MCM 213: Writing for Public Relations (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, the students will
1. define public relations and public relations writing;
2. outline what and various public relations writing;
3. define the scope of and conduct public relations research;
4. outline the importance, purpose, and methods of conducting research in writing for PR
5. identify resources to enhance proper writing style; and
6. effectively write a range of PR communications materials.

Course Contents
Principles of effective writing in public relations; practice in the styles of writing, news
releases, brochures, position papers, speeches, etc. It shall define public relations and public
relations writing, delving into various public relations writing; the scope of and conduct
public relations research; the importance, purpose, and methods of conducting research in
writing for PR. There shall be practical writing on a range of PR communications materials.
Public Relations is about tailoring messages for particular media and publics. Public relations
writers do prepare messages for any medium that can convey information. Furthermore,
much of the time these messages—words, images and often sound—are conveyed
electronically. Potentially these messages can be received anywhere in the world.
The difference for public relations writing lies in the power and responsibility of the public
relations person who is in the position of brokering goodwill between an institution and its
publics. There are two aspects to this responsibility. Strategically, public relations involve the
ways an organization’s operations and policies affect people—the face-to-face interaction of
employees with customers or clients and the organization’s participation in the affairs of the
community. Tactically speaking, though, good policies and good performance are worth little
if people don’t understand the policies and don’t know about the performance. The heart of
public relations practice remains in communication, particularly writing.
Good public relations require communication skills, expertise in dealing with news media
and a knowledge of mass communication, the dynamics of public opinion and the principles
of persuasion. Further, the communicator must know when and what to communicate. This
involves analysis, judgment, counselling and planning—in addition to and prior to
communicating.

WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?

Public relations practice is the art and science of analysing trends, predicting their
consequences, counselling organization leaders, and implementing planned programs of
action which will serve both the organizations and the public interest.
The central part of this definition of public relations outlines the main roles of the
professional public relations person: “analysing trends, predicting their consequences,
counselling organization leaders.” These roles fall into the management context, in which
personnel help to frame, implement, adjust and communicate the policies that govern how an
institution interacts with its publics. It is through public relations that a company acts with
responsibility and responsiveness—in policy and information—to the best interests of the
institution and its publics.
The PR person must know human behavior and combine that knowledge with specific
information about people within the institution and people outside whom the institution deals
with. For example, the PR director for a bank must consider the views of bank officers and
bank employees as well as those of customers, the community, legislators and government
regulatory agencies. The public relations person for the local school district must be aware of
the feelings of students, parents, voters and the regional accrediting agency. Any institution
has many publics, and the public relations director must be able to advise management about
the possible impact on those publics of various plans, policies and actions.
In addition to analysing publics and counselling management on the effects of policy, the PR
person must be alert for signs of change. The right policy today will not necessarily be the
right policy tomorrow. People’s attitudes and opinions evolve, and the composition of the
public changes. The capable PR person notes trends in public opinion and predicts the
consequences of such trends for the institution.

PLANNING, MONITORING AND PROTECTING CREDIBILITY

Public relations practitioners are supposed to understand the diversity of publics, to be able to
apply communication and behavior theories and to know how to watch the horizon for
emerging issues that are likely to affect their organization or client, before these are
crystallized in public opinion by coverage in the news media. The correct choice of symbols
used to communicate is something expected of the PR practitioner so that no mishaps damage
relationships with publics. In a global communication setting, this is increasingly significant
and is part of protecting the credibility of the organization. The PR writer has to watch for
attacks on credibility from any and all channels. Additionally, the PR writer is not an “order
taker.” What that means is the PR writer has to check and verify all information given for
distribution to any and all publics.

ADVERTISING, PUBLICITY AND PR

Much of the “running like hell” is done to carry out those “planned programs of action”
mentioned in the definition of public relations. These programs, the most visible part of
public relations practice, usually reach the public in the form of advertising or publicity.
However, as the lines between publicity and advertising are increasingly blurred, there’s
room for confusion about these two terms. Strictly speaking, advertising is time or space in a
medium, purchased to display a message that has been prepared or approved by the buyer.
Both content and placement—time and place, as well as duration—are controlled by the
buyer. Publicity is information provided to a public without charge.

PR; THE TWO-WAY STREET

The last part of the Mexico City definition of PR speaks of serving “both the organization’s
and the public interest.” Publicists who simply transmit their organization’s views to the
media are not likely to serve the public interest. As Bernays said,
Public relations is not a one-way street in which leadership manipulates the public and
public opinion. It is a two-way street in which leadership and the public find integration with
each other and in which objectives and goals are predicated on a coincidence of public and
private interests.
This means that the task of PR people is not simply to communicate management’s view to
the public. The task also involves communicating the views of the public to management.
The objectives of an institution and its public relations program must be designed with the
needs and desires of the public clearly in mind.
Going one way, the PR person analyzes public opinion and the needs of the community, and
opens channels of communication that allow such information to flow into the institution.
Using this information, the PR person advises management on the policies that are likely to
be of mutual benefit to the institution and the public—or at least acceptable, if not beneficial,
to the public.
Then—going the other way down the PR street—the PR person opens channels of
communication that reach out from the institution to the public. These channels are used to
interpret the institution’s policies and actions to its various audiences. Communication in this
direction is largely the responsibility of the PR writer.

This model has five steps, each represented by a circle. Each step allows the public to give
feedback, so goals can be adjusted or better understood.
1. Discovery: This step involves understanding what people already know and finding
out what would make them respond positively. In PR, discovery involves
understanding the audience's current perceptions, opinions, and knowledge about the
brand or cause. For a PR campaign, this could mean conducting surveys or focus
groups to see how the public views the company, its products, or its initiatives. By
understanding the current state of public awareness, a PR professional can tailor
messages to be more effective and relevant, ensuring that the communication will
resonate with the target audience. Example in PR: A company may discover that the
public is unaware of their eco-friendly practices. This insight could guide the PR
strategy to raise awareness of these initiatives.
2. Investigation: Here, you look at how different groups respond to create or increase
awareness and figure out any issues that might require changing goals or dropping
certain groups. investigation is about researching how different segments of the public
respond to different messaging strategies. PR professionals test different
communications—press releases, social media posts, advertisements, etc.—to find the
right approach that will resonate with their target audience. This process helps refine
the campaign and ensures that the message aligns with what the public needs or cares
about. Example in PR: A PR campaign might test different types of messaging (e.g.,
environmental benefits of a product vs. cost-saving benefits) to see which resonates
 more with potential customers. If one message is more effective, the PR team will
shift focus to that.
3. Measuring: This step evaluates how ready people are to act, helping you predict
when and how they might take action. Measuring in PR refers to tracking how the
public is responding to the messages. This could be through metrics like media
coverage, social media engagement, attendance at events, or changes in attitudes or
behaviors. By measuring the public’s readiness to act or engage, PR professionals can
anticipate the effectiveness of their campaign and make adjustments as needed.
Example in PR: If a brand releases a press release about a new product and the media
coverage or social media engagement is lower than expected, PR professionals can
assess the reasons why and adjust the strategy—perhaps with new messaging, timing,
or additional influencers.
4. Monitoring: You track how people are responding to understand if their actions are
going in the right direction. If necessary, you can intervene if the actions are negative
or encourage more positive actions. monitoring involves keeping track of public
reactions over time, especially once the campaign has launched. This allows PR teams
to identify trends, gauge the effectiveness of the campaign, and intervene if negative
feedback arises. By closely monitoring, PR professionals can maintain a positive
relationship with the public or quickly address any issues that may hurt the brand's
image. Example in PR: If a company launches a new service and notices online
reviews or social media posts are turning negative, they can intervene with a
clarification, an apology, or a special promotion to manage the situation. If the
feedback is positive, they can reinforce the campaign by sharing more success stories.
5. Evaluating: Finally, you assess the actual actions people took and decide how to keep
positive actions going or address negative ones. evaluation is the final step where PR
professionals assess whether the campaign achieved its objectives. This could involve
looking at changes in public opinion, media coverage, brand reputation, or actual
behavior (such as increased sales or event attendance). If the campaign was
successful, they can plan ways to sustain or build on that momentum. If not, they
analyze what went wrong and adjust for future campaigns. Example in PR: After a
product launch, the PR team evaluates whether sales have increased, if brand
sentiment has improved, and if there was positive media coverage. If the goals
weren’t met, they could use this data to plan improv
This model helps in adjusting actions based on how the public responds.

Publics, Channels and the Role of the Writer

In public relations, the main job of writers is to communicate with the public. However, this
isn’t as easy as it sounds. There isn’t just one “public” to write for. Not everyone is interested
in the same message.
For example, if a theme park is opening a new thrill ride, kids who love rides will care about
the details, but businesses and local residents nearby will be more concerned about traffic and
noise. The safety engineers and insurance people at the park will have a different set of
questions, and the local and state tourism departments will need different information too.
Investors in the park and financial analysts will also need their own specific details. And if
the park is part of a public company, the company must also share information with the
Securities and Exchange Commission.

As a public relations writer, you must create messages that speak to each of these different
groups. This doesn’t mean you’re “spinning” the information. It means you’re giving each
group the specific details they need. In public relations, we call these different groups
“publics,” because each is tied together by a shared interest or concern. So, public relations is
really about communicating with many different publics, not just one.

The Public in Public Relations

In his book The Mass Media, the late Stanford professor Bill Rivers describes the endless
variety of publics in this way:
“There are as many publics as there are groups with varying levels of income, education,
taste, and civic awareness; as many as there are groups with different political allegiances,
different religions and so on. What concerns and convinces one public may seem trivial to
another. Furthermore, the definition of each public is never static; it changes as the issues
change. When California is voting for a governor, a Los Angeles college student becomes one
member of a large and diverse public that includes a San Francisco stevedore and excludes a
college professor at the University of Maine. But, when higher education in the United States
is the issue, the college student is one member of a public that includes the professor but
excludes the stevedore—except that the stevedore’s working partner may have a daughter
who attends the University of Idaho . . . and so on in bewildering variety”

Each of us is part of many different publics. For example, as a student, you're part of a group
that matters to your school. If you're about to graduate, you're part of a group that is
important to potential employers. If you've just gotten married, you might be part of a group
that real estate agencies care about. If you're a member of an environmental group like the
Sierra Club, you belong to a public that politicians and energy companies pay attention to.

Just like people belong to many publics, organizations also have to communicate with many
different groups. For instance, a university’s public relations writer needs to write for faculty,
students, alumni, donors, community leaders, lawmakers, and sports fans. A PR writer
working for a political candidate needs to create messages for fundraisers, voters, reporters,
and campaign volunteers.

Today, with the rise of electronic media, messages can reach more people than intended,
which can create problems. For example, if a business or political leader says something
careless in a speech, it could upset a group of people when it gets reported in the news,
causing major issues like ruining business deals or trade negotiations.

Because there are so many different publics, PR professionals often divide them into two
broad categories: internal publics and external publics. Internal publics are groups inside
the organization, like employees or the board of directors. External publics are groups outside
the organization, such as customers, the media, or government officials. The line between
internal and external publics isn't always clear. For example, stockholders are technically
external, but they are closely connected to the organization. Internal publics are those who
share the identity of the organization, like employees or members.

PRIORITY PUBLICS

In public relations (PR), it's critical to identify the priority publics—the groups most relevant
to the specific communication effort. Given that attention can't be equally distributed among
all audiences, PR professionals must prioritize which publics will have the greatest impact or
whose opinions are most important for the message being conveyed.
While demographic data such as age, sex, and income are commonly used to segment
audiences, they don't always provide a complete picture of who is likely to be engaged or
interested in a particular topic. For example, demographic data alone might not predict
whether someone would subscribe to a magazine focused on dogs. Dog lovers can come from
a wide variety of demographic groups, meaning that using demographic data alone might lead
to missed opportunities.

Psychographics—which focuses on people's attitudes, behaviors, and interests—often

provides a more accurate and meaningful way to define target publics. Psychographic
information delves deeper into what people care about, how they behave, and their personal
interests, such as a passion for dogs. This type of insight helps PR professionals create more
tailored and effective communication strategies.

An example of psychographics in action is a university's alumni association. The PR director

faced a challenge in appealing to a wide age range of alumni—from 80-year-olds to 22-year-
olds—who had different academic backgrounds and interests. Through psychographic
research, the director discovered common values and interests among alumni, such as pride in
the university and shared experiences, which helped shape content that would resonate with
the entire alumni group. This psychographic insight empowered the PR director to create a
more targeted and successful communication strategy.

Channels

In public relations (PR), selecting the right communication channels is crucial to ensure that
messages reach and resonate with the intended audiences. For effective communication, the
PR writer must choose channels that not only align with the audience’s habits and preferences
but also match the complexity of the message.

Channel Selection

To communicate effectively, the PR professional must consider both audience

characteristics and message nature:

 Audience Characteristics: The medium must be one that the target audience actively
uses and trusts. For example, a theme park aiming to attract middle-school students to
try a new ride would be misguided to advertise in Harper’s Magazine, which most
young teens are unlikely to read. Instead, channels such as radio, TV, or social media
would be far more effective.
 Message Nature: The complexity of the message also dictates the choice of the
channel. For simple, quick information like dates for registration, radio can work well,
while complex topics—like university endowments—are better communicated
through print media or detailed reports, where readers can engage more deeply with
the content.
Types of Communication Channels

Channels can be categorized into individuals, media, and formats:

 Individuals: This refers to person-to-person communication, such as in-person

meetings, speeches, or direct interactions.
 Publications: These include print media such as newspapers, magazines, reports, and
newsletters, as well as electronic media like websites and blogs.
 Audiovisual Media: This category includes TV, radio, films, slides, and other
multimedia content that can help convey messages dynamically.
 Direct Mail/Email: Personalized letters, newsletters, or promotional pieces are
effective when a targeted approach is needed.
 Exhibits: Trade-show displays, campaign materials like buttons, and other physical
exhibits provide an interactive and often more personal way to communicate a
message.

3. Specialized vs. Mass Media

 Specialized Media: These are channels tailored for specific groups or internal
audiences. Examples include internal publications, intranets, and specialized
audiovisual content meant for employees or stakeholders. Such media are often
controlled by the organization and allow for targeted, controlled communication.
 Mass Media: These are channels designed for broad, external communication to large
audiences. Mass media includes platforms like newspapers, television, and radio, and
can reach diverse groups but are not controlled by the organization. PR writers must
be mindful that messages in mass media can also be seen by internal publics,
potentially leading to backlash if the message is controversial.

The Role of the PR Writer

The PR writer plays a critical role in managing communication:

 Knowledge: A PR writer must be well-versed in the institution’s operations. Whether

it’s understanding welfare eligibility rules for a social services agency or traffic laws
for a transportation department, the writer must have detailed knowledge to
communicate effectively and accurately.
 Research and Expertise: Beyond institutional knowledge, PR writers need to be
proficient in conducting research and interpreting information. They must also draw
insights from various disciplines (e.g., psychology, sociology) to ensure that messages
are relevant and persuasive.
  Effective Communication: Writing in public relations requires mastering different
writing styles and media. A PR writer should be well-versed in persuasion,
communication principles, and public opinion. As PR writing is strategic and often
persuasive, understanding the audience’s culture—whether corporate, personal, or
ethnic—is essential.

Importance of Verification

The accuracy of the message is paramount, and PR writers are responsible for verifying the
information they communicate. The RadioShack and Raytheon scandals in 2006 underscore
this point. In these cases, CEOs were involved in high-profile controversies because of
misleading or plagiarized information in public relations materials. The PR writer must
ensure that facts are checked thoroughly to maintain credibility and avoid potentially
damaging misinformation.

In summary, PR writers are crucial to the success of an organization’s communication efforts.

They must know their audience, choose the right channels, and ensure the accuracy and
relevance of their messages. Whether working with mass media or specialized channels, the
goal is always clear communication that resonates and influences the target publics.
 Ethical and Legal Responsibility of the PR Writer

As a public relations (PR) writer, your work is guided by ethics and laws. Ethics are the
values that help you decide what’s right or wrong, while laws define what’s legally
acceptable. Balancing these two is crucial in PR, especially when dealing with sensitive
issues.

Core Values and PR Work

Your personal values come from your upbringing, education, and life experiences. These
values influence your decisions, including at work. Companies also have their own values,
often outlined in mission statements. When choosing a job, it's important to find a company
whose values align with yours.

However, even if there’s a good match, changes in the company or society might challenge
your comfort and ethical stance.

Pressures in PR

PR writers face pressures from various sources, such as:

 Economic and social changes: Globalization and cultural differences can create
conflicts.
 Legal changes: Laws and regulations can change quickly, affecting how PR is
practiced.
 Public expectations: Society’s views on what’s ethical can shift over time.

An example is the blending of advertising and editorial content online, which makes it harder
to maintain clear boundaries.

Ethics and Cultural Sensitivity

Ethics vary across cultures, and as a PR writer, you need to respect these differences. What is
acceptable in one culture might not be in another. Being sensitive to cultural and societal
norms is key to maintaining ethical standards in your work.

Handling Ethical Dilemmas in PR

If you are asked to do something that conflicts with your values, even if it’s legal, you have
four options:

1. Educate others: Try to explain your perspective and suggest an ethical approach. You
can try to influence your organization by presenting well-reasoned arguments. Even if
 you don’t succeed, you may gain respect for standing by your beliefs and fulfilling
your duty as a professional to offer honest advice.
2. Refuse the task: Stand firm and decline if it violates your principles. If persuasion
doesn’t work, you can refuse. This might lead to consequences, like losing your job,
but staying true to your values can be more important. No one should force you to do
something you believe is wrong, even if it’s legal.
3. Request reassignment: Ask for a different task that aligns with your values. If you
face an assignment that conflicts with your values but want to stay in your role, you
can ask for a different task. This option may not always work if no one else can take
the job, but if possible, it can lead to three key outcomes:

 Assessing your persuasion skills: You’ll learn how effectively you can communicate
your concerns.
 Understanding your value: The response you get will show how much your
supervisor and organization value you.
 Gaining insight: You’ll better understand your colleagues and the company’s values.

4. Accept the task: Only if you believe you can do it ethically. Choosing to take the
assignment, even if you disagree with it, shows loyalty and teamwork. You may be
seen as someone who prioritizes the organization’s needs over personal beliefs, which
could lead to rewards like promotions or raises. However, this choice comes with
risks. If the task crosses ethical lines and the public disapproves, you may face
criticism and damage your reputation. Public opinion can be unforgiving, and
regaining trust might be difficult, even if you correct your actions later. Your
reputation will depend heavily on how your organization and industry handle ethical
standards.

Influence of Public Relations Standards of Practice

Public relations (PR) relies heavily on ethics and standards to maintain trust. Key points to
keep in mind as a PR writer include:

1. Accuracy

Credibility is your most valuable asset. Factual mistakes, whether intentional or accidental,
harm trust and can have serious consequences. For example, an oil company once lost
investor trust because of a decimal error in a report. Even “honest” mistakes can lead to
skepticism and reputational damage.

Takeaway:

 Double-check facts to avoid costly errors.

 Mistakes may not be forgiven easily, even if unintentional.
2. Honesty, Truth, and Fairness

Being factually correct is not enough—you must also be honest and fair. Select and present
facts in a way that acknowledges both good and bad aspects. Ignoring negative information
may cause audiences to distrust you.

For example, when American Airlines acknowledged human error in an accident, they
maintained public trust by being transparent.

Takeaway:

 Be upfront about mistakes or risks to maintain credibility.

 Hiding facts can harm trust and lead to long-term damage.

3. Avoiding False or Misleading Information

Misleading audiences can lead to backlash, legal action, or boycotts. Any short-term
advantage gained from deception is often outweighed by long-term consequences. For
example, misleading video news releases (VNRs) from the government led to public outrage
and stricter regulations.

PR writers often create content attributed to others (like speeches or corporate messages), but
transparency is crucial. False information damages both you and the media outlets that share
it, leading to mistrust.

Takeaway:

 Always disclose sources and avoid deception.

 Misleading information can harm your reputation and make it harder for others in PR
to do their job.

Key Ethical Principles in PR

 Honesty: Communicating truthfully and accurately, avoiding deception or misleading

statements
 Transparency: Being open and clear about the identity of the organization, its goals,
and its actions
 Integrity: Acting consistently with stated values and principles, even in challenging
situations
 Respect: Treating all stakeholders (clients, media, public) with dignity and
consideration
  Responsibility: Being accountable for the consequences of PR actions and decisions
 Fairness: Ensuring equal and unbiased treatment of all parties involved in PR
activities
 Loyalty: Balancing the interests of the client or employer with the public interest

Real-World PR Ethics Scenarios

 Crisis communication: Deciding how to respond to a company scandal or product

recall
o Balancing transparency with protecting the organization's reputation
o Determining the appropriate level of disclosure and apology
 Media relations: Handling requests for information from journalists
o Providing accurate and timely responses while respecting client confidentiality
o Avoiding "spin" or selective disclosure of facts
 Social media management: Engaging with the public on social platforms
o Ensuring consistency between online and offline messaging
o Responding to negative comments or criticism in a professional manner
 Influencer partnerships: Collaborating with social media influencers to promote
products or services
o Disclosing sponsored content and relationships transparently
o Avoiding misleading or exaggerated claims about the promoted offerings
 Corporate social responsibility: Communicating an organization's CSR initiatives
o Ensuring alignment between stated values and actual practices
o Avoiding "greenwashing" or overstating the impact of CSR efforts

Navigating Tricky Situations

 Conflicting loyalties: Balancing the interests of the client, the public, and personal
values
o Identifying potential conflicts of interest and addressing them proactively
o Seeking guidance from mentors, colleagues, or professional associations when
unsure
 Pressure from clients or superiors: Handling requests to engage in unethical practices
o Communicating the risks and long-term consequences of unethical behavior
o Proposing alternative approaches that align with ethical principles
 Incomplete or inaccurate information: Dealing with situations where full disclosure is
not possible
o Clarifying the limitations of available information and avoiding speculation
o Updating communications as new information becomes available
 Cultural differences: Navigating ethical expectations across different countries or
contexts
o Researching and respecting local norms and values
o Seeking input from diverse stakeholders to inform decision-making.
 WRITING PRINCIPLES FOR PR WRITER

Public relations (PR) writers rarely create content that people must read, watch, or listen to.
Occasionally, they may produce something like a handbook or training video that becomes
required, but this is uncommon. Most of the time, the audience is voluntary, and PR writers
face tough competition for attention from all kinds of media and messages.

To stand out, PR writers must be skilled, providing useful information in a captivating way.
Good writing communicates effectively, while bad writing doesn’t. William Zinsser, a
respected writer and teacher, emphasized that every successful piece of writing should leave
readers with one clear, memorable idea. The most important rule of writing: make your
meaning clear.

Keys to Effective PR Writing:

1. Understand Your Message: Know exactly what you want to say before writing.
Avoid vague ideas and express your thoughts clearly and simply.
2. Know Your Audience: Tailor your message to your audience’s values, beliefs, and
knowledge. Consider what they already know and how they might react.
3. Choose the Right Medium: Different media (like social media, radio, or print)
require different styles. Pick the platform that best fits your message and adjust your
style accordingly.

Style of Writing

Good writing is not only about clarity but also about keeping readers engaged. Even if your
message is clear, a dull style will lose your audience.

Clarity

Clarity is crucial. Your goal is to make your message easy to understand.

 Sentence Length: Keep sentences short and simple. A good average is around 16
words. Long sentences confuse readers and hide key ideas. Use periods to break long
sentences into shorter ones.
 Word Choice: Use simple, familiar words. Avoid jargon and long, complicated
words. For example, use "rain" instead of "precipitation" or "pay" instead of
"remuneration."

Readability/Listenability

People won’t read your message if it’s too hard to understand. Clear writing means:
  Short Sentences: Most sentences should be short but varied in length to avoid
monotony.
 Clear Words: Choose words that readers can easily understand. Avoid redundant or
meaningless modifiers like "amazing" or "spectacular."
 Focus: Stay on topic and avoid unnecessary details.

Naturalness

Write in a conversational tone. Your writing should sound like something someone could say.

 Active Voice: Use active verbs to make sentences stronger.

o Example: “The engineers fixed the issue” (active) instead of “The issue was
fixed by the engineers” (passive).
 Contractions: Use contractions like "don’t" and "can’t" to make your writing sound
natural.

Variety

Avoid monotony by varying your sentence structure and word choice.

 Sentence Variety: Mix short and long sentences to keep readers engaged.
 Word Repetition: It’s okay to repeat words if it helps clarity. Don’t use unnecessary
synonyms just for variety.
 Thesaurus Use: Only use a thesaurus when looking for a specific word you already
know. Avoid unfamiliar words that might confuse readers.

Euphony

Euphony refers to writing that sounds pleasant and flows smoothly. Rhythmic writing with
well-chosen words is more engaging than stiff, formal prose. To achieve euphony:

 Read aloud to check for rhythm.

 Study good writing and develop a feel for flow.
 Balance clarity and style. Clear ideas should come first; pleasing sounds follow
naturally.

Human Interest

To make writing engaging, even about non-human topics:

 Address the reader directly using “you” or “we” to create a connection.

 Use rhetorical questions and direct quotes to add personality.
 Focus on people’s experiences when possible.
Avoiding Clichés

Clichés like “spearheading the effort” or “colorful scenery” make writing feel stale. Avoid
overused phrases, and aim for fresh, original language. Simply skipping clichés is better than
“refreshing” them.

Eliminating Bias

Ensure your writing is inclusive and respectful:

 Use gender-neutral language. For example, say “businesspeople” instead of

“businessmen.”
 Avoid stereotypes related to age, gender, ethnicity, or disability.
 Be mindful of titles. Use accurate forms of address like “Dr.” for those with
doctorates and avoid gendered assumptions.

A PR WRITING CHECKLIST

1. Is the message clear? Have you said exactly what you want to say?

2. Have you identified important publics? Does your writing speak to those publics?

3. Is the style of writing appropriate for the intended medium?

4. Are your sentences instantly clear? Are they free from confusing constructions?

5. Are sentences, on average, fairly short? Have you avoided stringing long sentences
together?

6. Is your writing concise and free from needless words?

7. Have you used common, concrete words that evoke visual images?

8. Is your language natural? Can your writing be easily read aloud?

9. Is the sentence structure varied?

10. Are most sentences in the active voice?

11. Have you made sufficient use of personal words and sentences?

12. Have you substituted creative language for trite expressions?

13. Is your writing free from bias?

14. Is this your best effort?

Content: Simplifying the Complex

In today’s fast-paced world, clear and simple writing is essential. With emails and documents
often crossing different cultures and languages, simplicity is key to ensuring understanding.
Even the most complex ideas can be communicated effectively if explained clearly. Public
relations writers, much like Einstein in his scientific work, should strive to present
complicated subjects in an accessible way. The main goal is to make even the most intricate
ideas comprehensible to a broad audience.

Albert Einstein’s ability to simplify complex topics is a great example of effective writing. In
his work on relativity, he used straightforward language, explaining advanced concepts with
clarity. He believed that simplicity in writing was possible because he had a deep
understanding of the subject. Public relations writers can take the same approach: when you
understand your subject thoroughly, you can break it down into simple language that retains
accuracy. Focusing on clarity is essential before diving into detailed technicalities.

Complex topics such as science, medicine, and economics have a direct impact on everyday
life, so it’s crucial to translate these topics into language that the public can easily grasp.
Issues such as government policies, corporate decisions, and health concerns often require
clear explanations. Public relations professionals are tasked with interpreting these subjects in
a way that is understandable to a general audience. It’s important to consult experts in these
fields to ensure accuracy when presenting such information.

While experts like Rudolf Flesch recommend avoiding full scientific explanations for non-
experts, they still emphasize the importance of providing context and significance. A well-
written piece should focus on explaining the meaning of discoveries, offering comparisons,
and breaking down complex information without overwhelming the audience. William
Zinsser, on the other hand, believes that with the right approach, even the most complicated
topics can be made accessible to anyone. By breaking down complex ideas into manageable
pieces, writers can ensure their audience stays engaged and informed.

There are times when clear communication is particularly important, especially when it
comes to public safety, media coverage, and legal matters. For example, explaining the
impact of a new chemical plant or addressing health risks requires clear and straightforward
language. In these cases, public relations professionals must be able to communicate
technical details in a way that the average person can understand. To do this effectively,
collaboration with experts is essential. Seeking input from different departments—such as
legal, marketing, and public relations—helps ensure the final message is accurate and easy to
understand.
In the end, simplifying complex subjects is entirely possible, but it requires a deep
understanding of the topic. Public relations professionals must focus on clarity, avoid jargon,
and explain technical terms when they are necessary. With the right approach, even the most
complex issues can be communicated in a way that resonates with a wide audience.

Somethings to note:

Know Your Subject

A common belief is that a reporter can cover any story by simply asking an expert and
writing it up in easy-to-understand language. While this may have been true in the past, it no
longer holds, especially for PR writers. You can’t simplify a complex topic unless you fully
understand it yourself. Without deep knowledge, you might miss important details or make
mistakes in your explanation.

For example, a writer describing the dangers of cigarettes might say, “carbon monoxide is a
new peril.” This is wrong because carbon monoxide isn’t a new substance in cigarette smoke;
it’s a gas produced when tobacco burns. Similarly, a writer describing nuclear fast breeder
reactors might say the "fast" refers to the chain reaction speed, but it actually refers to the
speed of neutrons inside the reactor. Understanding the subject thoroughly helps avoid such
errors.

Research Thoroughly

To avoid mistakes, always research your subject before writing. If you don’t understand
something, ask an expert. Recheck your facts and only include information you are confident
about. Don’t overwhelm readers with unnecessary details. For example, instead of explaining
the entire chemical process of carbon monoxide’s effect on hemoglobin, just say it impairs
the blood’s ability to carry oxygen.

Use Plain English

When writing for a broad audience, avoid using technical terms or jargon. Plain English is
simple and clear language, free from insider terms. Many fields, like medicine or law, have
specialized vocabularies, but these don’t work well when communicating with the public.
Using complicated terms can confuse readers or mislead them.

For instance, using phrases like "implementation" or "activation" can make writing unclear
and unnecessarily complicated. This is called "doublespeak," a type of misleading language
that can confuse or deceive people. Good PR writing avoids this, focusing on clarity and
honesty.

Avoid Doublespeak
Doublespeak involves using language to mislead or obscure the truth. Euphemisms are one
form of doublespeak, often used to soften or hide the truth. For example, in 1984, the U.S.
State Department used "unlawful or arbitrary deprivation of life" instead of "killing" in its
human rights reports. Some euphemisms are just silly, like calling garbage collectors
“sanitary engineers,” while others may be used to respect sensitivities. However, when
communicating with the public, it’s crucial to avoid jargon or insider language, as it can
confuse or mislead readers.

For example, certain professions use jargon that is helpful within the field but
incomprehensible to outsiders. Terms like “flat” or “signature” in printing can confuse people
unfamiliar with those meanings. Additionally, special terms in medical fields can be life-
threatening if not communicated clearly, especially when people fail to understand medical
instructions. PR writers in healthcare need to simplify complex medical terms for their
audience.

Describe, Don’t Define

Instead of offering technical definitions that may confuse readers, it's better to describe
complex concepts in everyday language. For instance, defining lithium as “a soft, silver-
white element of the alkali metal group” doesn’t provide much insight. A better approach is
to describe it as “a light, silvery-white metal, the lightest metal known, soft enough to be cut
with a knife.” Similarly, when explaining a kilowatt-hour, it’s clearer to say, “it’s the energy
needed to run a hair dryer for an hour,” rather than using a technical definition. Readers can
grasp the concept more easily through descriptions rather than complex definitions.

Take One Step at a Time

When explaining complex ideas, avoid overwhelming readers with too many facts at once.
Introduce one new concept at a time in a logical order, starting with the simplest ideas and
building upon them. For example, Isaac Asimov wrote a book on mathematics that started
with basic concepts and gradually advanced to more complex ones. By breaking down
information step-by-step, you can help readers understand even difficult topics.

Make the Central Points Clear

The key to effective writing is making your main point clear. Readers often struggle when the
central idea is buried beneath unnecessary details. To ensure clarity, state your main message
early in the text, and support it with facts and examples later. This helps the audience grasp
the key takeaway without getting lost in the information.

Explain the Unfamiliar with the Familiar

To make complex subjects easier to understand, relate them to things readers are already
familiar with. Analogies can be incredibly helpful in illustrating concepts. For example, the
energy measurement of a British thermal unit (Btu) can be hard to visualize, but explaining it
as the amount of energy needed to toast three loaves of bread makes it more concrete.
Analogies can also be used to describe scientific phenomena, like the northern lights, by
comparing them to something readers can visualize. Using specific, concrete examples
instead of abstract terms makes the unfamiliar more accessible.

Make the Message Accessible

The way a message is presented can significantly impact its accessibility and understanding.
For example, the typeface used in written materials plays a crucial role in readability. Serif
typefaces are generally easier to read than sans-serif ones because they help our eyes
recognize whole words more efficiently. The small extensions at the ends of the letters guide
our eyes and make it easier to scan and process the text.

In her article for Adobe Magazine, Kathleen Tinkel distinguishes between legibility and
readability. Legibility refers to how easily we can distinguish one character from another,
while readability involves the overall presentation, including factors like font size, spacing,
layout, and more. Tinkel suggests several ways to improve accessibility: using natural letter
fit with close word spacing, indenting the first line of paragraphs, avoiding low contrast or
small font sizes for people with impaired vision, and steering clear of designs with fine
hairlines, colored inks, or papers that may be hard to read in poor lighting.

Organizing and simplifying content also makes it more accessible. For example, the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) began reducing the length of mutual fund
prospectuses in 1995. Instead of long, dense booklets, they used an 11-point font that fit on
both sides of a single 8.5x11-inch page. Such adjustments make information more digestible
and user-friendly.

Sometimes, organizations have to present information in a certain way due to legal

requirements. For instance, Frost Bank printed a brochure for the Check Clearing for the 21st
Century Act that included required legal language but also reassured customers by
simplifying the message. The bank included large type for key points, used colors for
emphasis, and included illustrations to explain how checks were processed. This design
approach not only made the document more readable but also helped build customer trust by
showing that the bank cared about clarity and customer support.

In summary, good design and clear writing work together to make complex information
easier to understand and more accessible to the reader.
 WRITING FOR DIFFERENT PUBLICS

EMAILS, MEMOS, LETTERS, REPORTS AND PROPOSALS

In public relations, email, memos, letters, reports, and proposals play a vital role in ensuring
effective and timely communication within an organization and with external audiences.
These forms of communication are essential for building and maintaining professional
relationships. While creating high-profile materials like brochures may seem exciting, much
of the writing work for PR professionals involves these more routine tasks, especially for
newer writers. Emails, memos, and letters are often assigned to beginners, and though they
may seem mundane, they are crucial for smooth business operations.

A PR intern, for example, initially complained about writing so many memos and letters.
However, as her internship progressed, she realized that these tasks were key to maintaining
productive relationships within the organization. Ultimately, she understood that much of
public relations writing is business writing, which is necessary for ensuring information flows
smoothly and builds cooperation.

PR professionals frequently write these pieces for their colleagues and leaders in the
organization, and they are often persuasive in nature. The goal of this chapter is to provide
basic guidelines for writing effective emails, memos, letters, reports, and proposals, which
are essential parts of a PR professional’s routine.

Email

Email, created about 30 years ago, is now a crucial tool used everywhere—at the office, at
home, and even on airplanes or mobile devices. Public relations professionals use email
extensively, often sending hundreds of messages daily. Email allows people to quickly send
the same message to many recipients, making communication faster than traditional paper
messages.

However, email also has some challenges. One major issue is "malware"—emails designed to
harm computers or steal information. Another important fact is that email is not private. It
belongs to the organization where it's sent and can be accessed in legal cases. If you don’t
want something made public, it’s better not to send it by email.

Advantages of Email

1. Speed: Email is fast and allows communication to happen instantly. This is especially
helpful in urgent situations where quick updates or responses are needed.
2. Time Management: Email helps you manage your time by allowing you to ask
questions or send messages immediately and receive responses at the convenience of
the recipient. It also allows you to send messages even when someone is away, such
as during meetings, trips, or vacations.
 3. Global Communication: Email makes it easy to communicate across different time
zones and locations. You can be part of your organization even if you're working
remotely or traveling abroad.
4. Attachments: Email allows you to attach files like documents, images, and databases,
making it easier to share information with media representatives or coworkers, no
matter where they are.

Challenges of Email

1. Clarity Issues: People often write and send emails quickly without editing, which can
lead to unclear or confusing messages. Since email lacks tone and body language, it’s
important to ensure your message is clear and easily understood.
2. Legal Risks: Since emails can be used in legal cases, it's crucial to be careful about
what you write. Any email could potentially be shared or subpoenaed in court. If you
don't want your message on the front page of a newspaper, don't send it by email.
3. Informality: People sometimes treat email like a conversation, which can result in
messages that sound too casual or even unprofessional. Remember that email is still a
form of writing and should be treated with care and professionalism.

Writing Effective Emails

1. Clarity: Always aim to be clear. Use a relevant and specific subject line to help the
reader know what the email is about. Keep your message simple with short sentences
and paragraphs.
2. Tone: Be professional, but also conversational. Avoid using words or tones that may
sound harsh in writing. Remember that written words can be misinterpreted without
voice inflection or body language.
3. Set Expectations: Be clear about what you want from the recipient. If you need them
to do something, ask directly and specify a time or date for a response. For example,
say, “Please let me know about [specific task] by [date].” This sets clear expectations
and helps the recipient respond efficiently.

Email Formats and Content

1. Instant Messaging (IM): Instant messaging allows for quick, back-and-forth

conversations. It's useful for real-time communication, but be mindful of how easy it
is to send messages without thinking carefully. Avoid rushing through IMs to prevent
mistakes.
2. Be Strategic: When sending an email, think about what you want the recipient to
know, do, or feel. Tailor your message depending on their level of knowledge about
the topic. If they know a lot, keep it short. If they know little, provide enough
background for them to understand.

The Right Style for Emails

 1. Be Human: Remember that the recipient is a person. Start with an appropriate
greeting and write in a friendly yet professional tone. Think about how they might
respond and adjust your tone accordingly.
2. Be Clear in Your Request: If you need something from the recipient, let them know
clearly what you expect and by when. For example, you might write, “Please let me
know about [task] by [specific time].”
3. Don’t Be Too Casual: While emails are quick and informal, avoid writing too
casually. Use proper grammar and punctuation to maintain professionalism.

Email Dos and Don’ts

 Do be clear and concise.

 Do provide enough information for the recipient to act on your message.
 Don’t send unclear or careless messages.
 Don’t forget that email can be used in legal situations, so be careful about what you
write.

Memos

A memo (short for memorandum) is a brief, informal message used mainly for
communication within an organization. It's not typically used for communicating with people
outside the organization, except for board members or committees. Memos are often written
in email or fax format.

Memo Formats

A good memo should present information clearly. It should start with the necessary details
about the sender, receiver, date, and subject. For example:

TO: John Gill, Controller, POB 311

FROM: Susan McConnell, Investor Relations, POB 286
DATE: September 7, 200x
SUBJECT: Planning Conference for 200x Annual Report

If the memo is more casual (e.g., between colleagues who know each other well), you might
omit last names or titles. For example, you might just write “TO: John” instead of “John
Gill.” You can also use "RE" (Regarding) instead of "Subject" for the heading.

If the memo is being shared with others, you can include "CC" (for "carbon copy"). For
example:

CC: Jane Penney, CFO

For memos sent by fax, you should include the fax numbers of both the sender and the
recipient. Here’s an example of a more detailed format for a fax memo:

TO: John Gill, Controller, POB 311, Phone: 741-3186, Fax: 741-3111
FROM: Susan McConnell, Investor Relations, POB 286, Phone: 741-2651, Fax: 741-5322
DATE: September 7, 200x
RE: Planning Conference for 200x Annual Report
CC: Jane Penney, CFO

Memo Body

The body of a memo is usually short and to the point. It’s written more simply than a letter,
often using lists or numbered items to organize information. The tone of a memo can range
from formal to informal:

 Formal: Memos written to superiors (e.g., managers, executives).

 Informal: Memos written to colleagues at the same level.

Example of a formal memo body:

Subject: Annual Report Planning

Please review the attached proposal for the planning of the 200x Annual Report. The team
meeting will take place on September 15th at 10 AM. Here’s a summary of the key points:

1. Review financial statements

2. Decide on the report format
3. Assign tasks for the design team

Memos are often written for a small group of people, but sometimes they can be sent to larger
audiences, such as all employees. For example, a company president might send a memo to
all employees about a major achievement like recording the highest annual profits.

Example of a company-wide memo:

TO: All Employees

FROM: President
DATE: December 1, 200x
SUBJECT: Record Profits This Year
We are pleased to announce that this year, our company has achieved its highest profits ever.
Thanks to all your hard work, we’ve set a new record.

Context in Memos

Memo writers often assume the recipient already knows all the relevant background
information. However, this can lead to confusion if important details are left out. It's essential
to provide sufficient context to ensure your message is clear. If in doubt, include relevant
background information, but avoid overloading the memo with unnecessary details.

If you include additional background materials, mention it at the bottom of the memo with
the word “Attachments:” or “Enclosures:” followed by a list of documents. For example:

Attachments:

 Proposal for 200x Annual Report

 Agenda for planning meeting

If you’re sending a fax, it’s important to include a cover page that provides the number of
pages being sent. For instance:

TO: Alan Cooper

FROM: Susan Foster
DATE: October 1, 200x
RE: Artwork for St. Louis Hospital Brochure
PAGES: 6 plus cover

Types of Memos

Memos can be classified into six general categories based on their purpose and style:

1. Bulletin Memo: Brief and urgent, like a telegram, used for immediate action or
important announcements. May be posted publicly.

Example: "Meeting at 3 PM in Conference Room A. All team members must attend."

2. Essay Memo: More detailed and conversational, used for discussions or

brainstorming on issues.

Example: "Let’s consider how we can improve our office cleanliness. One idea is for
everyone to clean up after using the coffee room."
 3. Informative Memo: Describes actions taken or results achieved, often in a formal
tone. For example, it could summarize recent work or recommend actions.

Example: "The marketing team has completed a survey of customer satisfaction,

which shows a 15% improvement in our service rating."

4. Action Memo: Requests action or reports on action taken. These may include spaces
for recipients to initial as confirmation of their responsibilities.

Example: "Please review the attached proposal and indicate your approval by
initialing the attached form."

5. Summary Memo: Summarizes information and actions under relevant headings,

often used to review meeting progress or summarize a program’s status.

Example: "This memo summarizes the key points from our last meeting and actions
to be taken for the next steps in the annual report project."

6. File Memo: A record for reference or internal use, often terse and factual,
documenting names, dates, actions, or disagreements.

Example: "Meeting held on September 15th regarding annual report planning.

Attendees included Susan McConnell, Alan Cooper, and Jane Penney."

Factors Affecting the Use of Memos

When writing a memo, it's important to personalize the message by addressing the recipient
directly (e.g., "you"). This creates a more engaging and effective communication.

The method of distribution affects how the memo is received:

 Email is the most common distribution method, and it’s quick and efficient.
 Routing paper copies through different people in the organization can be time-
consuming, especially if the content is urgent.
 Posting memos on a bulletin board is less effective, as many people may not read
them.

For large-scale distribution, email is often the best choice. However, in some cases, such as
changes in benefits or announcements related to company events (like a picnic), sending
memos to employees’ home addresses might be more appropriate.

Setting an Audience for Memos

The setting in which the memo is received can also affect its effectiveness. For example, an
announcement about a company social event like a picnic might be better sent to home
addresses, while a business-related memo, such as a meeting announcement, should be sent to
the recipient’s work address.

Example: A memo announcing a company picnic could be mailed to employees' homes to

involve their families, while a memo about a meeting for department heads should be sent to
their offices.

Letters

Despite the rise in email use, letters still play a critical role in business communication. One
common misconception is that letters need to be long, but this isn’t true. For instance, a
university president’s four-page solicitation letter to alumni was unnecessarily lengthy. The
goal is to keep business letters concise, ideally to one page. To accommodate this, modern
letterhead designs often place all contact information (phone, email, fax) on a single line at
the bottom, helping to save space while making the letter more efficient.

Business Letter Format

A standard business letter contains six parts:

1. Heading
The heading of a letter has two main components:
o The sender’s identity (usually printed on the letterhead).
o The date, and the inside address, which includes the recipient's name, title,
and address. It's important to ensure all information is accurate, even if you
know the recipient well. The inside address should always be complete and
precise.

Example:
Sender's Identity: XYZ Corporation, 123 Main St, City, State
Date: January 1, 2024
Inside Address: Mr. John Doe, CEO, ABC Corp, 456 Business Ave, City, State

2. Salutation
The salutation is where you address the recipient of the letter. This should be done
respectfully and carefully, especially if you're unsure about titles or the recipient's
preferred form of address.
o If you're unsure of gender or title, avoid using gender-specific titles (e.g.,
Mr. or Mrs.) if you're not certain.
o If you know the person holds a specific title, use that, e.g., "Dear Professor
Smith" or "Dear Dr. Johnson."

Example:
 o Formal: "Dear Mr. Smith"
o Casual: "Dear John" (if you know the person personally)
o Impersonal: "Dear Customer" (in cases where personalization isn't possible,
such as promotional letters)
3. Body
The tone of the body will vary depending on the relationship between the sender and
recipient:
o Formal tone: Used when addressing someone with a higher status, such as a
boss or a client.
o Informal tone: Suitable when writing to someone with whom you have a
personal relationship.

The body should be clear and to the point. It’s important to maintain professionalism
in business correspondence.

Example:

o Formal: "I am writing to inform you of our company’s new product line
scheduled for release in the coming month."
o Informal: "I hope this message finds you well! We’re excited to share some
updates on the upcoming project."
4. Close
The close contains two parts:
o A call to action, if relevant (e.g., asking for feedback, confirming a meeting,
etc.).
o A complimentary closing, which appears above the signature.

Common closings include:

o "Sincerely" (most common in business letters)

o "Best regards"
o "Cordially yours"
o "Respectfully yours" (more formal)

Example:

o "I look forward to hearing from you soon."

o "Please let me know if you need any further information."
5. Signature
The signature block includes the writer's typed name and title, followed by their
handwritten signature. The handwritten signature should be placed above the typed
name. If the letterhead includes the sender's title, there's no need to repeat it in the
signature block.
 Example:
Typed Name: Jane Doe, Marketing Director
Handwritten Signature: [Signature]

6. Reference Matter
This section is used when a letter is prepared by someone other than the sender. It
includes:
o BC (Blind Carbon Copy): Used when a copy of the letter is sent to someone
else, but the recipient doesn't know about it.
o Enclosures: Indicates any materials included with the letter (e.g., reports,
brochures).
o Copies (C:): Lists other people who will receive copies of the letter.

Example:

o Enclosures: "Enc.: Brochure, Annual Report"

o Copies: "C: John Doe, Jane Smith"
o Blind Copy: "bc: Tom Green"

Types of Letters

1. Information Letters
These letters provide information and updates to recipients. For example, a company
might write to announce a new product or an upcoming event.
These letters should be clear and informative, often preemptively answering any
potential questions the recipient might have.
Example:
"I am writing to inform you of the upcoming training session on March 5th at 10:00
AM."
2. Solicitation Letters
These letters request something from the recipient, such as donations, support, or
business. A solicitation letter should always suggest a benefit to the reader or a reason
why their participation is important.
Example:
"Your generous donation will help us continue our research into curing rare diseases."
3. Promotion Letters
Promotion letters encourage recipients to accept an invitation or participate in an
event or cause. These letters should include emotional appeals and a direct call to
action.
Example:
"Join us for an unforgettable evening to celebrate our 10th anniversary! Purchase your
tickets today and enjoy exclusive benefits."
 4. Transmittal Letters
These letters accompany materials being sent to the recipient. The letter explains what
is being sent, why, and what the recipient should do with the materials.
Example:
"Enclosed are the requested documents for your review. Please let me know if you
have any questions or concerns."
5. Cover Letters
Often confused with transmittal letters, cover letters are brief notes that accompany a
document or package. The letter states what is enclosed, why it’s being sent, and may
provide instructions or a brief explanation.
Example:
"Please find attached my resume for the marketing coordinator position. I look
forward to discussing my qualifications further."
6. Response Letters
These letters are written in reply to a previous communication. The most common
response letter is a thank-you letter.
Private Response Letters are intended for a personal recipient and may include
thanks, follow-up, or acknowledgement of a request or favor.
Public Response Letters are usually written to address something in the media (like
a news story), and should be direct and concise.
Example:
o Thank You: "Thank you for your generous donation to our charity event last
month."
o Public Response: "In response to the recent article published in your
newspaper regarding our new policy, we would like to clarify..."

When writing public response letters, especially in the media, remember to be clear, brief,
and persuasive. Editors will often cut letters to fit space, so the core message should be
strong and easily understood.

Reports and Proposals

Reports and proposals might look similar, but they are very different. Their main difference is
in their purpose: a report summarizes information on a topic, while a proposal outlines a plan
of action.

For example, if you're on the management team of a food processing company and the
company has been losing market share because it hasn't adopted new technologies, you might
receive a report. This report would summarize the economics of adopting those technologies.
After reading the report, the team might ask the director of manufacturing to create a
proposal, detailing how the company could acquire the technology, the costs, and a timeline
for implementation. The team would then decide whether to present the proposal to the board
for approval.

Although reports and proposals are different in purpose, they are similar in structure. Both
require thorough research and are often written in the same way as a research paper or a book
manuscript. To help with this, a style manual like A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses and Dissertations by Kate L. Turabian can be useful. It guides you on what
information to gather and how to credit it properly.

Organization of Reports and Proposals

Once you've done the research, you can start organizing and writing your report or proposal.
These documents usually have up to seven major sections: letter, front matter, executive
summary, body, references, bibliography, and appendices. In a proposal, you will also need
to include a proposed budget and timeline.

Letter

A letter should always accompany a report or proposal. This can be a letter of

documentation (also called a cover letter), which describes the report’s content and who was
involved in preparing it. It might also summarize the findings or recommendations and
explain the next steps. If there are many enclosures, a letter of transmittal is also needed.
This letter shows who authorized the report or proposal, summarizes the results, and may
include acknowledgments.

Front Matter

The front matter is like the opening pages of this book. It includes the cover page, table of
contents, and a list of tables, figures, and illustrations. These pages are numbered with small
Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc.), but the cover page is not numbered.

Executive Summary

An executive summary, which comes after the front matter, is a brief overview of the
document. It is usually one or two pages long and summarizes the key points. Its purpose is
to give the reader a clear idea of what is in the document. In the business world, you'll often
be asked to write an executive summary.

Body

The body of the report or proposal follows the executive summary. It usually has three parts:
introduction, body, and conclusions.
  Introduction: This section explains the background of the issue, the study's scope,
and the methods used. It should also explain any challenges faced during the research
and how they were resolved.
 Body: The body develops the main points. For a proposal, it will describe the
objectives, goals, and activities that will take place if the proposal is accepted. It may
also include a timeline, budget, and details about the people involved.
 Conclusions: The conclusions should be based on the findings of the report or
proposal. If there are recommendations, they should be clear and direct. It’s important
to be honest and straightforward in this section.

References

In a report or proposal, every piece of information that isn’t common knowledge must be
cited. This can be done using footnotes or endnotes, just like in scholarly research papers.

Bibliography

The bibliography lists all the sources you consulted, whether you cited them in the report or
not. It includes full details of each source to help readers find them.

Appendices

Appendices contain extra materials like charts, tables, illustrations, or questionnaires that
support the document. These materials should be referred to in the body of the report, but
detailed items should go in the appendices. Each appendix should be labeled (e.g., Appendix
A, Appendix B).

Readability and Applicability

When writing a report or proposal, two important factors are readability and applicability.

Readability

If your report or proposal is about a specialized topic, it may include jargon from that field.
However, be careful not to overuse it. Write in clear, simple language with just enough
technical terms to establish your expertise.

To improve readability, try drafting the report and then revising it after a break. When you
return to it, you'll be able to spot areas that need clarification. Use headings, subheadings, and
visuals like charts to make the document easier to read.

For proposals, writing is more persuasive than in reports. Proposals are meant to sell ideas, so
how you present your ideas matters more than in a report.
Applicability

For a report to be successful, it should prompt action from the reader. The reader should feel
that the information is important enough to act on. With a proposal, your goal is for the
reader to think, "This is a good idea, let’s do it!" To achieve this, the proposal must be clear,
reliable, and directly relevant to the situation. Any action you recommend should be easy to
carry out.