An Incorporative Nationalism

Mahatma Gandhi's nationalism was deeply influenced by personal experiences of colonial

Gandhi's experience with severe racism in South Africa significantly shaped his ideology. In 1893,
while traveling from Durban to Pretoria, he was forcibly removed from a train for attempting to
travel first class, facing abuse and beatings. Despite being advised to tolerate these humiliations,
Gandhi insisted on his right to equality and eventually secured a minor victory by being allowed to
travel first class to Pretoria. His defiance against discrimination continued over the next decade and
a half, including raising an Indian ambulance corps during the Boer War, though his loyalty was not
reciprocated in the post-war settlement.

The brutal treatment of black Africans during the 1906 Bambata Rebellion further disillusioned
Gandhi with the British Empire, galvanizing his opposition to British rule. This shift towards a more
militant nationalism was part of a broader trend among his contemporaries. British liberals sought
to devolve power to Indians, while conservatives resisted, asserting racist views about the moral
inferiority of 'natives.' This conflict fueled significant nationalist movements, such as the Swadeshi
Movement in Bengal (1905-1908), highlighting the growing demand for Indian self-rule

Gandhi's nationalism evolved significantly, as encapsulated in his 1909 booklet "Hind Swaraj," which
combined anti-imperialist views with the economic nationalism of the Swadeshi Movement.
Influenced by R.C. Dutt's "Economic History of India," Gandhi developed a program for economic
nationalism, condemning the economic devastation caused by British rule. "Hind Swaraj" marked a
shift towards militant nationalism, leading to its ban by British authorities in India. By 1917,
Gandhi's intense nationalism became evident when he declared his willingness to die for India's
freedom.

Despite Rabindranath Tagore's warnings that nationalism could lead to tyranny and violence,
Gandhi maintained that his form of nationalism was nonviolent and rooted in the Indian principle of
ahimsa (non-violence). He emphasized satyagraha (truth force) over violent methods, believing that
the force of love and the soul was more powerful than arms. Gandhi's vision for Indian
self-determination included swaraj (self-rule), swadeshi (self-reliance), and adherence to Indian
civilization's spiritual values.

Gandhi's nationalism was inclusive and spiritually grounded, contrasting with the aggressive
nationalism of the West and some Indian Hindu chauvinists. He envisioned a form of patriotism that
served humanity and not just India. By 1925, he stated that his patriotism encompassed the welfare
of the entire world.

Gandhi viewed India as a civilization with unique spiritual qualities rather than just a nation. He
critiqued Western materialism and highlighted India's spiritual heritage, suggesting that India had a
national identity long before British rule. Gandhi emphasized the importance of private property
held in trusteeship and public welfare organizations as checks on state power. He encouraged
organizations like the Gandhi Seva Sangh to avoid "power politics" and focus on service. In 1948, he
proposed disbanding the Congress Party in favor of a Lok Sevak Sangh to remain above party
politics.

Gandhi envisioned a society where political institutions were unnecessary, aiming for an
"enlightened anarchy" where society functioned independently. While acknowledging the state's
temporary role in protecting the vulnerable and addressing injustices, he ultimately sought a
decentralized system of self-governance (swaraj) with significant local autonomy. Critics argued
that India lacked a tradition of stateless societies, but scholars like Burton Stein and David Ludden
highlighted historical instances of segmented power that supported Gandhi's vision.

Gandhi's political philosophy shared similarities with anarchism, such as decentralization and
moral authority over state control, but he emphasized nonviolent means and spiritual discipline.
Unlike Western anarchists, he believed in gradual change through nonviolence and self-restraint.
Though he recognized the need for state intervention to support the poor and maintain communal
harmony, his approach consistently prioritized moral and spiritual principles over political
coercion.

Forging a Nationalist Hegemony

Gandhi believed that Indian nationalism should encompass all cultural and religious groups within
the subcontinent. In "Hind Swaraj," he argued against defining nationalism by religion, contending
that the British had exacerbated Hindu-Muslim divisions, which could be overcome as "religions are
different roads converging to the same point." Influenced by Bipin Chandra Pal's concept of
"composite patriotism," Gandhi expanded this idea to include all castes and communities, allowing
him to mobilize a diverse nationalist movement. He supported sectional demands, such as the
Khilafat Movement, despite criticism, managing to hold the coalition together for some time.

Gandhi's approach to nationalism differed from Lenin's strategy of forming alliances under
proletarian hegemony. While Lenin aimed for a unified proletarian revolution, Gandhi sought to
maintain the integrity of each group's struggle, emphasizing mutual respect and "neighbourliness"
among diverse groups for the broader good. His vision was a polity where different groups
coexisted harmoniously, respecting each other's beliefs and prejudices. Despite tensions between
national leadership and local supporters, Gandhi's movement achieved strategic hegemony at key
moments, such as the Rowlatt Act protests and the Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928.

Antonio Gramsci's concept of dialogic processes, where elite and subaltern classes negotiate
differences, can be seen in Gandhi's movement. The acceptance of secular nationalist beliefs and
Gandhian principles like equality before the law and civil resistance became common sense for
many Indians, although there were significant failures, most notably the violent Partition of 1947.
Gandhi's inclusive nationalism, rooted in non-violence and mutual respect, allowed for a diverse
and expansive movement but faced significant challenges and limitations.

THE DISCIPLINED NATION

Gandhi's concept of swaraj (self-rule) was deeply rooted in "disciplined rule from within," distinct
from mere "freedom" or "independence." His swaraj required rigorous self-discipline and a strong
sense of responsibility, embodying the principle of tapas—ascetic self-discipline and spiritual rigor.
This approach to discipline was empowering rather than repressive, focusing on internal strength
and moral fortitude, aiming to create a disciplined and morally robust nation.

Gandhi believed that true non-violence (ahimsa) could only be achieved through strong
self-discipline. He emphasized that without such discipline, one could not develop a robust
conscience, which he considered essential for meaningful action. In his writings, he linked discipline
to self-restraint, particularly in the context of sexuality. He advocated for celibacy (brahmacharya)
as a crucial element of personal and national reform, arguing that it led to physical and moral purity.

: Gandhi's ideas were influenced by European writers like Paul Bureau and William Loftus Hare,
who also emphasized the moral and physiological benefits of chastity and self-restraint. Gandhi
used their arguments to support his views on the detrimental effects of sexual indulgence on health
and societal strength.

Despite his emphasis on self-imposed discipline, Gandhi was not averse to using coercive language
to ensure orderly conduct during mass movements. He insisted on disciplined behavior during
protests and demanded implicit obedience from his followers. This sometimes created a tension
between his ideals of non-violent resistance and the practical need for order and control in mass
movements.

Gandhi's approach to discipline has been criticized for its potential for mechanical and
self-righteous application. Some followers, such as Morarji Desai and Vinoba Bhave, interpreted and
applied Gandhian principles in ways that were seen as inflexible and authoritarian. Desai, for
example, was known for enforcing strict public discipline and censoring films to maintain social
morality, actions that were perceived as repressive. Bhave supported Indira Gandhi's Emergency in
1975, endorsing the slogan "Discipline is the Need of the Hour," which was used to justify state
repression.

Invented Histories of the Nation

Nationalist ideologies in 19th-century India often valorized a glorified Hindu past, rejecting Muslim
and British influences to restore national pride and strength. In contrast, secular-nationalist
historiography emphasized a syncretic past where Hindus and Muslims shared religious tolerance
and cooperation, advocating for a unified resistance against colonial rule and a strong central state.
This inclusive narrative sought to unite diverse communities against the colonial 'Other.'

Gandhi, skeptical of history as a unilinear progress towards an ideal like the nation-state, believed
the present was intricately tied to the past, complicating straightforward historical narratives.
Influenced by Tolstoy, who argued that history was shaped by the unpredictable actions of many
individuals rather than rational actions of great men, Gandhi viewed academic history as
constructing myths of state power under the guise of objectivity.

For Gandhi, ethical living and action were paramount, transcending historical progress. He upheld
the self-sufficient village community as an ethical ideal rather than a historical reality, emphasizing
principles that guided actions toward a just and compassionate society. While critical of historical
determinism, Gandhi used historical awareness to critique colonialism and inform his political
strategies, advocating for histories that focused on the lives and struggles of common people.

Gandhi's preference for myth over history did not reject historical consciousness but recognized
that both could inspire ethical action. He acknowledged that myths, like the Ram Janmabhumi, could
lead to unethical behavior if misused. Modern historians, aligning with Gandhi's views, challenge
state-centered narratives by emphasizing the experiences of the poor and powerless, blending myth
and popular consciousness to reflect subaltern struggles. Gandhi’s approach underscores a moral
framework that transcends both myth and history, focusing on ethical living and the
unpredictability of human actions.