BS-ENG (1S) Introduction to Linguistics-105 (Topic-1&2)

1. What is Language?
i. Characteristics
ii. Functions
iii. Comparison with Animal Language
2. Theories of Origin of Language

1. What is Language?
Definition: Language is a structured system of symbols, sounds, and gestures used for
communication. It enables humans to express thoughts, ideas, emotions, and
information in a systematic and meaningful way. Unlike only sounds or gestures,
language is a complex system governed by rules (grammar) that enable creativity and
flexibility in its use.
Characteristics of Language:
1. Ar-bit-rari-ness:
 There is no in-here-nt connection between the sounds of a word and
its meaning. For example, the word "dog" in English doesn’t have any
inherent link to the animal it represents. In French, it’s called "chien," and
in Urdu, it's "‫( "کتا‬kutta). Each language uses different symbols (words)
for the same concept, showing that the relationship between words and
meanings is arbitrary.
 Example: Consider how the same fruit is called "apple" in English,
"pomme" in French, and "‫ "سیب‬in Urdu. There's no reason why a specific
sound is tied to the object—different cultures have created different
words.
2. Productivity (Creativity):
 Language allows speakers to produce an unlimited number of sentences,
even ones they’ve never heard before. This is because language operates
on a set of grammatical rules that can be applied creatively.
 Example: If you’ve never heard the sentence "The purple cat danced
gracefully on the moon," you can still understand it because it follows the
rules of grammar. Despite being a strange sentence, the structure is
comprehensible.
3. Duality of Patterning:
 Language operates at two levels: the sound level and the meaning level.
On the first level, individual sounds (phonemes) are meaningless by
themselves. However, when these sounds are combined, they form words
and sentences that carry meaning.
 Example: The sound /b/ has no meaning on its own, but when combined
with /o/ and /k/ to form "book," it creates a meaningful word.
 4. Displacement:

 Displacement refers to the ability to talk about things that are not
physically present or events that are in the past or future. This dis-ting-
uishes human language from animal communication, which tends to focus
on immediate situations.
 Example: You can talk about "dinosaurs" that existed millions of years
ago or make plans for "next year's vacation," demonstrating language’s
ability to transcend the here and now.
5. Cultural Transmission:
 Language is not inherited genetically; rather, it is learned from the
surrounding environment. A child born into any cultural or linguistic
background will learn the language they are exposed to, irrespective of
their ethnicity.
 Example: A baby born in Pakistan but adopted and raised in the U.S. by
English-speaking parents will learn English as their native language, not
Urdu, because language is learned from the social environment.

Functions of Language:
1. Informative Function:
 Language is used to convey information and share knowledge.
 Example: "The earth revolves around the sun." This sentence provides
factual information.
2. Expressive Function:
 Language enables speakers to express emotions, feelings, and moods.
 Example: Saying "I’m so excited!" conveys your emotional state to the
listener.
3. Directive Function:
 Language is often used to instruct, command, or request.
 Example: "Close the door, please." This is a directive use of language,
asking someone to perform an action.
4. Phatic Function:
 The word "phatic" comes from the Greek word phatos, meaning spoken
or saying.
 In linguistics, phatic refers to language used primarily to maintain social
relationships rather than convey information.
 Example: When someone says "How are you?" they may not be asking
for a detailed response but are instead acknowledging the person and
initiating conversation.
5. Metalinguistic Function:
 This function occurs when language is used to discuss or explain language
itself.
  Example: A sentence like "In English, we usually place the adjective
before the noun" is an example of using language to explain a rule of
language.

Comparison with Animal Communication:

1. Complexity:
 Human language is far more complex than animal communication
systems. While animals use signals (like a dog’s bark or a bird’s song) to
communicate, these signals are limited and cannot express abstract
concepts or ideas.
 Example: A dog can bark to indicate a threat but cannot describe what
kind of threat it is or talk about something that happened in the past.
2. Displacement:
 Animals generally communicate about immediate needs or dangers (e.g.,
food, predators). Humans, on the other hand, can talk about things that are
distant in time or space.
 Example: While a monkey may signal that a predator is nearby, humans
can talk about the history of that predator or make plans to avoid it in the
future.
3. Creativity:
 Human language allows for infinite combinations of words and phrases,
whereas animal communication tends to be fixed and repetitive.
 Example: A parrot can mimic words, but it cannot generate new
sentences or engage in creative conversations like humans.

2. Theories of Origin of Language

Theories regarding the origin of language are speculative because there is no
direct historical evidence of how language began. However, scholars have
proposed several theories based on human behavior, culture, and biology.
1. Divine Source Theory:
 Many religious traditions believe that language was a gift from a divine power.
For example, In Islam, Allah taught language to Adam (AS). In Hinduism, the
goddess Saraswati is considered the deity of speech and language.
 Example: In ancient myths, the first human words are often described as divine,
like in the Vedas or the Old Testament.

2. Natural Sound Source Theory (Onomatopoeic Theory):

 This theory suggests that language developed from humans imitating the sounds
they heard in nature, like animal noises or environmental sounds. The "bow-
 wow" theory, for instance, proposes that early humans created words to mimic
these sounds.
 Example: Words like “bray (sound of a donkey)”, “buzz” (sound of bees),
“bang” (sound of an explosion), and "meow" (sound of a cat) are examples of
onomatopoeia, where the word is similar to the sound it describes.
 Criticism: While onomatopoeic words exist in every language, they form only a
small part of vocabulary, making this theory insufficient to explain the full
complexity of language.

3. Social Interaction Source Theory (Yo-He-Ho Theory):

 This theory suggests that language arose from humans working together,
especially in tasks requiring coordination, like building or hunting. The rhythmic
sounds made during group activities may have evolved into early forms of
language.
 Example: When a group of people lifts something heavy and chants "heave-ho!"
or similar sounds, it demonstrates how coordinated sounds can help in
cooperation.
 Criticism: While this theory explains why humans needed communication, it
doesn’t explain how complex grammatical structures developed.

4. Gestural Theory:
 Before vocal language, humans may have communicated through hand gestures.
Gestures are still a significant part of communication today (e.g., sign language,
body language). The theory suggests that over time, vocalizations replaced or
these gestures.
 Example: Think of how we wave to greet someone or use hand signals to
indicate directions. In sign languages like American Sign Language (ASL),
gestures form the entire basis of communication.

5. Genetic Source Theory (Innateness Hypothesis):

 Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate ability to learn
language. According to this theory, the Universal Grammar is hard-wired into
the human brain, and children naturally acquire the language they are exposed
to.
 Example: All children, regardless of culture or background, go through similar
stages in language development. They learn to distinguish between nouns and
verbs and understand grammatical rules without formal instruction.
 Criticism: While it explains why and how all humans learn language, it doesn’t
account for the variations in languages across the world.

6. Tool-Making Source Theory:

 This theory connects the development of language with the evolution of human
tool-making. The fine motor skills and brain coordination needed for making
tools could have been a precursor to the development of speech and language.
 Example: Early humans using stone tools likely had to coordinate and
communicate with one another, possibly developing basic linguistic skills in the
process.