18CEO406T - Global Warming and Climate Change

UNIT – IV

S1- SLO-1 - What is climate change Mitigation and Adaptation?

• Reducing emissions of and stabilizing the levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere (“mitigation”);

• Adapting to the climate change already in the pipeline (“adaptation”).

Mitigation:

• Reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases (for example, the burning
of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate
and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil).

• The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the climate system,
and “stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to
adapt naturally to climate change, ensure that food production is not threatened and to
enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner”

Adaptation:

• The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change (like sea-
level encroachment, more intense extreme weather events or food insecurity).

• It also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated
with climate change (for example, longer growing seasons or increased yields in some
regions).

• While climate change is a global issue, it is felt on a local scale. Cities and municipalities
are therefore at the frontline of adaptation. In the absence of national or international
climate policy direction, cities and local communities around the world have been
focusing on solving their own climate problems. They are working to build flood
defenses, plan for heatwaves and higher temperatures, install water-permeable pavements
to better deal with floods and stormwater and improve water storage anduse.
How to mitigate climate change?

These are some of the mitigation measures that can be taken to avoid the increase of pollutant
emissions:

1. Practice Energy efficiency

2. Greater use of renewable energy

3. Electrification of industrial processes

4. Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public transport, bicycle, shared

cars ...

5. Carbon tax and emissions markets

Adaptation to climate change:

In terms of adaptation measures, there are several actions that help reducing vulnerability to
the consequences of climate change:

1. More secure facility locations and infrastructures

2. Landscape restoration (natural landscape) and reforestation

3. Flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes

4. Research and development on possible catastrophes, temperature behavior, etc.

5. Preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)

In this infographic you can learn what are the measures of adaptation and mitigation to
climate change.
S1- SLO-2 Climate change organization and programmes:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Climate Change Science

This section of the EPA website offers scientific information and data on climate change in
the past and projections for the future. Specific information about the U.S. government's role
in conducting and evaluating science as well as EPA's role in these efforts can be found on
the Climate Change Science Program and EPA Research and Assessment pages in the
Policy section

NOAA Education - Climate Change and Our Planet

This collection of resources from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) are designed for teachers to use in the classroom or as background reference material

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was established by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to
provide objective reports on climate change and its potential environmental and socio- economic
consequences. Geography has played a central role in the IPCC’s activities. Dr. Thomas
Wilbanks, past president of the AAG and recipient of numerous honors in the field of
geography, served as lead author of a chapter of the Fourth Assessment Report which was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 2007.

National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)

NCAR provides the university science and teaching community with the tools, facilities, and
support required to perform innovative research. Through NCAR, scientists gain access to high-
performance computational and observational facilities, such as supercomputers, aircraft and
radar - resources researchers need to improve human understanding of atmospheric and Earth
system processes. NCAR also houses the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Strategic
Initiative, an interdisciplinary effort to foster collaborative science, spatial data interoperability,
and knowledge sharing with GIS, within the field of atmospheric research.
Center for Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets (CReSIS)

CReSIS was established by the NSF in 2005 and is headquartered at the University of Kansas.
The Center uses a variety of geographic tools and technologies (including Geographic
Information Systems, Remote Sensing, and spatial statistics) to complement its goal of
measuring and predicting the response of sea level change to the mass balance of ice sheets in
Greenland and Antarctica.

National Climate Data Center (NCDC)

NCDC is the world's largest active archive of weather data. NCDC produces numerous
climate publications and responds to data requests from all over the world.

World Meteorological Organization

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
It is the UN system's authoritative voice on the state and behavior of the Earth's atmosphere, its
interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water
resources.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Climate Change

The UNEP Climate Change website serves as a gateway to UNEP activities related to adaptation,
mitigation, science, and communication/outreach on the effects of climate change, as well as
programs to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation of ecosystems

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The UNFCCC supports UN bodies involved in the climate change process. This UNFCCC
website contains numerous resources, such as introductory and in-depth publications, the official
UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol texts and a search engine to the UNFCCC library.

Pew Center on Global Climate Change

The Pew Center on Global Climate Change brings together business leaders, policy makers,
scientists, and other experts to bring a new approach to a complex and often controversial
issue. The Center conducts analyses of key climate issues, works to keep policy makers
informed, engages the business community in the search for solutions, and reaches out to
educate the key audiences.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations – Climate Change

FAO's activities in climate change are spread over all departments and cover all agricultural
sectors (i.e. agriculture, livestock, forestry, fisheries) as well as highly cross-sectoral topics (e.g.
bioenergy, biodiversity, climate risk management). The Interdepartmental Working Group on
Climate Change and the Environment, Climate Change and Bioenergy Division (NRC) play an
important role in coordinating these activities.

National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC)

The NSIDC supports research on snow, ice, glaciers, frozen ground, and climate interactions that
make up Earth's cryosphere. Dr. Mark Serreze, NSIDC Director, has carried out significant
geographic research on climate warning in the Arctic and its implications.

International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP)

IGBP is a research programme that studies the phenomenon of Global Change. IGBP provides
scientific knowledge to improve the sustainability of the living Earth. IGBP studies the
interactions between biological, chemical and physical processes and interactions with human
systems and collaborates with other programmes to develop and impart the understanding
necessary to respond to global change.

What is the IPCC?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the international body for assessing
the science related to climate change. The IPCC was set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide
policymakers with regular assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and
future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigation.

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S2- SLO-1 IPCC -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and assessment report
highlights

Assessment Reports consist of contributions from each Working Group and a Synthesis Report
integrating these contributions and any Special Reports prepared in that assessment cycle. The
IPCC also produces Special Reports on specific issues agreed by its member governments and
Methodology Reports that provide practical guidelines for the preparationof greenhouse gas
inventories. Each IPCC report starts with a scoping meeting to develop adraft outline. Experts
nominated by member governments, Observer Organizations and the Bureau and selected by the
relevant Bureau prepare a draft outline of the report for the Panel. Based on the report of the
scoping meeting, the Panel decides whether work should continue on preparing the report and
agrees on its scope, outline and work plan including schedule and budget. Member governments,
Observer Organizations and the Bureau (Co-Chairs and Vice- Chairs) of the Working Group or
Task Force producing the report then draw up lists of experts, from which the relevant Bureau
or Bureaux select the authors of the report. The Bureau may consider other experts known
through their publications and work. Scientists who are nominated but not selected as authors
are invited to register as expert reviewers for the report. The selection of authors is a careful
process that aims to reflect the range of scientific, technical and socio-economic expertise and to
strike a good balance in terms of gender, geographical representation, and representation of
experts from developing countries, developed countries and those with economies in transition.
It is also important to have a mixture of authors with and without previous experience in the
IPCC.

About Reports
The IPCC prepares comprehensive Assessment Reports about the state of scientific, technical and
socio-economic knowledge on climate change, its impacts and future risks, and optionsfor
reducing the rate at which climate change is taking place. The IPCC also produces Special
Reports on specific topics agreed by its member governments, as well as Methodology Reports
that provide practical guidelines for the preparation of greenhouse gas inventories.The
Synthesis Report integrates the Assessment Report and any Special Reports prepared during an
assessment cycle. A report consists of a number of chapters. It may also include a Technical
Summary, prepared by the authors. Assessment Reports, Special Reports and the Synthesis
Report include a Summary for Policymakers that is prepared by the authors and approved line
by line by a Plenary Session of the IPCC with the delegates in dialogue with
the authors. Since the Fifth Assessment Report, the Summary for Policymakers has generally
included headline statements, providing a top-level summary and narrative of the key findings.
Methodology Reports include an Overview Chapter corresponding to the Summary for
Policymakers.

Preparation of Reports

Once the author teams are selected, they begin work on a First Order Draft of the report based on
an assessment of all relevant scientific, technical and social-economic information. Although
priority is given to peer-reviewed literature, the IPCC recognizes that non-peer reviewed
literature, such as reports from governments and industry, can be crucial for expanding the
breadth and depth of the assessment. Use of this literature brings with it an extra responsibility
for the author teams to ensure the quality and validity of cited sources. Review is an essential
part of the IPCC process and ensures that the assessment of literatureis transparent, objective
and complete. In the first stage of review, experts from around the world are invited to comment
on the accuracy and completeness of the scientific, technicaland socio-economic content and
the overall balance of the drafts. These expert reviewers self- nominate and are accepted by the
IPCC on the basis of relevant expertise. Each and every review comment is considered by the
authors in the preparation of a Second Order Draft ofthe report. At the same time, the authors
also prepare a first draft of the Summary for Policymakers (SPM). This is a distillation of the
main policy-relevant findings from the
 underlying report. The Second Order Draft of the report and the first draft of the SPM are
then opened up to review by experts and governments, simultaneously

There are three levels of endorsement:

1. “Approval” means that the material has been subjected to detailed line-by-line discussion

and agreement. This is the procedure used for the Summary for Policymakers.

2. “Adoption” describes a section-by-section endorsement. This is used for the Synthesis

Report and overview chapters of Methodology Reports.

3. “Acceptance” signifies that the material has not been subject to line-by-line or section-

by-section agreement but nevertheless presents a comprehensive, objective and balanced

assessment of the subject matter.

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S2 - SLO-2 IPCC Assessment Report-1

The First Assessment Report (FAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) was completed in 1990. It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This report had effects not only on the
establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), but also on the first conference of the parties (COP), held in Berlin in 1995.
The report was issued in three main sections, corresponding to the three Working Groups of
scientists that the IPCC had established.
 Working Group I: Scientific Assessment of Climate Change
 Working Group II: Impacts Assessment of Climate Change
 Working Group III:The IPCC Response Strategies
Each section included a summary for policymakers. This format was followed in subsequent
Assessment Reports.
The executive summary of the policymakers' summary of the WG I report includes:
 We are certain of the following: there is a natural greenhouse effect...; emissions
resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric
 concentrations of the greenhouse gases: CO2, methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide. These
increases will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in an additional warming
of the Earth's surface. The main greenhouse gas, water vapour, will increase in response to
global warming and further enhance it.
 We calculate with confidence that: ...CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced
greenhouse effect; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from
human activities of over 60% to stabilise their concentrations at today's levels...
 Based on current models, we predict: under [BAU] increase of global mean
temperature during the [21st] century of about 0.3 oC per decade (with an uncertainty
range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade); this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000
years; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls,
rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC [to] about 0.1 oC per decade.
 There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing,
magnitude and regional patterns of climate change, due to our incomplete understanding of:
sources and sinks of GHGs; clouds; oceans; polar ice sheets.
 Our judgement is that: global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to
0.6 oC over the last 100 years...; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with
predictions of climate models, but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate
variability. Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability;
alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-
induced greenhouse warming. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect
is not likely for a decade or more.
 under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario, an average rate of global mean sea
level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century (with an uncertainty rangeof 3
– 10 cm per decade), mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the meltingof
some land ice. The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030, and 65 cm by the end ofthe
next century.
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S3 SLO1: IPCC ASSESSMENT REPORT 2
This Report responds to the invitation for IPCC ‘… to provide a Special Report in 2018 on
the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse
gas emission pathways’ contained in the Decision of the 21st Conference of Parties of the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to adopt the Paris Agreement
The IPCC accepted the invitation in April 2016, deciding to prepare this Special Report on the
impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas
emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate
change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. This Summary for
Policymakers (SPM) presents the key findings of the Special Report, based on the assessment
of the available scientific, technical and socio-economic literature relevant to global warming of
1.5°C and for the comparison between global warming of 1.5°C and 2°C above pre-industrial
levels. The level of confidence associated with each key finding is reported using the IPCC
calibrated language. The underlying scientific basis of each key finding is indicated by
references provided to chapter elements. In the SPM, knowledge gapsare identified associated
with the underlying chapters of the Report.

A.1. Human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming
above pre-industrial levels, with a likely range of 0.8°C to 1.2°C. Global warming is likely
to reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase at the current rate.
A.1.1. Reflecting the long-term warming trend since pre-industrial times, observed global mean
surface temperature (GMST) for the decade 2006–2015 was 0.87°C (likely between0.75°C and
0.99°C higher than the average over the 1850–1900 period (very high confidence). Estimated
anthropogenic global warming matches the level of observed warming to within ±20% (likely
range). Estimated anthropogenic global warming is currently increasing at 0.2°C (likely between
0.1°C and 0.3°C) per decade due to past and ongoing emissions (high confidence).
A.1.2. Warming greater than the global annual average is being experienced in many land regions
and seasons, including two to three times higher in the Arctic. Warming is generally higher over
land than over the ocean. (High confidence)
A.1.3. Trends in intensity and frequency of some climate and weather extremes have been
detected over time spans during which about 0.5°C of global warming occurred (medium
confidence). This assessment is based on several lines of evidence, including attribution studies
for changes in extremes since 1950.
A.2. Warming from anthropogenic emissions from the pre-industrial period to the present
will persist for centuries to millennia and will continue to cause further long- term changes
in the climate system, such as sea level rise, with associated impacts (high confidence), but
these emissions alone are unlikely to cause global warming of 1.5°C (medium confidence).
A.2.1. Anthropogenic emissions (including greenhouse gases, aerosols and their precursors)up
to the present are unlikely to cause further warming of more than 0.5°C over the next twoto
three decades (high confidence) or on a century time scale (medium confidence).
A.2.2. Reaching and sustaining net zero global anthropogenic CO2 emissions and declining net
non-CO2 radiative forcing would halt anthropogenic global warming on multi-decadal time’s
cales (high confidence). The maximum temperature reached is then determined bycumulative net
global anthropogenic CO2 emissions up to the time of net zero CO2 emissions (high confidence)
and the level of non-CO2 radiative forcing in the decades prior to the time that maximum
temperatures are reached (medium confidence). On longer time scales, sustained net negative
global anthropogenic CO2 emissions and/or further reductions in non- CO2 radiative forcing may
still be required to prevent further warming due to Earth system feedbacks and to reverse ocean
acidification (medium confidence) and will be required to minimize sea level rise (high
confidence).
A.3. Climate-related risks for natural and human systems are higher for global warming
of 1.5°C than at present, but lower than at 2°C (high confidence). These risks depend on the
magnitude and rate of warming, geographic location, levels of development and
vulnerability, and on the choices and implementation of adaptation and mitigation options
(high confidence).
A.3.1. Impacts on natural and human systems from global warming have already been observed
(high confidence). Many land and ocean ecosystems and some of the services they provide have
already changed due to global warming (high confidence).
A.3.2. Future climate-related risks depend on the rate, peak and duration of warming. In the
aggregate, they are larger if global warming exceeds 1.5°C before returning to that level by 2100
than if global warming gradually stabilizes at 1.5°C, especially if the peak temperatureis high
(e.g., about 2°C) (high confidence). Some impacts may be long-lasting or irreversible, such as the
loss of some ecosystems (high confidence).
A.3.3. Adaptation and mitigation are already occurring (high confidence). Future climate- related
risks would be reduced by the upscaling and acceleration of far-reaching, multileveland cross-
sectoral climate mitigation and by both incremental and transformational adaptation (high
confidence).
 S3 SLO2: IPCC ASSESSMENT REPORT 3

The Third Assessment Report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) builds upon past assessments and incorporates new results from thepast five years
of research on climate change. The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th
century by about 0.6°C. •The global average surface temperature (the average of near surface air
temperature over land, and sea surface temperature) has increased since 1861. Over the 20th century
the increase has been 0.6 ± 0.2°C5,6 This value is about 0.15°C larger than that estimated by the SAR
for the period up to 1994, owing to the relatively high temperatures of the additional years (1995 to
2000) and improved methods of processing the data. These numbers take into account various
adjustments, including urbanheat island effects. The record shows a great deal of variability; for
example, most of the warming occurred during the 20th century, during two periods, 1910 to
1945 and 1976 to 2000. •Globally, it is very likely7 that the 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998
the warmest year in the instrumental record, since 1861 • New analyses of proxy data for the Northern
Hemisphere indicate that the increase in temperature in the 20th century is likely to have been the
largest of any century during the past 1,000 years. It is also likely that, in the Northern Hemisphere,
the 1990s was the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year. Because less data are available, less
is known about annual averages prior to 1,000 years before present and for conditions prevailing in
most of the Southern Hemisphere prior to1861. •On average, between 1950 and 1993, night-time
daily minimum air temperatures over land increased by about 0.2°C per decade. This is about twice
the rate of increase in daytime daily maximum air temperatures (0.1°C per decade). This has
lengthened the freeze-free season in many mid- and high latitude regions. The increase in sea surface
temperature over this period is about half that of the mean land surface air temperature. Some
important aspects of climate appear not to have changed. •A few are a soft he globe have not warmed
in recent decades, mainly over some parts of the Southern Hemisphere oceans and parts ofAntarctica.
No significant trends of Antarctic sea-ice extent are apparent since 1978, the period of reliable
satellite measurements.
No systematic changes in the frequency of tornadoes, thunder days, or hail events are evidentin the
limited areas analysed.

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S4 SLO1: IPCC ASSESSMENT REPORT 4
IPCC stands for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. It is a group of scientists chosen
by governments and other large groups from around the world who study the way that humans are
making the Earth heat up unnaturally. The group was established in 1988 by the World
Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, two
organizations of the United Nations. The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the
climate change situation ever undertaken, produced by thousands of authors, editors, and reviewers
from dozens of countries, citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies. The report was
released in four principal sections:
 Contribution of Working Group I: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science
Basis
 Contribution of Working Group II: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability
 Contribution of Working Group III: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate
Change
 Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III: The Synthesis Report (SYR)
WORKING GROUP I: Th physical science basis:-
The first working group states (WGI) was published in March 2007. It includes a Summary for
Policymakers (SPM), which was published in February 2007, and a Frequently Asked Questions
section. It assessed current scientific knowledge of "the natural and human drivers of climate
change" as well as observed changes in climate. It looked at the ability of science to attribute
changes to different causes, and made projections of future climate change. It was produced by
676 authors from 40 countries, then reviewed by over 625 expert reviewers. More than 6,000 peer-
reviewed publications were cited. Before being approved, the summary was reviewed line by
line by representatives of 113 governments during the 10th session of WGI, in January to
February 2007. The key observations of this report were
 Changes in the atmosphere
 Warming of the planet
 Ice, snow, permaforest, rain and oceans.
 Hurricanes
 This report also stated the factors responsible for climate change and thy term it as radiative
forcing. It shows the individual contribution of the various gases.
 Total radiative forcing from the sum of all human activities is about +1.6 watts/m²
 Radiative forcing from an increase of solar intensity since 1750 is about +0.12 watts/m²
 Radiative forcing from carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide combined is very likely
(>90%) increasing more quickly during the current era (1750–present) than at any other
time in the last 10,000 years.
Climate sensitivity had also been discussed. Climate sensitivity is defined as the amount of
global average surface warming following a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations. It is
likely to be in the range of 2 to 4.5 °C, with a best estimate of about 3 °C.

WORKING GROUP II:- Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:-

It was released on April 6, 2007. WGII states that "evidence from all continents and most oceans
shows that many natural systems are being affected by regional climate changes, particularly
temperature increases. With a high confidence WGII asserts that climate change has resulted in
Increasing ground instability in permafrost regions. Increasing rock avalanches in mountain
regions. With a very high confidence WGII asserts that climate change is affecting terrestrial
biological systems in that Spring events such as the unfolding of leaves, laying of eggs, and
migration are happening earlier.
Water supplies stored in glaciers and snow cover will be reduced over the course of the century.
Ecosystems
WORKING GROUP III:- Mitigation of Climate change:-
Working Group III's was published on 4 May 2007 at the 26th session of the IPCC. The full
WG III report was published online in September, 2007. The IPCC convened in Bangkok on
April 30 to start discussions on the draft Summary, with the participation of over 400 scientists
and experts from about 120 countries. Despite this, the figures from the original proposal were
incorporated into the Summary for Policymakers. The Summary concludes that stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations is possible at a reasonable cost, with stabilization between
445ppm and 535ppm costing less than 3% of global GDP.

WORKING GROUP IV:- The synthesis report:-

A draft version of the Synthesis Report, said to be subject to final copyedit, was published on 16
November 2007. In fact, this Conference was postponed to December to allow the IPCC Synthesis
Report to come out first. The six topics addressed in the Synthesis Report are:
 Observed changes in climate and its effects (WGI and WGII).
 Causes of change (WGI and WGIII).
 Climate change and its impacts in the near and long term under different scenarios (WGI
and WGIII).
 Adaptation and mitigation options and responses, and the inter-relationship with
sustainable development, at global and regional levels (WGII and WGIII).
 The long-term perspective: scientific and socio-economic aspects relevant to adaptation
and mitigation, consistent with the objectives and provisions of the Convention [sic], and
in the context of sustainable development (WGI and WGIII).
 Robust findings, key uncertainties (WGI, WGII and WGIII).
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S4 SLO2: IPCC ASSESSMENT REPORT 5
The Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) finds,
beyond reasonable doubt, that the Earth’s climate is warming.
1. Since the 1950s, the rate of global warming has been unprecedented compared to previous
decades and millennia.
2. The Fifth Assessment Report presents a long list of changes that scientists have observed
around the world. Since the mid-19th century, the average increase in the temperature of
the Earth’s surface has been 0.85 degrees Centigrade (°C).
3. Globally, sea levels have risen faster than at any time during the previous two millennia –
and the effects are felt in South Asia.
4. Changing patterns of rainfall or melting snow and ice are altering freshwater systems,
affecting the quantity and quality of water available in many regions, including South Asia.
5. Climate change will have widespread impacts on South Asian society and South Asians’
interaction with the natural environment.
6. The IPCC finds with 95% scientific certainty that increasing concentrations of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere due to human activities have been the dominant cause of the
observed warming since the mid-20th century.
7. Current science provides the clearest evidence yet that human activity is changing our
climate.
8. The impacts of climate change will influence flooding of settlements and infrastructure,
heat-related deaths, and food and water shortages in South Asia.
9. The following pages explore these risks in more depth. Given the interdependence among
countries in today’s world, the impacts of climate change on resources or commodities in
one place will have far-reaching effects on prices, supply chains, trade, investment and
political relations in other places. Climate change will progressively.
The IPCC assigns a degree of certainty to each key finding based on the type, amount, quality and
consistency of evidence (e.g., data, theory, models, expert judgment), and the degree of agreement
among scientists.
The terms to describe evidence are: limited, medium or robust; and to describe agreement:
low, medium or high. When the Fifth Assessment Report talks about ‘confidence’ in a
finding, the level of confidence derives from a synthesis of the evidence that exists and the
degree of scientific agreement on what the evidence means. The levels of confidence IPCC
assigns are: very low, low, medium, high and very high.
IPCC describes the likelihood or certainty of an outcome having occurred or occurring in the future
in terms of percentages: Virtually certain 99% or more Extremely likely 95% or more Very likely
90% or more Likely 66% or more More likely than not more than 50% About as likely as not 33–
66% Unlikely 33% or less Very unlikely 10% or less Extremely unlikely 5% or less Exceptionally
unlikely 1% or less.
On this scale, the world’s leading climate scientists consider it extremely likely that human
activities have been the dominant cause of observed warming. Scientists consider 95% confidence
as the ‘gold standard’, the standard at which theories are accepted as valid. For example, the theory
of evolution, the theory on the age of the Earth and the Big Bang theory all meet this standard of
scientific confidence.
The IPCC accepted the invitation in April 2016, deciding to prepare this Special Report on the
impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas
emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate
change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty.

 Understanding the global warming of 1.5°C

Human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming.
Warming from anthropogenic emissions from the pre-industrial period to the present will persist
for centuries to millennia and will continue to cause further long-term changes in the climate
system, such as sea level rise, with associated impacts, but these emissions alone are unlikely to
cause global warming of 1.5°C.
Climate-related risks for natural and human systems are higher for global warming of 1.5°C
than at present, but lower than at 2°C. These risks depend on the magnitude and rate of
warming, geographic location, levels of development and vulnerability, and on the choices and
implementation of adaptation and mitigation options.

Projected climate change

Temperature extremes on land are projected to warm more than GMST (high confidence):
extreme hot days in mid-latitudes warm by up to about 3°C at global warming of 1.5°C and about
4°C at 2°C, and extreme cold nights in high latitudes warm by up to about 4.5°Cat 1.5°C and about
6°C at 2°C. The number of hot days is projected to increase in most land regions, with highest
increases in the tropics.
By 2100, global mean sea level rise is projected to be around 0.1 metre lower with global
warming of 1.5°C compared to 2°C. Sea level will continue to rise well beyond 2100, and the
magnitude and rate of this rise depend on future emission pathways. A slower rate of sea level rise
enables greater opportunities for adaptation in the human and ecological systems of small islands,
low-lying coastal areas and deltas.
On land, impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, including species loss and extinction, are
projected to be lower at 1.5°C of global warming compared to 2°C. Limiting global warming to
1.5°C compared to 2°C is projected to lower the impacts on terrestrial, freshwater and coastal
ecosystems and to retain more of their services to humans.
Limiting global warming to 1.5°C compared to 2°C is projected to reduce increases in
ocean temperature as well as associated increases in ocean acidity and decreases in ocean oxygen
levels (high confidence). Consequently, limiting global warming to 1.5°C is projected to reduce
risks to marine biodiversity, fisheries, and ecosystems, and their functions and services to
humans, as illustrated by recent changes to Arctic sea ice and warm-water coral reef ecosystems.
Climate-related risks to health, livelihoods, food security, water supply, human security, and
economic growth are projected to increase with global warming of 1.5°C and increase further
with 2°C.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
S5: SLO-1; UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global environmental
authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the
environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system, and
serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.
Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, we work through our divisions as well as our regional, liaison
and out-posted offices and a growing network of collaborating centres of excellence. We also host
several environmental conventions, secretariats and inter-agency coordinating bodies. UN
Environment is led by our Executive Director.
Process of UNEP
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading environmental
authority in the United Nations system. UNEP uses its expertise to strengthen environmental
standards and practices while helping implement environmental obligations at the country,regional
and global levels. UNEP’s mission is to provide leadership and encourage partnership incaring for
the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality
of life without compromising that of future generations.
UNEP’s categorize our work into seven broad thematic areas: climate change, disasters and
conflicts, ecosystem management, environmental governance, chemicals and waste, resource
efficiency, and environment under review. In all of our work, we maintain our overarching
commitment to sustainability.
UNEP's main activities are;

 climate change
 disasters and conflicts
 ecosystem management
 environmental governance
 environment under review
 harmful substances
 resource efficiency

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
S5: SLO2: WMO - World Meteorological Organization
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is an intergovernmental organization
with a membership of 193 Member States and Territories. It originated from the International
Meteorological Organization (IMO), the roots of which were planted at the 1873 Vienna
International Meteorological Congress. Established by the ratification of the WMO Convention on
23 March 1950, WMO became the specialised agency of the United Nations for meteorology
(weather and climate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences a year later. The
Secretariat, headquartered in Geneva, is headed by the Secretary-General. Its supreme body is
the World Meteorological Congress.

WMO has 187 Member States and 6 Member Territories. Members are divided into six
regions:
 Region I: Africa
 Region II: Asia
 Region III: South America
 Region IV: North America, Central America and the Caribbean
 Region V: South-West Pacific
 Region VI: Europe
Vision, Mission, Strategic Planning
WMO provides world leadership and expertise in international cooperation in the delivery and use
of high-quality, authoritative weather, climate, hydrological and related environmental services by
its Members, for the improvement of the well-being of societies of all nations.

WMO Mission

WMO works to facilitate worldwide cooperation in the design and delivery of meteorological
services, foster the rapid exchange of meteorological information, advance the standarization of
meteorological data, build cooperation between meteorological and hydrological services,
encourage research and training in meteorology, and expand the use of meteorology to benefit
other sectors such as aviation, shipping, agriculture and water management.

Focus area, within its mandate in the areas of weather, climate and water, WMO focuses on many
different aspects and issues from observations, information exchange and research
to weather forecasts and early warnings, from capacity development and monitoring of
greenhouse gases to application services and much, much more

WMO Strategic Plan 2020–2023

WMO strategic and operational planning is built on the results-based management concept
established by the fifteenth World Meteorological Congress as fundamental for managing the
planning, budgeting, implementation, monitoring and reporting of programmatic work. The WMO
planning process is based on three interlinked components:

1. The WMO Strategic Plan articulates the high-level vision, mission, core values and
overarching priorities of the Organization. It outlines a set of long-term goals and strategic
objectives with a 2030 horizon as well as identifies areas of focus for the 2020- 2023
financial period.
2. The WMO Operating Plan 2020-2023 translates the strategy into specific actions by
defining outputs to be delivered (i.e. lower-level results) and annual milestones to be
achieved. It also lists planned activities, indicates the resources available, and outlines
performance indicators intended to measure progress in achieving the strategic objectives.
The WMO Results-based Budget (maximum expenditure approved by Congress) identifies
resources for implementation of the Strategic Plan, including the functioning of constituent
bodies and the Secretariat.
Operational planning

Implementation of the strategic plan is facilitated by the WMO Operating Plan 2020- 2023
which reflects the results chain towards strategic objectives and long-term goals and provides
details on:

 Focus Areas / Outcomes

 Performance Indicators
 Outputs
 Milestones
 Activities
These elements are expected to contribute to achieving the long-term results defined in the
WMO Strategic Plan, with the resources provided under the WMO Results-based Budget –
Maximum expenditure approved by Congress, and the in-kind support of technical commissions
and regional associations.

For each strategic objective, regional aspects and priorities are highlighted based on the WMO
Monitoring and Evaluation system, data collected through the Country Profile Database, and
information provided by regions. Risks and mitigation measures are also defined for eachStrategic
Objective.

Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring and Evaluation are essential components of the WMO Results Based
Management System. They constitute the tools for measuring performance in the timely
implementation of the WMO Strategic Plan and Operating Plan. They also contribute to the
identification of good practices and lessons learned which inform the next phase of the strategic
planning cycle.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
S6 - SLO-1; UNFCCC - UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON
CLIMATE CHANGE
What is the purpose of the Secretariat?

The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate Change) is the United Nations entity tasked with
supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. UNFCCC stands for United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Convention has near universal
membership (197 Parties) and is the parent treaty of the 2015 Paris Agreement. The main aim
of the Paris Agreement is to keep the global average temperature rise this century as close as
possible to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The UNFCCC is also the parent treaty
of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The ultimate objective of all three agreements under the UNFCCC is
to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous
human interference with the climate system, in a time frame which allows ecosystems to adapt
naturally and enables sustainable development.

When was the secretariat created?

The secretariat was established in 1992 when countries adopted the UNFCCC. The original
secretariat was in Geneva. Since 1995, the secretariat has been located in Bonn, Germany.
Who works at the secretariat?

Around 450 staff are employed at UN Climate Change. Secretariat staff come from over
100 countries and represent a blend of diverse cultures, gender and professional backgrounds.

At the head of the secretariat is the Executive Secretary, a position currently held by Patricia
Espinosa.

What does the secretariat do?

Focussing in its early years largely on facilitating the intergovernmental climate change
negotiations, the secretariat today supports a complex architecture of bodies that serve to advance
the implementation of the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

S6 - SLO-2; UNDP - UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Mission

On the ground in about 170 countries and territories, UNDP works to eradicate poverty
while protecting the planet. We help countries develop strong policies, skills, partnerships and
institutions so they can sustain their progress.

Impact in 2018

 31M people had better access to services to tackle poverty

 20M people gained access to financial services
 256M tonnes of carbon emissions cut
Objectives of UNDP

UNDP supports countries in their efforts to successfully address diverse development

challenges, framed around three broad settings which require different forms of support:

1. Eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions;

2. Accelerating structural transformations for sustainable development; and
3. Building resilience to crises and shocks
These three development challenges often coexist within the same country, requiring tailored
solutions that can adequately address specific deficits and barriers. Underpinning all three
development challenges is a set of core development needs, including the need to strengthen
gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, and to ensure the protection of
human rights.
The Progress to success

To fulfill the aims of the Strategic Plan with the multi-dimensionality and
complexity that the 2030 Agenda demands, UNDP is implementing six cross-cutting
approaches todevelopment, known as Signature Solutions. A robust, integrated way to put
our best work – or 'signature' skillset – into achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

1. Keeping people out of poverty

2. Governance for peaceful, just, and inclusive societies
3. Crisis prevention and increased resilience
4. Clean, affordable energy
5. Women's empowerment and gender equality
6. Human rights

SDG Integration

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were
adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015 as a universal call to action to end
poverty,protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.

The 17 SDGs are integrated—that is, they recognize that action in one area will affect
outcomesin others, and that development must balance social, economic and
environmental sustainability.

Through the pledge to Leave No One Behind, countries have committed to fast-track
progress for those furthest behind first. That is why the SDGs are designed to bring the
world to several life-changing ‘zeros’, including zero poverty, hunger, AIDS and
discrimination against women and girls.

Everyone is needed to reach these ambitious targets. The creativity, knowhow, technology
and financial resources from all of society is necessary to achieve the SDGs in every context.
..................................................................................................................................
Topic; S7
SLO 1: Need for international protocols of climate change
SLO 2: Kyoto protocol
....................................................................................................................................
SLO 1: Need for international protocols of climate change
The main objective of this important climate change treaty is to: achieve stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
The atmosphere and climate change illustrate the need for, but also the difficulty of
negotiating institutionalized cooperation in order to avert the tragedy of a global commons.
Climate change became an issue of political concern as the scientific evidence of human
interference with the climate system increased and this was coupled with growing public
concern over global environmental issues in the mid-1980s.
The greenhouse gas emissions of a country correlate with its gross domestic product (GDP)
and thus its economic growth.
Over the course of successive Conferences of the Parties — known as COP — new
elements have been introduced into the international structure of the negotiations on climate
change. These elements allow for specific challenges to be tackled such as mitigation financing,
adaptation to climate change, and the technological transfer.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in
1992, was a reflection of the international consensus when it came to approaching the
problem of climate change. During the summit, the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was created, which was initially signed by 166
countries and finally came into force on 21 March 1994. As of today, its has been ratified by 197
countries.
Below are the most significant agreements on climate change:

i. The setting of the target for developed countries to provide 100 billion dollars for climate
finance projects in developing countries.

ii. The formalisation of the goal to limit the global temperature rise to below 2ºC compared
to the pre-industrial era.

iii. The launching of the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform and its two
lines of work: Workstream 1, dedicated to working towards a binding global climate
agreement for the post-2020 era; and Workstream 2, dedicated to raising the level of
climate ambition before 2020.

iv. The second period of commitment arising from the Kyoto Protocol runs until 2020,
through what is known as the Doha Amendment (COP18).

v. The launch of the Marrakesh Partnership for Global Climate Action as a platform to
involve the general public and increase their role in the process of global climate action.

...................................................................................................................................................

S7: SLO 2: Kyoto protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on Kyoto, Japan , 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex
ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. By 1997, 186 nations signed
kyotoprotocoal. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and
reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The
Convention itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to
report periodically.
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and follows
its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a heavier burden on them
under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”,
because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high levels of GHG
emissions in the atmosphere.
In its Annex B, the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for
37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the European Union. Overall,
these targets add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the
five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).

Doha Amendment
i. In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol
was adopted for a second commitment period, starting in 2013 and lasting until 2020.
However, the Doha Amendment has not yet entered into force; a total of 144 instruments
of acceptance are required for entry into force of the amendment. New commitments for
Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second
commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020.
ii. A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Parties in the second
commitment period.
iii. Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues
pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second
commitment period.
 On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-General of the
United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and 21 of the Protocol.
 During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against
1990 levels.
 During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions
by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020;
however, the composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different
from the first.
KYOTO MECHANISMS
 Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national
measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their
targets by way of three market-based mechanisms.
The Kyoto mechanisms are:
1) International Emissions Trading [ Article 17]
2) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) [ Article 12]
3) Joint implementation (JI) [ Article 6]
These mechanisms help to stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their
emission targets in a cost-effective way.
These mechanisms are introduced in the Protocol with a two fold aim:
 To aid Annex I countries to meet their emissions reduction and limitation
commitments.
 To offer support for sustainable development in developing countries, non-
Annex I countries, through the transference of clean technologies.
Features of the Kyoto mechanisms as defined in the Kyoto Protocol.
MONITORING EMISSION TARGETS
 Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records
have to be kept of the trades carried out.
 Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN
Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction
log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
 Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national
reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
 A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them
to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation:
 The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting
to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of
technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
 The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes
in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment
period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project
activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period,
international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the
Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.

.......................................................................................................................................
Topic; S8
SLO 1: Climate Change and Carbon credit
SLO 2: Clean Development Mechanism
.......................................................................................................................................

S8 SLO 1: Climate Change and Carbon credit

S8: Climate Change

Climate Change is the defining issue of our time and we are at a defining moment. From shifting
weather patterns that threaten food production, to rising sea levels that increase the risk of
catastrophic flooding, the impacts of climate change are global in scope and unprecedented in
scale. Without drastic action today, adapting to these impacts in the future will be more difficult
and costly.

There are some basic well-established scientific links:

 The concentration of GHGs in the earth’s atmosphere is directly linked to the
average global temperature on Earth;
 The most abundant GHG, accounting for about two-thirds of GHGs, carbon dioxide
(CO2), is largely the product of burning fossil fuels.
State Indicators of Climate Change

 The anthropogenic concentrations of the greenhouse gases, and among them carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), have grown significantly since
pre-industrial times. These trends can be attributed to human activities, mostly fossil fuel
use, land-use change and agriculture. Concentrations of other anthropogenic
greenhouse gases have also increased. An increase of greenhouse gas concentrations leads
on average to an additional warming of the atmosphere and the Earth's surface. Many
greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere-- and affect climate for a long time (IPCC,
1995). UNFCCC Article 4.1(a) states that:
 All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their
specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, shall
develop, periodically update, publish and make available to the Conference of the Parties,
in accordance with Article 12, national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by
sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal
Protocol, using comparable methodologies to be agreed upon by the Conference of the
Parties.
 Atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4, and N2O are key indicators in formulating
policies for mitigating the effects of climate change.

....................................................................................................................................................
S8 : Carbon Credit: A Step Towards Green Environment
Carbon Credit Trading is generated from the Kyoto Protocol. The main aim of this
concept is basically to trade the carbon credit in the market. This type of trading is now the
one of the fastest trading market in India.. This research is used for the several benefits and
challenges which are directly or indirectly associated with carbon credit trading. It is a
tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit 1 tonne of carbon di oxide.
In today's scenario Global Warming is costing a lot of money, so Green Environmentalist
aims to promote policy and business that works for the environment. As we all know, carbon
dioxide, the most important greenhouse gas produced by combustion of fuels, has become a
cause of global panic as its concentration in the Earth's atmosphere has been rising alarmingly.
This has created an opportunity for the trade of carbon credits both within and outside of the
regulated area, thereby creating a global "carbon market".
In this system of carbon trading, controls are imposed on Green House Gas (GHG)
emissions under the Kyoto Protocol, and the pre-decided emission limits are then allocated
across countries, which have to control the greenhouse gas emissions from the various industries
and commercial units operating within them.

What Is Carbon Credit?

Carbon credits are basically an element which is used to aid in regulation of the
amount of gases that are being released into the air. This is basically a larger international
plan which has been created in an effort to reduce global warming and its effects.
International treaties have set quotas on the amount of GHG countries can produce, which in turn
set quotas for businesses. Instruments like carbon credits and carbon offset were introduced
in order to improve the scenario by encouraging firms to be more environment friendly
in conducting their business.
One carbon credit allows one tonne of carbon dioxide or a corresponding amount
of other greenhouse gases to be discharged in the air.. The amount of global emissions can be
controlled through the buying and selling of carbon credits in the carbon trading method. But still
the increased demand flowing to carbon credits and the introduction of newer financial
instruments for emission trading are all signs of heightened activity. It can also be concluded that
India is an emerging leader for the developing countries in designing innovative strategies and
portfolios for carbon trading.
Sectors in Which Carbon Credits Can Work?
There are several sectors in which carbon credits work as shown in figure.

Energy Supply
Transport
Residential and Commercial Buildings
Industry
Agriculture
Forestry
Waste management

How buying carbon credits can reduce emissions?

Reducing carbon emissions
i. Use of renewable energy such as wind farms, installation of solar.
ii. Afforestation
iii. Reforestation
iv. It is also duty of each individual to contribute the following
 Drive less
 Use solar energy
 Plant more tress
 Turn off electronic devices
 Reuse and recycle.
Carbon credits in India
India signed the kyoto protocoal in August 2002.
India is the second largest seller of carbon credits globally with 489 CDM projects.

Merits and demerits of carbon credits

Merits of carbon credits De merits of carbon credits
Technology trasfer from developed to Gives false sense of pollution
developing countries It is not regulated
Better technology for company Developed countries purchase CER’s rather
Can change country’s financial situation than finding new ways to reduce emissions
Development of Cleaner technologies Lack of comprehensive and structured
Environmental benefits international system.
Helps in developing extra income

..............................................................................................................................................
S8: SLO2: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

 A mechanism that allows Annex B Countries to undertake GHG emission reduction
projects in non-annex B countries, and to use the achieved emission reductions to
meet their own emission goal. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined
in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or
emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to
implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn
saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne
of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
 It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind,
providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs.
 A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project
using solar panels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.
 The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while
giving industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction
or limitation targets.

Annex B: A list in the Kyoto Protocol of 38 countries plus the European Community
that agreed to QELRCs (emission targets), along with the Quantified Emission
Limitation and Reduction Commitment (QELRCs) they accepted. The list is nearly
identical to the Annex I Parties listed in the Convention except that it does not include
Belarus or Turkey.

Two main goals of CDM

i. To assist countries without emissions targets (i.e developing countries) in achieving

sustainable development.
ii. To help those countries with emission reduction targets under Kyoto (i.e developed
countries) in achieving compliance by allowing them to purchase offsets created by CDM
projects.
Where CDM will be applicable?

Operating details of the CDM

 A CDM project must provide emission reductions that are additional to what would
otherwise have occurred. The projects must qualify through a rigorous and public
registration and issuance process. Approval is given by the Designated National
Authorities. Public funding for CDM project activities must not result in the diversion of
official development assistance.
 The mechanism is overseen by the CDM Executive Board, answerable ultimately to
the countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
 Operational since the beginning of 2006, the mechanism has already registered more than
1,650 projects and is anticipated to produce Certified Emission Reductions (CERs)
amounting to more than 2.9 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent in the first commitment
period of the Kyoto Protocol, 2008–2012
 Fig: CDM Mechanism
Article 6 lay the foundation of a new mechanism different from JI and CDM
CDM and Joint Implementation [ JI ]were created to reach countries’ commitments of GHG
emission reduction. CDM allows developed countries to generate certified emission reduction
(CER) emitted thanks to a mitigation project in developing countries. JI is very similar but
includes mitigation outcomes transfers between Annex I countries.

CDM PROJECT CYCLE

The Designated National Authority in India is the National Clean Development
Mechanism Authority (NCDMA). The Chairperson of the NCDMA is the Secretary of
Environment and Forests. The NCDMA meets once per month to review project proposals,
evaluating them on the probability of success and the extent to which they meet sustainable
development objectives
 Fig: Project cycle of CDM

CDM Benefits for industrialized and developing countries.

Disadvantages of CDM
 Concerns have also been raised regarding the conduct of project owners, with certain
CDM projects implicated in land rights issues and human rights abuses.
 Meanwhile, the geographical distribution of CDM projects, over 80% of which
originate in China and India, calls into question the ability of the CDM to drive broad
engagement with sustainable development across developing countries.
 What's more, critics would suggest a more fundamental flaw in the CDM is that it is
impossible to prove the 'additionality' of a project in comparison to a hypothetical
baseline.
.......................................................................................................................................
S9: TOPIC
SLO 1: UNFCCC and India
SLO 2: MONTREAL PROTOCOL
.......................................................................................................................................
SLO 1: UNFCCC and India
The UNFCCC [United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change] is a
framework Convention which aims to limit the level of climate change. The UNFCCC is a
framework Convention which focuses on promoting cooperation by means of systematic
observations, research and information exchange on the effects of human activities on
climate, and adopting legislative or administrative measures against activities likely to have
adverse effects. Climate change is a complex problem, which, although environmental in nature,
has consequences for all spheres of existence on our planet. It either impacts on or is impacted by
global issues, including poverty, economic development, population growth, sustainable
development and resource management. The (UNFCCC) is an international
environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992,
then entered into force on 21 March 1994.
The main objective of UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with
the climate system One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish
national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, which
were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto
Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions.
The UNFCCC secretariat supports all institutions involved in the international climate change
negotiations, particularly the Conference of the Parties (COP), the Conference of the
Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties (MOP) The question of what happens beyond 2020
was answered by Parties in Durban in 2011.
At the very heart of the response to climate change, however, lies the need to reduce
emissions. In 2010, governments agreed that emissions need to be reduced so that global
temperature increases are limited to below 2 degrees Celsius.
In 1992, countries joined an international treaty, the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, to cooperatively consider what they could do to limit
average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and to cope with whatever
impacts were, by then, inevitable.
By 1995, countries realized that emission reductions provisions in the Convention
were inadequate. They launched negotiations to strengthen the global response to climate change,
and, two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed
countries to emission reduction targets. The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008
and ended in 2012. The second commitment period began on 1 January 2013 and will end in
2020.

There are now

195 Parties to the Convention and
192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
S9 : SLO 2: MONTREAL PROTOCOL
 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international
treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous
substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.
 It was developed under the management of UNEP [ United Nations Environment
Programme] on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed
by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in
1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok),
1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2007
(Montreal).
 The Montreal Protocol and Vienna convention frame work aggrement from
which protocol was born were the first global aggrements to protect the earth’s
atmosphere.
 International treaty ratified in 1987 in which 180 signatory nations agrred to restrict
production of chloroflurocarbon [CFC] inorder to forestall stratospheric ozone
depeltion. Because of its effectiveness in decreasing global CFC emissions, the Montreal
protocol is considered the most successful effort to date in addressing a global
environment problem.
 As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly
recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels
between 2050 and 2070.
 Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example
of exceptional international co-operation, the single most successful international
agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".
 In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional
conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the Ozone depletion
challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so.
 In case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being
installed before a scientific consensus was established. As well in comparison, lay people
and public opinion were more convinced about possible imminent risks.
  The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and
the European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations
history.
Terms and purposes
 The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have
been shown to play a role in ozone depletion.
 All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances
containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer).
 For each group, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those
substances must be shot out and eventually eliminated.
Scope of Protocol
The Montreal Protocol is an international agreement adopted in 1987 to control the
production and consumption of specific man-made chemicals that destroy the ozone layer,
the earth’s protective shield. An agreement /mechanism to reduce and eliminate the
production and consumption of ODS Developed and developing countries have different
phase out schedules
INDIA’S COMMITMENT TO THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL
i. 19th June 1991 : India became a Party to the Vienna convention.
ii. 17th September 1992 : India became a Party to the Montreal Protocol and ratified the
London Amendment.
iii. 3rd March 2003 : India ratified Copenhagen Amendment (1992), Montreal
Amendment (1997) and Beijing Amendment (1999).
iv. November 1993 : India’s Country Programme was prepared.
v. January 2006 : India’s Country Programme was updated.
MONTREAL PROTOCOL – Prevention of OZONE Depletion
The Montreal Protocol is designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of
ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances), Chemicals that potentially deplete the ozone layer.
Gases considered in terms of Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP):
The ODP is based on the amount of chlorine which is released by the refrigerant as it
degrades.
Reference ODP is for CFC R11 (also known as Freon-11, CFC-11, or R-11)
which is taken as 1.
Most of refrigerants are strong GHG emissions and thus limitation of ODS will help climate change
as well.
Without the Montreal Protocol by 2050
Ozone depletion would have reached to at least 50 % in the northern hemisphere’s mid latitudes
70% in the southern mid latitudes.
Doubling on the UV-B radiation reaching earth’s surface.
Estimated increases of 19 million more cases of non-melanoma cancer 1.5 million more
cases of melanoma cancer 130 million more eye cataracts

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