Simi Elizabeth
George, Assistant teacher, Sacred Heart Senior Secondary
School, Baloda Bazar.
Name: Anurag Verma
Class: 12th
Sacred Heart Senior Secondary School
Certificate.
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled
"Superconductors and Superconductivity" has successfully
completed by Anurag Verma of class 12 (science), of Sacred
Heart Senior Secondary School, Baloda Bazar, Under the
guidance of Mrs. Simi Elizabeth George (Physics Teacher)
on the fulfillment of the ISC 2024-2026 Physics project:
Mrs. Simi Elizabeth George
Asst. Teacher
Sacred Heard Higher Secondary School
Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my sincere and heart felt obligation
towards all those who have helped me in making this
project. I wish to express my profound sense of gratitude
to my project guide Mrs. Simi Elizabeth George, Assistant
teacher Sacred Heart Senior Secondary School for her
continuing commitment to this project, Simulating
Suggestions. I shall remain indebted to Sr. Sherin Thomas,
the Principal of Sacred Heart Senior Secondary school for
providing me with good facilities and environment to
complete my project work. I extend my gratitude here to
all teachers for their willingness to contribute their
observations and opinions to my project. I wish to avail
myself of this opportunity, express a sense of gratitude and
love to my friends and I indebted to my family for their
valuable encouragement.
CONTENTS
❖ INTRODUCTION …………………… 01
❖ HISTORY ………………………………. 02
❖ THE SCIENCE BEHIND IT …………… 03
❖ CRITICAL TEMPERATURE ………….. 04-05
❖ CLASSIFICATIONS …………………… 06-07
❖ HTC …………………………………….. 07
❖ PROPERTIES OF
SUPERCONDUTORS………………….. 08
❖ APPLICATIONS ………………………. 09-11
❖ CHALLENGES AND
LIMITATIONS ………………………… 12-13
❖ RECENT ADVANCEMENT …….......... 13-14
❖ FUTURE POTENTIALS ……………… 15
❖ CONCLUSION ……………………….. 16
❖ REFERENCES ………………………... 17
INTRODUCTION
Superconductivity is a
quantum mechanical
phenomenon characterized
by zero electrical resistance
and the expulsion of
magnetic fields (Meissner
effect) occurring in certain
materials when cooled
below a specific critical
temperature (Tc). This
means they don't lose energy
as heat, making them incredibly efficient. This property
makes superconductors highly valuable.
This effect enables lossless energy transmission, magnetic
levitation, and ultrafast quantum computing—offering
transformative potential across many scientific and
industrial sectors. Examples of superconductors include
substances like magnesium, niobium, yttrium barium, and
iron-based compounds. These substances only become
superconductive when cooled below their specific critical
temperature.
HISTORY
The phenomenon of superconductivity
was first discovered in 1911 by the Dutch
physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
while experimenting with the electrical
properties of metals at extremely low
temperatures. He observed that the
electrical resistance of mercury suddenly
dropped to zero when cooled to about 4.2
Kelvin (-268.95°C). This groundbreaking discovery
marked the birth of superconductivity and earned Onnes
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913.
A major breakthrough came in 1957 when John Bardeen,
Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer proposed the BCS
theory. This theory explained superconductivity as a
quantum mechanical phenomenon in which electrons
form pairs, called Cooper pairs, that move through the
crystal lattice without resistance due to phonon
interactions. The BCS theory successfully explained many
properties of superconductors and earned its authors the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972.
The history of superconductivity is a story of continuous
discovery and innovation, promising to revolutionize
modern science and technology in the coming decades.
THE SCIENCE BEHIN IT
1. BCS Theory (Conventional Superconductors):
The BCS theory explains superconductivity via Cooper
pairs—two electrons that form a bound state due to lattice
vibrations (phonons), enabling them to move without
resistance.
2. Energy Gap:
When superconductivity sets in, an energy gap appears
between the ground state and excited states, making it
energetically unfavourable for electrons to scatter and lose
energy.
3. Meissner Effect:
The Meissner effect is a phenomenon observed in
superconductors where they expel magnetic fields when
cooled below their critical temperature. This expulsion of
magnetic field lines is a characteristic of the
superconducting state, and it's distinct from perfect
diamagnetism, which would only prevent field lines from
entering a material.
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE (Tc )
The critical temperature of a superconductor is the
temperature below which its electrical resistance drops to
zero. Most superconductors require very low temperatures
to achieve superconductivity. However, recent discoveries
have found materials that can achieve superconductivity
at much higher temperatures. For example, a compound
made of carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur was found to
become superconductive at room temperature when
subjected to extremely high pressures.
The following table lists the critical temperatures for
various superconductive materials:
Material Critical Temperature (Tc ) in K
Magnesium Diboride 39 K
Niobium 9.2 K
Yttrium Barium Coppe 93 K
Oxide
Iron Pnictides 56 K
A Graphical Look at Superconductivity
The graph below shows how the electrical resistivity of a
normal metal and a superconductor changes with
temperature.
This graph plots the resistance of a conductor and a
superconductor against temperature.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
➢ Type-I Superconductors
Type I superconductors are the simplest form of
superconductors, typically made of pure elemental
metals such as mercury, lead, or tin. These materials
exhibit superconductivity at very low temperatures,
generally below 10 Kelvin (-263.15°C).
Examples of Type I Superconductors
• Mercury (Hg) – Tc = 4.2 K
• Lead (Pb) – Tc = 7.2 K
• Tin (Sn) – Tc = 3.7 K
• Aluminium (Al) – Tc = 1.2 K
➢ Type- II Superconductors
Type II superconductors exhibit a mixed state where
magnetic fields can penetrate the material in the form
of flux lines, unlike Type I superconductors which
expel magnetic fields completely. These materials
have two critical magnetic field values: a lower one
where magnetic field starts to penetrate and an upper
one where superconductivity is destroyed.
Example of type II Superconductor
Niobium-titanium, Niobium-tin (Nb3Sn), and many
ceramic superconductors like YBCO (Yttrium
barium copper oxide) are examples of Type II
superconductors.
HIGH-TEMPERATURE
SUPERCONDUCTORS (HTS)
Discovered in 1986, high-temperature superconductors
(HTS) are materials that exhibit superconductivity (zero
electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields) at
temperatures significantly higher than those of
conventional superconductors.
Examples of High-Temperature Superconductors -
• Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBCO): Tc ≈ 92K
• Bismuth Strontium Calcium Copper Oxide
(BSCCO): Tc ≈ 110 K
• Thallium-based compounds: Tc up to ~125 K
PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
Infinite Conductivity
In a superconductive state, a material has zero resistance.
When the material's temperature drops below the critical
temperature, its resistance suddenly drops to zero. For
instance, Mercury becomes a perfect conductor below 4
Kelvin.
Critical Temperature
The critical temperature is the threshold below which a
material transitions from being a conductor to a
superconductor. This transition from conductor to
superconductor is sudden and complete.
Magnetic Field Expulsion
When a material transitions from a normal state to a
superconducting state, it expels magnetic fields from its
interior. This phenomenon is known as the Meissner
effect.
Critical Magnetic Field
The critical magnetic field is the maximum magnetic field
that a superconductor can withstand before it reverts back
to a normal conductive state. The value of the critical
magnetic field is inversely proportional to the
temperature.
APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
Power & Energy
Superconductors play a transformative role in modern
power and energy systems because they can carry large
electric currents without any resistance, leading to zero
energy loss and highly efficient devices. Below are the
major applications:
Superconducting Power Cables
Carry huge amounts of electricity over long distances
with minimal energy loss.
• Advantages:
o Lower transmission losses (almost zero).
o Reduced size compared to traditional copper or
aluminium cables.
• Example: YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide)-
based cables are already in pilot projects.
Superconducting Fault Current Limiters (SFCL)
• Purpose: Protect electrical grids from damage due to
sudden surges in current (faults).
• Function: Instantly limits fault currents without
disconnecting the line.
• Advantage: Faster and more efficient than
traditional breakers.
Magnetism & Levitation
Superconductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism
(Meissner Effect), which means they expel magnetic
fields when cooled below their critical temperature. This
property enables fascinating applications in magnetism
and levitation.
Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) Trains
o Superconductors repel magnetic fields, creating
a frictionless levitation above the magnetic
tracks.
o This leads to almost zero contact and extremely
high speeds.
• Advantages:
o No mechanical friction → less wear and tear.
o Energy-efficient compared to traditional rail.
• Example: Shanghai Maglev Train uses
superconducting magnets to achieve speeds over 400
km/h.
Levitation for Precision Instruments
• Used in:
o Sensitive measuring instruments.
o High-precision gyroscopes.
• Eliminates vibration and friction for maximum
accuracy.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Superconductors play a critical role in advancing
scientific research, thanks to their unique properties such
as zero resistance and strong magnetic field generation.
Here are the major applications:
CERN’s Large Hadron Collider uses
superconducting magnets to steer particles.
SQUIDs (Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices) measure extremely small magnetic fields.
QUANTUM COMPUTING
Superconductors are at the core of modern quantum
computing technology because they allow for the
creation of superconducting qubits, which are the
building blocks of quantum processors.
Quantum Effects:
Superconducting materials exhibit macroscopic quantum
states like Cooper pairs and Josephson effects, essential
for qubits.
Superconducting circuits serve as qubits in companies
like IBM and Google’s quantum processors.
CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS
Cryogenic Cooling
It is essential for maintaining superconductors in their
superconducting state, enabling their unique properties
like zero electrical resistance at low temperatures. This
involves cooling superconductors to extremely low
temperatures, often below -100°C (or -148°F), using
specialized cryogenic systems. These systems utilize
cryogens like liquid helium or nitrogen to remove heat and
maintain the required low temperatures.
Material Fragility
Ceramic superconductors, while offering advantages like
higher operating temperatures, are known for their
inherent brittleness, making them difficult to shape and
prone to cracking. This fragility stems from the ceramic
nature of the materials, which are typically non-ductile
and prone to fracture under stress. Hence ceramic
superconductors are hard to process.
High Cost
A major barrier to their widespread adoption in various
applications, including power transmission and large-
scale industrial equipment. While the cost of the
superconducting material itself may not always be
prohibitive, the overall system costs associated with
cooling, manufacturing, and infrastructure can be
substantial. Liquid helium or nitrogen is also expensive.
RECENT ADVANCEMENTS
ROOM TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTOR
A compound composed
of sulphur, carbon, and
hydrogen has been
reported to exhibit
superconductivity at
room temperature,
although the initial findings were later retracted. The
material, known as carbonaceous sulphur hydride (CSH),
was initially claimed to superconduct at 15°C (59°F)
under high pressure. This discovery, published in Nature
in 2020, generated significant excitement as it represented
a potential breakthrough in the field of superconductivity.
QUANTUM RESEARCH
Research on materials
like rhodium, selenium,
and tellurium, which
exhibit topological
superconductivity,
aims to leverage the
resilience of their quasiparticles for quantum computing
and other applications. Advances in topological
superconductors may help build more stable qubits.
SPACE APPLICATIONS
Superconductors
are paving the way
for significant
improvements in
space applications,
particularly in areas
like electric propulsion, power management, and radiation
shielding. High-temperature superconductors (HTS) offer
the potential to reduce mass and volume while
maximizing efficiency in spacecraft subsystems. These
advancements are making superconducting technologies
more feasible and attractive for use in space, especially
with the development of materials that superconduct at
higher temperatures. Lightweight superconducting
magnets for spacecraft propulsion and energy storage are
under study.
Superconducting technologies have the potential to be a
"key enabling technology" for future space missions,
impacting everything from lunar and planetary
exploration to deep space travel. By reducing mass,
increasing efficiency, and enabling new capabilities,
superconductors can help NASA and other space agencies
achieve more ambitious and cost-effective missions.
FUTURE POTENTIAL
~Power Transmission and Smart Grids:
Superconducting wires can revolutionize power
transmission by minimizing energy loss during electricity
distribution, leading to more efficient and
environmentally friendly electrical grids.
~High-Speed and Energy Efficiency:
Maglev trains, levitated by superconducting magnets,
experience minimal friction, allowing for speeds
significantly higher than traditional trains and with lower
energy consumption.
~Enhanced Speed and Computational Power:
Superconducting qubits, the building blocks of these
processors, offer the potential for high connectivity and
scalability, allowing for the creation of larger and more
complex quantum circuits.
~Revolution in medicine with high-resolution imaging:
Superconducting magnets are essential for high-resolution
MRI. Advancements in this area can lead to stronger
magnetic fields, resulting in better signal-to-noise ratios
and higher resolution images. This translates to earlier and
more accurate disease detection, particularly for
neurological conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's,
and for detecting subtle anomalies in organs.
CONCLUSION
Superconductors represent one of the most fascinating and
promising frontiers in modern physics and engineering.
Their ability to conduct electricity without resistance and
expel magnetic fields has already revolutionized
technologies such as MRI machines, maglev trains, and
particle accelerators. As research continues to push the
boundaries—especially toward achieving room-
temperature superconductivity—the potential applications
in energy transmission, quantum computing, and
advanced transportation systems are immense.
This project has explored the fundamental principles,
types, and applications of superconductors, highlighting
both their current impact and future possibilities. While
challenges remain in terms of cost, cooling requirements,
and material limitations, the pursuit of practical
superconducting technologies continues to inspire
innovation across disciplines. In essence, superconductors
not only defy conventional electrical behaviour but also
challenge us to rethink the limits of what is
technologically achievable.
REFERENCES
➢ Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics
Originally published: 1953
Author: Charles Kittel
➢ https://superconductors.org
