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THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA SPACE SCIENCE SERIES
Richard P. Binzel, General Editor

Exoplanets
S. Seager, editor, 2010, 526 pages

Europa
Robert T. Pappalardo, William B. McKinnon,
and Krishan K. Khurana, editors, 2009, 727 pages

The Solar System Beyond Neptune

M. Antonietta Barucci, Hermann Boehnhardt, Dale P. Cruikshank,
and Alessandro Morbidelli, editors, 2008, 592 pages

Protostars and Planets V

Bo Reipurth, David Jewitt, and Klaus Keil, editors, 2007, 951 pages

Meteorites and the Early Solar System II

D. S. Lauretta and H. Y. McSween, editors, 2006, 943 pages

Comets II
M. C. Festou, H. U. Keller,
and H. A. Weaver, editors, 2004, 745 pages

Asteroids III
William F. Bottke Jr., Alberto Cellino, Paolo Paolicchi,
and Richard P. Binzel, editors, 2002, 785 pages

Tom Gehrels, General Editor

Origin of the Earth and Moon

R. M. Canup and K. Righter, editors, 2000, 555 pages

Protostars and Planets IV

Vincent Mannings, Alan P. Boss,
and Sara S. Russell, editors, 2000, 1422 pages

Pluto and Charon

S. Alan Stern and David J. Tholen, editors, 1997, 728 pages

Venus II—Geology, Geophysics, Atmosphere,

and Solar Wind Environment
S. W. Bougher, D. M. Hunten,
and R. J. Phillips, editors, 1997, 1376 pages

Cosmic Winds and the Heliosphere

J. R. Jokipii, C. P. Sonett,
and M. S. Giampapa, editors, 1997, 1013 pages

Neptune and Triton

Dale P. Cruikshank, editor, 1995, 1249 pages
 Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids
Tom Gehrels, editor, 1994, 1300 pages

Resources of Near-Earth Space

John S. Lewis, Mildred S. Matthews,
and Mary L. Guerrieri, editors, 1993, 977 pages

Protostars and Planets III

Eugene H. Levy and Jonathan I. Lunine, editors, 1993, 1596 pages

Mars
Hugh H. Kieffer, Bruce M. Jakosky, Conway W. Snyder,
and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1992, 1498 pages

Solar Interior and Atmosphere

A. N. Cox, W. C. Livingston,
and M. S. Matthews, editors, 1991, 1416 pages

The Sun in Time

C. P. Sonett, M. S. Giampapa,
and M. S. Matthews, editors, 1991, 990 pages

Uranus
Jay T. Bergstralh, Ellis D. Miner,
and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1991, 1076 pages

Asteroids II
Richard P. Binzel, Tom Gehrels,
and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1989, 1258 pages

Origin and Evolution of Planetary and Satellite Atmospheres

S. K. Atreya, J. B. Pollack,
and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1989, 1269 pages

Mercury
Faith Vilas, Clark R. Chapman,
and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1988, 794 pages

Meteorites and the Early Solar System

John F. Kerridge and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1988, 1269 pages

The Galaxy and the Solar System

Roman Smoluchowski, John N. Bahcall,
and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1986, 483 pages

Satellites
Joseph A. Burns and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1986, 1021 pages

Protostars and Planets II

David C. Black and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1985, 1293 pages

Planetary Rings
Richard Greenberg and André Brahic, editors, 1984, 784 pages
 Saturn
Tom Gehrels and Mildred S. Matthews, editors, 1984, 968 pages

Venus
D. M. Hunten, L. Colin, T. M. Donahue,
and V. I. Moroz, editors, 1983, 1143 pages

Satellites of Jupiter
David Morrison, editor, 1982, 972 pages

Comets
Laurel L. Wilkening, editor, 1982, 766 pages

Asteroids
Tom Gehrels, editor, 1979, 1181 pages

Protostars and Planets

Tom Gehrels, editor, 1978, 756 pages

Planetary Satellites
Joseph A. Burns, editor, 1977, 598 pages

Jupiter
Tom Gehrels, editor, 1976, 1254 pages

Planets, Stars and Nebulae, Studied with Photopolarimetry

Tom Gehrels, editor, 1974, 1133 pages
Exoplanets
 Exoplanets
Edited by

S. Seager

With the assistance of

Renée Dotson

With 34 collaborating authors

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA PRESS

Tucson

in collaboration with

LUNAR AND PLANETARY INSTITUTE

Houston
About the front cover:

An imaginary planetary system orbiting a cool M-dwarf star. In the foreground, a giant planet has an
Earth-sized satellite, a water-rich body. The giant planet and satellite are orbiting in the star’s habitable
zone. In the mid-distance is another giant planet (Saturn-sized) close to inferior conjunction with the
foreground planet, and a third giant planet is in the far distance, transiting the star. The artist’s viewpoint
captures the three planets at the time of a fortuitous alignment. Painting by William K. Hartmann,
Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, Arizona.

About the back cover:

Image of the HR 8799 planetary system produced by combining the J-, H-, and Ks-band images obtained
at the Keck telescope in July (H) and September (J and Ks) 2008. The inner part of the H-band image
has been rotated by 1° to compensate for the orbital motion of d between July and September. The planets
are listed by lower-case letter in order of chronological discovery. At center is the speckle image of the
star. From Marois et al. (2008) Science, 322, 1348–1352. Image courtesy of NRC-HIA, C. Marois, and
Keck Observatory.

The University of Arizona Press

in collaboration with the Lunar and Planetary Institute
© 2010 The Arizona Board of Regents
All rights reserved
∞ This book is printed on acid-free, archival-quality paper.
Manufactured in the United States of America

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Exoplanets / edited by S. Seager ; with the assistance of Renée Dotson ; with 34 collaborating authors.
p. cm. -- (The University of Arizona space science series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8165-2945-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Extrasolar planets. I. Seager, Sara. II. Dotson, Renée. III. Lunar and Planetary Institute.
QB820.E87 2010
523.2’4--dc22
2010042822
Dedicated to all the people on this planet who have big dreams
and succeed in making them happen.

ix
 Contents

List of Contributing Authors and Scientific Organizing Committee.......................................................................... xiii

Foreword .......................................................................................................................................................................xv

Preface ........................................................................................................................................................................xvii

PART I: INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Exoplanets
S. Seager and J. J. Lissauer . .........................................................................................................................................3

Keplerian Orbits and Dynamics of Exoplanets

C. D. Murray and A. C. M. Correia . ..........................................................................................................................15

PART II: EXOPLANET OBSERVING TECHNIQUES

Radial Velocity Techniques for Exoplanets

C. Lovis and D. Fischer ...............................................................................................................................................27

Exoplanet Transits and Occultations

J. N. Winn .....................................................................................................................................................................55

Microlensing by Exoplanets
B. S. Gaudi ...................................................................................................................................................................79

Direct Imaging of Exoplanets

W. A. Traub and B. R. Oppenheimer .........................................................................................................................111

Astrometric Detection and Characterization of Exoplanets

A. Quirrenbach ...........................................................................................................................................................157

Planets Around Pulsars and Other Evolved Stars: The Fates of Planetary Systems
A. Wolszczan and M. Kuchner.....................................................................................................................................175

Statistical Distribution of Exoplanets

A. Cumming ................................................................................................................................................................191

PART III: EXOPLANET DYNAMICS

Non-Keplerian Dynamics of Exoplanets

D. Fabrycky ................................................................................................................................................................217

Tidal Evolution of Exoplanets

A. C. M. Correia and J. Laskar .................................................................................................................................239

xi
 PART IV: EXOPLANET FORMATION AND
PROTOPLANETARY DISK EVOLUTION

Protoplanetary and Debris Disks

A. Roberge and I. Kamp ............................................................................................................................................269

Terrestrial Planet Formation

J. Chambers ................................................................................................................................................................297

Giant Planet Formation

G. D’Angelo, R. H. Durisen, and J. J. Lissauer .......................................................................................................319

Planet Migration
S. H. Lubow and S. Ida . ............................................................................................................................................347

PART V: EXOPLANET INTERIORS AND ATMOSPHERES

Terrestrial Planet Interiors

C. Sotin, J. M. Jackson, and S. Seager ......................................................................................................................375

Giant Planet Interior Structure and Thermal Evolution

J. J. Fortney, I. Baraffe, and B. Militzer ....................................................................................................................397

Giant Planet Atmospheres

A. Burrows and G. Orton . .........................................................................................................................................419

Terrestrial Planet Atmospheres and Biosignatures

V. Meadows and S. Seager .........................................................................................................................................441

Atmospheric Circulation of Exoplanets

A. P. Showman, J. Y-K. Cho, and K. Menou .............................................................................................................471

Index ......................................................................................................................................................................517

xii
 List of Contributing Authors
Baraffe I. 397 Lissauer J. J. 319, 3
Burrows A. 419 Lovis C. 27
Chambers J. 297 Lubow S. H. 347
Cho J.Y-K. 471 Meadows V. 441
Correia A. C. M. 15, 239 Menou K. 471
Cumming A. 191 Militzer B. 397
D’Angelo G. 319 Murray C. D. 15
Durisen R. H. 319 Oppenheimer B. R. 111
Fabrycky D. C. 217 Orton G. 419
Fischer D. 27 Quirrenbach A. 157
Fortney J. J. 397 Roberge A. 269
Gaudi B. S. 79 Seager S. 3, 375, 441
Ida S. 347 Showman A. P. 471
Jackson J. M. 375 Sotin C. 375
Kamp I. 269 Traub W. A. 111
Kuchner M. 175 Winn J. N. 55
Laskar J. 239 Wolszczan A. 175

Scientific Organizing Committee

Sara Seager, Chair Tristan Guillot
Alan Boss Marc Kuchner
Adam Burrows Doug Lin
David Charbonneau Jack Lissauer
Drake Deming Vicki Meadows
Debra Fischer Wes Traub
Olivier Grasset Stephane Udry

xiii
xiv
Foreword
The discovery of exoplanets is arguably the greatest scientific revolution since the time of Copernicus.
Simply stated, humanity now knows for the first time as scientific fact: there actually are planets around
other stars. Yet as profound as this discovery is, the trumpets have not blared and no theorists have been
burned at the stake. (An early proponent of other planetary worlds, Giordano Bruno, did not fare as well in
1600.) Acclamation of exoplanets’ reality has not penetrated the global consciousness as deeply as it might
merit because (I think) the public already knew that planets were there. Star Trek took us to a new planet
every week; E.T. had to have some place to phone home to; etc. Even though the transition from science
fiction to science fact may have seemed subtle, historical perspective from decades or centuries henceforth
is likely to see this moment as another major turning point in the human perception of our place in the
universe.

Now, 400 years after Galileo’s observations affirmed the model of Copernicus, we are in the midst of
our own golden era of discovery. Just as Galileo first applied the telescope to reveal the details of our
own planetary system, that same spirit of inquisitiveness and ingenuity (with the benefit of technological
advances) is now revealing details of other planetary systems. Thus it is easy to fathom why so many
current researchers, and most importantly new students, are drawn so strongly to this field. The attraction of
pure discovery, the opportunity to share the same experience as Galileo, is simply too alluring to resist.

Thus sets the stage for this volume, Exoplanets, perhaps the most important title yet produced in the Space
Science Series. The goals of this book are to merge and embrace the astrophysics of exoplanets within
the disciplines of planetary science, to fully expand planetary science beyond the bounds of our own
solar system, to serve as a foundation for the interface of these merging and expanding fields, and most
importantly, to be the gateway for new students and researchers. To accomplish this, Series authors are each
challenged to convey what we know, how we know it, and where we go from here.

I thank my lucky planets that my colleague, Professor Sara Seager, embraced the editorship of this book
with such clear vision and conviction for how it should be accomplished, coupled with the requisite
determination and stamina. One cannot understate the effort delivered by the authors whose chapters are
the cornerstones upon which the field will continue to build. Less visible, but especially deserving of
thanks, are Renée Dotson and co-workers of the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI), who brought this
volume to reality, literally page by page. The support and dedication for the ongoing success of the Space
Science Series by LPI Director Dr. Stephen Mackwell and the staff of the University of Arizona Press are
paramount. A grant from Dr. Wesley Traub through the NASA Exoplanet Exploration Program has made
this gateway accessible to all by supporting costs for this book. No outcome is more desired than that
students entering here become the future leaders of the field.

Richard P. Binzel
Space Science Series General Editor
Cambridge, Massachusetts
August 2010

xv
xvi
Preface
This is a unique time in human history — for the first time, we are on the technological brink
of being able to answer questions that have been around for thousands of years: Are there other
planets like Earth? Are they common? Do any have signs of life? The field of exoplanets is
rapidly moving toward answering these questions with the discovery of hundreds of exoplanets
now pushing toward lower and lower masses; the Kepler Space Telescope with its yield of small
planets; plans to use the James Webb Space Telescope (launch date 2014) to study atmospheres
of a subset of super Earths; and ongoing development for technology to directly image true Earth
analogs. Theoretical studies in dynamics, planet formation, and physical characteristics provide the
needed framework for prediction and interpretation.

People working outside of exoplanets often ask if the field of exoplanets is like a dot.com
bubble that will burst, deflating excitement and progress. In my opinion, exciting discoveries and
theoretical advances will continue indefinitely in the years ahead, albeit at a slower pace than
in the first decade. The reason is that observations uncover new kinds and new populations of
exoplanets — and these observations rely on technological development that usually takes over
a decade to mature. For example, in the early 2000s almost all exoplanets had been discovered
by the radial velocity technique. At that time, many groups around the world were working on
wide-field transit surveys. But it was not until recently, a decade into the twenty-first century,
that the transit technique is responsible for almost one-quarter of known exoplanets. The planet
discovery techniques astrometry (as yet to find a planet) and direct imaging have not yet matured;
when they do, they will uncover planets within a new parameter space of planet mass and orbital
characteristics. In addition, people are working hard to improve the precision for existing planet
discovery techniques to detect lower-mass planets and those further from their star. All in all,
technology enables slow but sure progress, and this fuels ongoing discovery.

Theory, like observations, also takes time to unfold and mature. We can anticipate an “ultimate”
planet formation model similar to the “millenimum simulation” for galaxy formation and
evolution. In time, incorporating detailed physics as well as being able to reproduce the generic
outcome of planet populations (mass, radius, and orbital characteristics, including period) will
enable a deeper understanding of planet formation and migration. Similarly, the ideal exoplanet
atmosphere code of the future could be a three-dimensional Monte Carlo code that includes
radiative transfer with inhomogeneous cloud coverage and surface features, a code that also
solves for the temperature structure and combines with a hydrodynamical simulation to calculate
the three-dimensional temperature and wind structure. Classical orbital mechanics, already
reinvigorated by interesting exoplanet systems (e.g., planets in resonant orbits, hot Jupiter
exoplanets that orbit in the direction opposite to the stellar rotation), also has a role to play in
explaining fundamental mechanisms of how planetary system configurations came to be. Orbital
dynamics modeling is driving the search for moons and other unseen planet companions by their
perturbations on transiting planet signatures.

Exoplanets is a unique science because it involves so many disciplines within and beyond
planetary science and astrophysics. The other disciplines include geophysics, high-pressure mineral
physics, quantum mechanics, chemistry, and even microbiology. While exoplanet observations
clearly belong under the branch of astronomy, for many years the whole discipline of exoplanets
lacked a true home. Physics departments have said “Exoplanets: It’s interesting, but is it physics?”

xvii
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