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UGC NET

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Economics

Environmental Economics and Demography

Lecture – 4
Concepts and Measures: Fertility, Mortality
NFHS-5 and SRS 2019 to 21
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Concepts and Measures: Fertility, Mortality NFHS-5 and SRS 2019 to 21

Fertility Theories
• Fertility measurement is therefore about producing rates that relate numbers of births to
numbers of women.
• The most common, widely used and "accepted" measure of fertility is the Total Fertility
Rate (TFR).
• Fertility is, in fact, a result of 'fecundity’. Fecundity is the physiological capacity of a man,
a woman or a couple to participate in reproduction, i.e. the capacity to produce a live child
or children, on the other hand, fertility, refers to the actual reproductive performance
whether of an individual or a couple or a group. Measuring fecundity is not possible, but
fertility can be measured using the following measures.
1. Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
2. Corrected Birth Rate
3. Child/Woman Ratio (CWR)
4. General Fertility Rate (GFR)
5. Age-Specific Fertility Rates (ASFR)
6. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
7. Children ever born (CEB)
8. Cohort Fertility (CF)
9. Parity progression ratios (PPR)

Crude Birth Rate

● The most commonly used measure of fertility is crude birth rate (CBR), which is also the
easiest to calculate and understand.
● It requires minimum information to calculate it.
● CBR is the ratio of the total number of births during a given year to the average or mid-
year population in that year
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Annual Number of live births ( in a region )

CBR= × 1000
Annual Mid-year population ( in a region )
● It is not a rate (but a ratio) as the denominator includes children, men, older persons
that are not at risk of childbearing
● The crude birth rate is defined as the number of births per 1000 population in a
specific community or region. It indicates the rate of births in a region.
Example: The population on 31st March 2021 and that of on 31st March 2022 are 30000 and
50000, respectively. During the last year, 1200 new births have been known. Find the crude birth
rate.
1200
CBR= × 1000= 30 per 1000 person per annum
30000+50000
2
Advantages
● Useful to measure approximate numbers of births in case of limited information available.
● Simple to calculate

Disadvantages
The denominator consists of men, children, older persons that are not at a risk of childbearing
(which is more significant for women in age-group 15-49)
It is very much affected by the age structure of the population
It is not used as an accurate measure of fertility

Corrected Birth Rate

• Many a time in under-developed countries and especially in rural areas, corrected birth rate is
sought, which is always greater than the crude birth rate. Corrected birth rate takes into account
the registered births. The registration regarding birth in the rural area is not done properly by
the concerned officials. Often children die as soon as they are born. At that time, the
registration regarding birth and death is essential, but it remains unnoticed. At times, when the
assumed population is added to the crude birth rate, it is called corrected birth rate. Assume
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that in a population of 50,000 after 700 births, there occur 50 more births, then the corrected
birth rate will be in the following way:
Corrected Birth Rate= (700+50)/50000 x 1000= 15
• Thus the crude birth rate is 14 and the corrected birth rate is 15 per 1000 people which is
greater.
Registered births in one year + Possible birth
Corrected Birth Rate = 1000
Mid-year population
Still Birth Rate (SBR)
A stillbirth is the death or loss of a baby before or during delivery. Both miscarriage and stillbirth
describe pregnancy loss, but they differ according to when the loss occurs.

Stillbirth is further classified as either early, late, or term.

● An early stillbirth is a fetal death occurring between 20 and 27 completed weeks of

pregnancy.
● A late stillbirth occurs between 28 and 36 completed pregnancy weeks.
● A term stillbirth occurs between 37 or more completed pregnancy weeks.

Child/Woman Ratio (CWR)

It is defined as "the number of children of 4 years of age per 1000 women in child bearing age.

Advantages
● This ratio is useful where registration of birth is either not done or inadequate.
● Simple to calculate, but not an accurate measure of fertility
● More useful in case of small area surveys
● It is also used as a measure of youngness in a population.
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● It can be constructed from census data alone, as we don’t require actual information about
births. This is why CWR is not regarded as a true fertility measure.

Disadvantages
● Children in the age group of 0 to 4 who died are not included, so the numerator is
underestimated, hence, the ratio.
Usually, CWR < 1. In low fertility countries, the ratio is well below 1, while in high fertility
countries, the CWR is near 1.

General Fertility Rate (GFR)

This refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the reproductive age group 15 to 19
years in a given year. It gives the total number of births for all women of fertile ages.

Advantages
● Better measure of fertility than CBR and CWR.
● Simple to calculate, but not an accurate measure of fertility
● More useful in case of small area surveys

Disadvantages
● It is affected by age structure. Actually, the range of fertility age group i.e. 35 years (49-15) is
quite wide and that is why there might be significant differences in age structure between
population. This is why, GFR can’t be used for international comparisons.
● Not all females of age group 15-49 years are not exposed to the risk of child-bearing. This
issue in GFR is overcome by General Martial Fertility Rate.

General Martial Fertility Rate (GFR)

The number of live births per 1000 of married women in the reproductive age group in a given
year.
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Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

It is defined as the number of live births per 1000 women in any specified age-group in a given
year. These are simply fertility rates limited to certain age-groups of women.
The groups could be of any width, or single years of age, but the convention is to form seven 5-
year age groups, which cover the range 15-49 years.
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
One can add an eighth group of 10-14 year old women but usually, there are very few births in
this range and it adds little advantage – but it can be done.
Sets of ASFRs and their associated graphs are commonly known as fertility schedules. These rates
help us in assessing the pattern of fertility. These rates are expressed per thousand women i.e.
multiplied by 1,000; but not essentially.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

● The number of children a woman would have if she lived from age 15 to age 50 and
experienced the ASFRs of the period in question.
or
● The number of babies produced by 35 women, one of each single age 15-49, living through
the single year to which the TFR refers.
or
● The number of children a woman would have if she experienced the age-specific fertility
rates for the period in question throughout her reproductive life.
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7
Total Fertility Rate =  ASFR  5
i =1

where, i = 1 to 7 indicates seven 5 years age group

 No. of births to women aged 15-19 
7  + 2nd + 3rd 
No. of women aged 15-19
Total Fertility Rate = 5   ASFR =   1000
i =1  No. of births to women aged 45-49 
 +4th + 5th + 6th + 
 No. of women aged 45-49 
If TFR < 2.1  Population  ,
If 2.1 < TFR<3.0  Pop is stationary or slow growth, i
● If TFR > 3  Pop rapidly growing
● On one hand, G.F.R. reflects births per 1000 women per year, TFR reflects births per
women through her life time. The TFR gives the approximate magnitude of the completed
family size.
● It is a very important measure as TFR captures all the information in the ASFRs.
● It is independent of age structure and so measures fertility in a purer & better way.
● This implies TFRs can be compared internationally without concern about age structure
effects; this is why, TFR is considered a standard way to compare fertility levels
internationally.

Two terms are associated with the TFR – Tempo and Quantum – and both these are associated
with the variability of the measure. Quantum relates to the real value of the TFR – the real level
of fertility over a substantial time. If TFR is 4.2 then one expects that over a reproductive lifetime
4.2 births will be produced per woman on average. 4.2 is the quantum of fertility in that case and
if fertility is truly rising (over a longish period) then one expects more than 4.2 births to be the
result.
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TFR rises for a few years but then drops back the quantum of fertility may not be really changing
– it is just the timing of births that has produced an apparent and temporary change. This is a
Tempo effect
Total Marital Fertility Rate
This rate measures the average number of children that would be born to a married woman, if she
experiences the current fertility pattern through her reproductive life cycle. It is a better measure
than TFR, as it is restricted to married woman who are exposed to the risk of bearing children.

Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR)

It refers to the average number of girls that would be born to a woman if she experiences the
current fertility pattern throughout her reproductive life cycle; assuming no mortality.

Bxf No. of female births to women aged x to x+5

Gross Reproduction Rate = w 2 f =
w1
1000
Px No. of women of age x to x+5 in the mid-year population
where, w1 and w2 are lower limit and upper limit of child bearing period
* GRR is about female children and its value is 1/2 of Total Fertility Rate

Net Reproduction Rate (NRR)

The Net Reproduction Rate is defined as the number of daughters a newborn girl will bear during
her lifetime, assuming fixed age-specific fertility and mortality rates. The target is to attain the
NRR of 1.
Demographers agree that NRR of ideal number 1 can be achieved only if at least 60% of the
eligible couples are effectively practicing family planning.
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Bxf
Net Reproduction Rate = f  1000
Px
NRR=1  Exact replacement  one woman will be replaced by another woman
NRR >1  Pop is more than replacing itself,
NRR <1 pop not replacing itself

* NRR is always lower than GRR

Parity Progression Rates

The most widely used measures of fertility are period measures - age-specific fertility rates and
the total fertility rate (TFR). These are very useful measures but they do suffer from one defect-
they are not very good at detecting real changes in fertility in the short term. That is because they
are affected by the timing of births (tempo effects).
Parity Progression Ratio (PPR), is the chance that a woman after delivering her i th child will ever
proceed to the next parity i.e. will have an additional child in future. As a useful measure of
fertility the concept of PPR was introduced by Henry (1953).
● It is a measure commonly used in demography to study fertility. The PPR is simply the
proportion of women with a certain number of children who go on to have another child.
Calculating the PPR, also known as ‘ax’ , can be achieved by using the following formula:

ax =
( women with at least x + 1 children ever born )
women with at least x children ever born
● In more developed countries where two-child families are seen as the norm a2 (or the
proportion of women with two children who go on to have a third) is of critical importance
in determining overall fertility levels. a0 is simply the proportion of women who become
mothers.

Mortality Rates
Mortality rate is the number of deaths due to a disease divided by the total population.

Crude Death Rate

It is defined as the number of deaths per 1000 population in a specific age group or sex group
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or community or region.
Annual Number of deaths ( in a region )
CDR= × 1000
Annual Mid-year population ( in a region )

Example: The population on 31st March 2021 and that of on 31st March 2022 are 30000 and
50000, respectively. During the last year, 4800 deaths have been known. Find the crude death
rate.
4800
CDR= × 1000= 120 per 1000 person per annum
30000+50000
2
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
It is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births. The infant
mortality rate is defined as the member of deaths of infants (less than one year old) per 1000 live
births in a given year. IMR correlates very strongly with, and is among the best predictors of,
state failure. It is also a useful indicator of a country’s level of health or development, and is one
of the components of the physical quality of life index (PQLI). The method of calculating IMR
varies between countries, and is based on how they define a live birth and how many premature
infants are born in the country. The infant mortality rates can be calculated separately for males
and females.
Annual Infant Deaths ( of males or females or total )
IMR= × 1000
Annual live births ( of males or females or total )

Infant mortality rate comprises of two parts viz. Neo-natal mortality rate and Post neo-natal
mortality rate. The neo-natal mortality rate also comprises of two parts viz. Early neo-natal
mortality rate and late neo-natal mortality rate.
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Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

It is the annual number of female deaths per 1 lakh live births from any cause related to or
aggravated by the pregnancy or its management (excluding accidental or incidental causes).
DP
MMR = 1000
B
DP = Total number of deaths from puerperal (bacterial infection) causes occurring within 42 days
of delivery among the female population aged 15-49 in the given period in the given community
B = Total number of live births occurring in the given period in the community.

Proportional Mortality Rate (PMR) or Specific Death Rate

It is the number of deaths from a specific cause in a specific period per 1000 deaths from all causes
in the same time period. The crude death rates for specific causes of death are calculated in a
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similar way by selecting deaths due to specific cause as the numerator and mid-year population
as the denominator. Thus,
Number of Deaths due to particular cause
Cause Specific Death Rate = 1000
Mid-year Population
The rates could be made specific to sex by selecting the numerator and the denominator for each
sex of the population.
Age-Specific Death Rates (ASDR)
The age-specific death rates are calculated from deaths and population both specific to each age
(or age group) of the population. Thus,
nDx
Age Specific Death Rate = 1000
nPx
where x indicates the age and n the class interval of age.

● The age-cause-specific death rates are obtained by selecting deaths in specific age and
cause group of the population as the numerator.
● It should be noted that the sum of the cause-specific rates over all causes equals the crude
death rate. Similarly, the sum of the age-cause-specific death rates equals the age-specific
death rate at a given age.
● The ASDR is a type of central death rate, that is, a rate relating to the events in a given
category during a year to the average population of the category.
● In a high mortality situation, the death rates by age, that is, the age specific death rates,
form a U-shaped curve indicating a high mortality in early and old ages.
● At low levels of mortality, the pattern of ASDR changes to J-shaped indicating a relatively
higher mortality in the very early period of life, which drops to a low level after the hazards
of early life and extends over a long period of life, and finally it rises sharply in old ages.

Under-Five Morality Rate (or ‘Child Mortality’)

U5MR is the probability per 1,000 that a newborn baby will die before reaching age five if subject
to age-specific mortality rates of the specified year.
● It is expressed as a rate per 1,000 live births.
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● It is widely used to measure, assess and monitor the progress of countries with respect to
child survival.
● It is related to MDG-4: Reduce child mortality, which has the target of being reduced by
two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015.

Sample Registration System [SRS 2019 published in 2022]

● The Sample Registration System (SRS) is the largest demographic survey in the country
mandated to provide annual estimates of fertility as well as mortality indicators at the State
and National level.
● The Office of Registrar General, India, initiated the scheme of sample registration of
births and deaths in India popularly known as Sample Registration System (SRS) in 1964-
65 on a pilot basis and on full scale from 1969-70. The SRS since then has been providing
data on a regular basis.
● The present Report contains data on fertility and mortality indicators for the year 2019 for
India and bigger States/UTs. The estimates are segregated by residence and also by gender,
wherever required.
Parameters SRS 2019 [Published March 2022] SRS 2020 [Published September 2022]

India- 19.7 India- 19.5

CBR Max- Bihar (25.8) Max- Bihar (25.5)
Min- Kerala (13.5) Min- Kerala (13.2)

↓1.3 points in the CBR during 2014-19 ↓1.3 points in the CBR during 2015-20
India CBR
Rural CBR ↓1.3 points Rural CBR ↓1.0 points
Trend
Urban CBR ↓1.0 point Urban CBR ↓0.9 point

6.0 6.0
CDR Max- Chhattisgarh (7.3) Max- Chhattisgarh (7.9)
Min- Delhi (3.2) Min- Delhi (3.6)

India CDR
↓0.7 points in the CBR during 2014-19 ↓0.5 points in the CBR during 2015-20
Trend
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Female CDR ↓ 0.6 points Female CDR ↓ 0.7 points

Male CDR ↓ 1.2 point Male CDR ↓ 0.3 point

30 28
IMR Max- MP (46) Max- Madhya Pradesh (43)
Min- Kerala (6) Min- Kerala (6)

2014- 39 & 2019- 30. Annual average 2015- 37 & 2020- 28. Annual average
decline of 9 points @1.8 points annual. decline of 9 points @1.8 points annual.
India IMR
Trend Rural IMR : 43 in 2014, 34 in 2019 Rural IMR : 41 in 2015, 31 in 2020
Urban IMR: 26 in 2014 and 20 in 2019 Urban IMR: 25 in 2015 and 19 in 2020

35 in 2019 32 in 2020

U5MR Male U5MR: 1 point ↓ Male U5MR: 4 point ↓

Female U5MR: 2 points ↓ Female U5MR: 3 points ↓

2017-19: 904 2018-20: 907

Sex Ratio Kerala: Highest (968) Kerala: Highest (974)
Uttarakhand: Lowest (848) Uttarakhand: Lowest (844)

2.0 in 2020
Highest TFR: Bihar (3.0)

2.1 in 2019 Lowest TFR: Delhi (1.4), Tamil Nadu

(1.4), West Bengal (1.4),
Highest TFR: Bihar (3.1)
TFR Below TFR of 2.1: Andhra Pradesh (1.5),
Lowest TFR: Andhra Pradesh, Delhi,
Himachal Pradesh (1.5), Jammu &
J&K, Punjab, TN, WB (all 1.5)
Kashmir (1.5), Kerala (1.5), Maharashtra
Haryana = Pan India (2.1) (1.5), Punjab (1.5), Telangana (1.5),
Karnataka (1.6), Odisha (1.8), Uttarakhand
(1.8), Gujarat (2.0), Haryana (2.0) and
Assam (2.1).

Rural & Urban Rural TFR: 2.2 Rural TFR: 2.2

TFR Urban TFR: 1.6 Urban TFR: 1.6
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During 2014-19, TFR ↓ by 0.2 points During 2015-20, TFR ↓ by 0.3 points
India TFR
Decline in Rural ↓ 0.2 Decline in Rural ↓ 0.3
Trend
Decline in Urban ↓ 0.1 Decline in Urban ↓ 0.2
Medical 82.8% live births, the mother have 82.6% live births, the mother have received
attention received medical attention at delivery at medical attention at delivery at govt. or at
during delivery govt. or at private hospital private hospitals

Medical 48.5% cases of deaths have received 48.8% (0.3↑) cases of deaths have
attention in medical attention before death (either at received medical attention before death
case of deaths govt. or at private hospitals) (either at govt. or at private hospitals)
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National Family Health Survey 5 [2018-19, published in Dec 2020]

The National Family Health Survey is a survey carried out on a massive scale across the country
to collect information on many parameters which would ultimately help the Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare (MOHFW) to frame policies and programs to help in the upliftment of the
vulnerable groups in India. The first round of the National Family Health Survey was conducted
in 1992-92.

The first phase of the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) was conducted
in 2019-20 and its findings were released in December 2020. The NFHS provides estimates on
key indicators related to:

● Population and household profile

● Marriage and fertility
● Family planning
● Contraception
● Maternal and child health
● Delivery care
● Vaccinations
● Treatment of childhood diseases
● Nutrition and feeding practices
● Anaemia
● Diabetes
● Hypertension and
● Cancer examination

The fourth round of NFHS was conducted five years ago in 2015-16. In the first phase of the fifth
round, the findings for 22 states and union territories (17 states and 5 union territories) have been
presented. A total of 2,81,429 households, 3,07,422 women, and 43,945 men were surveyed
across the 17 states.
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The scope of NFHS-5 is expanded in respect of earlier round of the survey (NFHS-4) by adding
new dimensions such as death registration, pre-school education, expanded domains of child
immunization, components of micro-nutrients to children, menstrual hygiene, frequency of
alcohol and tobacco use, additional components of non-communicable diseases (NCDs),
expanded age range for measuring hypertension and diabetes among all aged 15 years and
above, which will give requisite inputs for monitoring and strengthening existing programmes
and evolving new strategies for policy intervention. Thus, NFHS-5 provides information on
important indicators which are helpful in tracking the progress of Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) in the country. NFHS-4 (2015-16) estimates were used as baseline values for a large
number of SDG indicators and NFHS- 5 will provide data for around 34 SDG indicators at various
levels.

Highlights
● The total sex ratio at birth for kids born within last five years increased from 919 (2015-
16) to 929 (2017-18). (2019-2021)
● Households that have at least one person covered by a healthcare insurance or finance plan
increased from 28.7% to 41%.
● The percentage of 20 – 24 year old girls who got married under the age of 18 has decreased
from 26.8% to 23.3 percent.
● The adolescent fertility rate (women aged 15 to 19) likewise dropped from 51 percent to
43 percent. Rural India had nearly twice as many people (49) as urban India (27).
● The NMR (neonatal mortality rate) has dropped to 24.9 per thousand live births.
● The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) has dropped to 35.2 per thousand live births.
● Contraceptive use has increased, with 66.7 percent of currently married women aged 15 to
49 opting for contraception. 53.5
● The usage of contemporary contraceptives such as condoms, capsules, IUDs, and
injectables has increased from 47 percent to 56.5 % of married women.
● Child Marriages: There has been an increase in child marriages in Manipur (16.3% from
13.7% in 2015-16), Tripura (40.1% from 33.1% in 2015-16), and Assam (31.8% from 30.8
% in 2015-16). Also, states such as Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur,
and Nagaland have shown an increase in pregnancy of teenagers.
● Sex ratio at birth (SRB) is below 900 in Telangana, Himachal Pradesh, Goa, Dadra &
Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, While majority of the states are in normal sex ratio of
952 or above.

● Infant & Child Mortalities; Neonatal Mortality Rate, Infant mortality Rate, and Under 5
Mortality Rate: Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, Goa and Assam were the best performers as
they witnessed a steep reduction in neonatal mortality rate (NMR), infant mortality rate
(IMR) and under-five mortality rate (U5MR).
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● Spousal Violence has witnessed an increase in five states, namely Sikkim, Maharashtra,
Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Karnataka where Karnataka witnessed the largest increase
in spousal violence, from 20.6% in NFHS 4 to 44.4% in NFHS-5.

● Child nutrition indicators show a mixed pattern across states. While the situation improved
in many States and Union Territories, there has been minor deterioration in others.

o Malnutrition has worsened. Stunting has risen in 11 out of 18 states. Wasting was
going up in 14 states.
o Stunting: 13 out of 22 states and UTs surveyed, recorded a rise in the percentage of
stunting in children.
o Wasted: 12 out of 22 states and UTs surveyed, recorded a rise in the percentage of
children under five years who are wasted in comparison to NFHS-4.
o Overweight: 20 states and UTs have recorded a rise in the percentage of children
under 5 years who are overweight.
o Diarrhoea: Children with diarrhoea in the two weeks preceding the survey also
jumped to 7.2% from 6.6%.
Use of family planning methods increased; most states reduce their fertility rate, below the
target of 2.1
● All states (except Mizoram) have seen an increase in the use of family planning methods.
Goa (42%-point) and Bihar (32%-point) have seen the highest increase in the use of family
planning methods.
● Consequently, most states have seen a decrease in the total fertility rate (TFR). Bihar’s
TFR has declined from 3.4 (in NFHS-4) to 3. All other medium and large states in the
survey (i.e., population above 1 crore) have a TFR below the replacement level rate of 2.1.

Highlights of NFHS-5

● Adult Sex Ratio (all ages) is 1020 for India with Rural Sex Ratio is 1037 and Urban Sex
Ratio is 985. This indicates that at the country level as at rural level, the sex ratio is
favourable with more females per 1000 males.
● Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) at the country level it is 928, while at rural and urban level is
930 and 924, respectively.
● In India, almost all urban households (99%) and rural households (95%) have access to an
improved source of drinking water.
● Eighty-three percent of households have access to a toilet facility; a much higher
accessibility in urban areas (96%) than in rural areas (76%). Among the states/UTs, access
to a toilet facility is lowest in Bihar (62%), followed by Jharkhand (70%) and Odisha (71%)
● The percentage of households practicing open defecation decreased from 39 percent in
2015-16 to 19 percent in 2019-21.
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● 99% percent of urban households and 95 percent of rural households have electricity.
Almost all households in India (97%) have electricity.
● The percentage of children under age 15 declined from 29 percent in NFHS-4 (2015-16)
to 27 percent in NFHS 5 (2019-21). In contrast, the population 60 years and older increased
slightly, from 10 percent in NFHS-4 to 12 percent in NFHS-5.
● Birth registration is universal in Lakshadweep and Goa, Mizoram (99%), Kerala (99%),
Ladakh (99%) and is below 80 percent in Bihar (76%), Jharkhand (74%), and Nagaland
(73%). For India it is 89%.
● 71% of deaths were registered at India level. Death registration increases with wealth.
Death registration is lowest in Bihar (36%) followed by Arunachal Pradesh (37%) and
Nagaland (39%). It is 100% for Goa followed by Kerala 97.8%.
● Preschool attendance is highest in Andaman and Nicobar Islands (89%), followed by
Andhra Pradesh (75%) and Sikkim (74%)
● Eighty-seven percent of children age 6-17 attend school (88% of males and 87% of
females)
● The gross attendance ratio (GAR) is 92 percent at the primary school level and 82 percent
at the secondary school level.
● GPIs for the GAR are almost the same at the primary school level (0.98) and at the
secondary school level (0.97). A gender parity index (GPI) of 1 indicates parity or equality
between the school participation ratios for males and females. A GPI lower than 1 indicates
a gender disparity in favour of males, with a higher proportion of males than females
attending that level of schooling. A GPI higher than 1 indicates a gender disparity in favour
of females.
● Thirty-eight percent of men and 9 percent of women age 15 and over currently use any
tobacco products. Tobacco use among men age 15 and over is highest in Mizoram (73%),
followed by Andaman & Nicobar Islands (59%) and Manipur (58%). Tobacco use among
women is highest in Mizoram (62%), Tripura (51%), and Manipur (43%)
● Alcohol use among women age 15 and over is highest in Arunachal Pradesh (24%) and
Sikkim (16%). Alcohol use among men is highest in Arunachal Pradesh (53%) and
Telangana (43%), and is the lowest in Lakshadweep (0.4%)
● Bihar and Kerala represent two contrasting profiles of literacy. Bihar has the lowest literacy
of 55 percent among women and 76.4 percent of men, while literacy is almost universal
among women and men in Kerala. For India 71.5% for Women and 84.4% for men.
● Among men, Bihar is followed by Andhra Pradesh (76.5%), WB (80.2%), Jharkhand and
MP with (81.3%). In terms of top literacy rate, Kerala has 97.1%, Lashadweep 98.6%,
Mizoram has 97% literacy among men. For India it is 84.4% (among men)
● Among women, Kerala has the best rate with 97.4%, followed by Lakshadweep with
97.4%, Mizoram (94%). Bottom literacy rate is in Bihar with 55%, followed by Jharkhand
with 61.7%, Telangana (64.8%). For entire India it is 71.5%.
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● Bihar (14%), Uttar Pradesh (17%), and Assam (18%) have the lowest percentage of women
currently employed. More than one-third of women were currently employed in Karnataka
(35%), Andhra Pradesh (37%), Telangana (39%), Manipur (40%), and Meghalaya (42%)
● Between 1992-93 and 2019-21, the
TFR declined from 3.4 children to
2.0 children (a decrease of 1.4
children). The TFR among women
in rural areas has declined from 3.7
children in 1992-93 to 2.1 children
in 2019-21. The corresponding
decline among women in urban
areas was from 2.7 children in
1992-93 to 1.6 children in 2019-21.
In all NFHS surveys, irrespective
of place of residence, the fertility rate peaks at age 20-24, after which it declines steadily.
● The TFR varies from a low of 1.4 children per woman among Buddhists/Neo-Buddhists to
a high of 2.4 children per woman among Muslims.
● The TFR ranges from 1.05 children per woman in Sikkim to 2.98 children per woman in
Bihar. For entire India, it is 1.99.
● Sikkim is followed by Goa with 1.30, Lakshadweep with 1.42, Delhi with 1.62, WB with
1.64 and HP with 1.66.
● Worst TFR is in Bihar with 2.98, followed by Meghalaya 2.91, UP 2.35 and Jharkhand
2.26.