International Journal of Environment and Climate Change

Volume 14, Issue 6, Page 295-303, 2024; Article no.IJECC.114287

ISSN: 2581-8627
(Past name: British Journal of Environment & Climate Change, Past ISSN: 2231–4784)

Design of Rain Water Harvesting

System for Efficient Water Scarcity and
Flood Management in India
Sunil Kumar a*
a Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar.
Author’s contribution

Author SK designed the study, performed the statistical analysis, wrote the protocol, analysis of the study,
literature searches, wrote the first draft of the manuscript, read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information
DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2024/v14i64229

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Received: 15/01/2024
Original Research Article Accepted: 20/03/2024
Published: 17/06/2024

ABSTRACT
Areas experiencing extensive floods during the rainy season and water scarcity in winter require
efficient water resource management. Economical water-harvesting structures such as drystone
masonry and upstream-wall cement masonry, with heights ranging from 1 to 2.5 meters, are
constructed for catchments smaller than 10, 10 to 20, and 20 to 30 hectares, respectively, utilizing
locally sourced materials. These constructions offer significant cost-effectiveness for the location,
boasting a B:C ratio of 3.5:1. In certain areas of Assam, Garh structures are constructed, featuring
large and lengthy embankments on both sides with an open central section for water flow. Within
paddy fields, the entire area is partitioned into small square segments, creating small embankments
known as "Dara." which store rainwater for cultivation. Across the entire Western Himalayan region,
encompassing Jammu, Himachal Pradesh, and Northern Uttaranchal, Guhl serves as a
standardized water harvesting technique. Notably, in Akola and Chittoor districts, the establishment
of farm ponds has significantly boosted crop and livestock productivity, along with farm income.
Additional irrigation has notably enhanced the yield of various rainfed crops such as pigeon pea,
chickpea, groundnut, cotton, and vegetables, as well as mango and coconut plants, with
improvements ranging from 5 to 72%. With the availability of harvested rainwater for supplemental
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Asstt. Prof.-Cum-Jr. Scientist;
*Corresponding author: E-mail: sunilkumaragromet@gmail.com;

Cite as: Kumar, Sunil. 2024. “Design of Rain Water Harvesting System for Efficient Water Scarcity and Flood Management in
India”. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change 14 (6):295-303. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2024/v14i64229.
 Kumar; Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 295-303, 2024; Article no.IJECC.114287

irrigation, farmers have also planted additional fruit trees, resulting in increased productivity of
existing fruit trees, such as mango (39%) in Chittoor district and coconut (51%) in Vellore district.
Expanding the number of rainwater harvesting structures could potentially reduce runoff within the
basin by up to 60%. The implementation of Doha Models, involving percolation tanks dug along the
length of lower-order seasonal streams in Jalna district of Maharashtra, has increased cropping
intensity from 129% to 132%. Remarkably, five out of seven crops have demonstrated a relatively
higher percentage increase in yields. The optimal productivity of harvested water is achieved when
efficient application methods such as micro-irrigation are employed, targeting high-value crops.

Keywords: Watershed management, flood protection, rain water harvesting; supplemental irrigation;
doha models.
1. INTRODUCTION water harvesting varies across different regions
and countries. Water harvesting techniques
Water plays a crucial role in ecosystems, serve both agricultural purposes and contribute
essential for sustaining biodiversity. The scarcity to increasing groundwater availability. Household
of freshwater for agricultural, industrial, and water harvesting has been practiced worldwide
domestic needs isn't limited to arid regions; it for many years. In rural areas, people
also impacts regions with high rainfall. Factors traditionally collect rooftop water during rainy
contributing to water scarcity include limited days for various household needs, including
water storage capacity, slow infiltration rates, drinking. In South East Asian nations, individuals
high evaporation demands, and significant place large earthen pots at the corners of their
fluctuations in annual precipitation [1-3]. The houses to collect rooftop water for domestic use
term "water harvesting" was coined by Geddes [9-11]. For instance, the Agricultural College
from the University of Sydney, defining it as the building in Coimbatore, constructed a century
collection and storage of any water form, ago, employed a rainwater harvesting system.
including runoff or creek flow, for irrigation. Rainwater from the rooftop was collected through
Meyer of USDA, USA, expanded this definition to pipes and stored in large underground tanks
include the practice of collecting rainfall water beside the building. Thus, rainwater harvesting
from treated areas to increase runoff. More has been an age-old practice, evolving over time
recently, Currier from the USA defined it as the and serving various purposes worldwide.
process of collecting natural precipitation from However, the systematic implementation of
prepared watersheds for beneficial use. Today, rainwater harvesting remains a concern in many
water harvesting encompasses collecting and places. Today, there is a growing need to adopt
storing runoff water or creek flow resulting from rainwater harvesting to address water issues not
rainfall in both surface and subsurface soil only in arid regions but also in sub-humid and
profiles [4,5]. While initially prevalent in arid and humid areas. Rainwater harvesting dates back
semi-arid regions, water harvesting is now over a thousand years in South India, evidenced
increasingly used in sub-humid and humid areas. by the construction of irrigation tanks, temple
In India, water harvesting involves utilizing erratic tanks, and farm ponds. In the modern era,
monsoon rainfall for crop cultivation in dry organizations such as ICRISAT in Hyderabad,
regions and conserving excess runoff water for the Central Arid Zone Research Institute in
drinking and groundwater recharge. When water Jodhpur, CRIDA in Hyderabad, State Agricultural
harvesting techniques are applied to runoff Universities, and other dryland research centers
farming, the soil itself serves as the storage across India are actively engaged in rainwater
reservoir [6,7]. However, for purposes like harvesting initiatives.
livestock, supplementary irrigation, or human
consumption, additional storage facilities are 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
required. In countries with abundant land, water
harvesting entails capturing and storing rainwater 2.1 Design of Rain Water Harvesting
for various uses.
The construction of rainwater collection systems
In India, relying solely on land area for rainwater is relatively straightforward, typically comprising a
harvesting is impractical. Therefore, water catchment area, storage tank, and connecting
harvesting in the Indian context involves pipework. These systems are categorized as
maximizing the utilization of rainwater where it direct, indirect, or gravity feed based on how
falls and collecting any excess water for reuse rainwater is stored and distributed. The materials
within the same area [8]. Hence, the concept of used for the catchment area significantly impact

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the amount of runoff water and its quality in terms 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
of physical, chemical, and biological aspects.
Initial rainwater runoff is typically more polluted 3.1 Whether to Store Rainwater or Use it
than subsequent runoff. For non-potable uses, for Recharge?
rainwater only needs treatment before entering
the storage tank, typically with a cross-flow or The decision of whether to store rainwater for
screen filter with a permeability of 0.2 to 1.00 mm. future use or to recharge groundwater depends
Additional treatment may occur within the storage on the rainfall pattern and the region's capacity to
tank through flotation and settling. Underground do so. The sub-surface geology of the area also
storage is preferred to limit exposure to sunlight influences this decision-making process. Delhi,
and maintain lower water temperatures, reducing Gujarat, and Rajasthan, where the entire annual
microbiological activity such as algal growth. The rainfall is concentrated within 3 or 4 months,
capacity of the rainwater storage tank is crucial predominantly focus on groundwater recharge.
as it affects both the economics and operation of Conversely, regions like Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
the system. Bangalore, and Mizoram, where rainfall is spread
2.2 Rainwater Harvesting System throughout the year with intermittent dry periods,
utilize small-scale tanks to store rainwater for use
Rainwater harvesting entails the capture and during dry spells. For instance, in Ahmedabad,
storage of rainwater, usually from roofs or other which experiences a limited number of rainy days
man-made surfaces, along with gathering sheet similar to Delhi, traditional rainwater storage
runoff from natural catchment areas. This structures known as 'tanks' are still employed in
harvested water serves various purposes in residential areas, hotels, and temples. In areas
domestic, industrial, agricultural, and where groundwater is saline, alternative systems
environmental settings. Water harvesting systems may be used for rainwater storage.
are categorized as small, medium, or large scale,
usually determined by the size of the catchment 3.2 Traditional Water Harvesting
area. This approach has been widely adopted Techniques
and promoted in numerous developing countries
like the USA, Japan, China, India, Germany, and
3.2.1 Ponds / tanks
Australia to meet the growing water demand
across sectors such as agriculture and industry.
The main components of a rainwater harvesting These are the predominant techniques for
system include the catchment area, gutter and gathering and retaining rainwater. Many ponds
downspout, filtration system, storage system, have their own catchment areas, ensuring
delivery system, and treatment/purification. sufficient water during the rainy season. If the
catchment area is inadequate, water from nearby
2.2.1 Process for rainwater harvesting streams is redirected through open channels to
replenish the pond. Alternatively, water from
2.2.2.1 Calculation of water harvesting potential
irrigation canals may also be utilized. Ponds are
and match with the water demand
dug in various shapes and sizes, determined by
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 factors such as soil type, land availability, and the
water needs of the local community. These ponds
Water loss occurs through evaporation or are referred to by different names depending on
absorption by catchment surfaces and other the region (Table 1).
forms of loss. The runoff coefficient of a
catchment indicates the fraction of rainfall that 3.2.2 Ground water harvesting
can be collected as harvestable rainwater from
the total precipitation. In the hilly regions of Uttaranchal, locals gather
groundwater by constructing stone walls across
2.2.2.2 Decide the type, capacity and location of groundwater streams, known as Naula or Hauzi.
structures However, there has been a gradual decrease in
the construction of these structures, likely due to
Below are the two primary methods of rainwater
the depletion of underground streams caused by
harvesting.
extensive deforestation and increased human
i. Storage of rainwater on surface for future activities in the hills. A similar practice is
use observed in certain parts of Kerala, where
ii. Recharge to ground water. groundwater is collected by digging long, deep

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trenches along gentle slopes, known as enhanced versions of the traditional temporary or
Surangam. In Punjab, shallow wells are dug near semi-permanent structures typically constructed
streambeds to capture seepage water, referred to by villagers across natural streams or drainage
as Jhalars. In Rajasthan, these wells are called channels.
Beris and were historically constructed by kings.
In Gujarat, shallow wells known as Virdas are 3.3.3 Percolation tanks
excavated in depressions to access groundwater.
In Tamil Nadu, similar structures known as These structures are primarily constructed to
Ooranis were built in the past. retain monsoon runoff over a vast area, thereby
enhancing groundwater recharge. The selection
3.2.3 Hill slope collection of percolation tanks is based on the moderate to
high porosity of the soil and underlying rocky
In numerous mountainous regions with ample layers. Ponding is carried out similarly to check
rainfall, constructed lined channels run across hill dams, albeit with longer bunds and lower
slopes to intercept rainwater. These channels heights. The design aims to fill the pond multiple
provide water for irrigating terraced fields and are times during the rainy season, allowing most of
also utilized for domestic purposes, with excess the impounded water to percolate into the ground
water stored in small ponds. This approach is before subsequent rainfall. However, achieving
observed in states like Himachal Pradesh, this ideal operation is rarely feasible in real-world
Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, and Arunachal conditions. These tanks are typically erected by
Pradesh. government agencies due to the specialized
hydrogeological skills required for their
3.3 Modern Structures for Water construction.
Harvesting
3.3.4 Sub-surface dykes
3.3.1 Roof top harvesting
These are impermeable structures constructed
This method primarily serves the purpose of below the stream bed level using materials like
providing drinking water. Rainwater from the masonry, concrete, or clay. They aim to intercept
roofs of buildings is collected and stored in tanks, sub-surface water flow in natural streams,
either above or below ground level. This practice thereby enhancing the productivity of wells and
is prevalent at the individual household level in hand pumps upstream. Additionally, alongside
remote hilly areas with high rainfall and some these direct water harvesting techniques, various
semi-arid regions on the plains. It is observed in indirect methods have also been devised. These
northeastern states such as Arunachal Pradesh, aim at augmenting soil moisture retention and
Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, and Nagaland, as preventing soil erosion and land degradation.
well as in districts like Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and These are:
Jodhpur in Rajasthan. In recent years, spurred
by initiatives from both Central and State (i) Contour bunding: These are low earthen
Governments, this practice has gained traction in ridges constructed horizontally in rows
numerous cities and towns across the country. across hill slopes. They aid in retaining soil
moisture and mitigating topsoil erosion.
3.3.2 Check Dams (ii) Gully plugging: These are erosion control
structures erected across gullies in
These structures, made of concrete or masonry, mountainous regions, constructed using
are constructed across small streams to store indigenous materials such as stone
surface water and facilitate incidental boulders, soil, and brushwood.
groundwater recharge. Their design considers
factors such as the water volume that can be Contour bunding and gully plugging are integral
stored upstream, the safe evacuation of surplus components of watershed improvement projects.
flood discharge, structural stability against The other works in this category are:
different forces, and potential groundwater
recharge. Typically, these structures are built by
• Bench Terracing
State Government agencies like the
• Contour Cropping
Departments of Irrigation/Water Resources,
Agriculture, and Forests. They represent • Contour

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Table 1. Local name of pond in in different states of India

State Local name of pond
Nagaland Zabo
Gujarat Kunda, Jheel
Gujarat Kunda, Jheel
Orissa Katas, Mundas
Maharashtra Bandharas
Karnataka Volakere, Katte or Kunte
Andhra Pradesh Tank
Kerela Tank
Ladakh Zing
Jammu Chhapris
Sikkim Khup
Table 2. Examples of traditional water harvesting systems in India
Regions Water Harvesting Techniques
Trans-Himalayan Region Zing: Tanks for collecting melted ice water in Ladakh.
Western Himalayas Kul: Water channels to collect and store water in mountain areas of
Jammu and Himachal Pradesh. Naula: Small ponds to collect
rainwater in Uttaranchal.
Eastern Himalayas Apatani system: Terraced plots connected by inlet and outlet
channels in Arunachal Pradesh.
Zabo: Impounding runoff water in Nagaland.
Bamboo drip irrigation: In the hilly areas of Meghalaya, water from
streams is brought to the plains via bamboo pipes for drip irrigation.
Brahmaputra Valley Dongs: Ponds in Assam to collect and store rain water.
Dungs or Jampois: Small irrigation channels linking rice fields to
streams in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal.
Indo-Gangetic Plain Dighis: Small square or circular reservoir fed by canals from rivers in
Delhi.
Baolis: A baoli is a reservoir in which rain water can be stored from
which everyone could draw water for use.
Thar Desert Baoris / Bers: Community wells in Rajasthan that capture and
conserve rainwater.
Tankas: Underground tank to store rain water in Rajasthan.
Kund: A circular underground tank or small natural or artificial lake,
having a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards
the center, where water that has fallen as rain is collected.
Central Highlands Johads: Johads are small earthen check dams that capture and
conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater
recharge, found in Alwar district of Rajasthan.

3.4 Some Case Studies of Rain Water around 1000 mm, precipitation is irregular, with
Harvesting about 80% occurring during the monsoon
months. Severe soil erosion from flash floods
3.4.1 Makkowal project - A case study and heavy rainfall, coupled with frequent
drought-induced crop failures, are common
Makkowal, located in Punjab, India, challenges. The village faces acute water
approximately 30 km from Hoshiarpur at the scarcity; Even a 100-meter-deep open well failed
foothills of Shivaliks, encompasses 300 houses to provide sufficient drinking water. Villagers
and spans an area of 243 hectares. To the north must traverse 2 to 3 km across hilly terrain to
lies hilly terrain, while the western part features access wells along stream banks, where
leveled lands with a moderate slope. The sandy perennial flow is present for much of the year. A
to sandy loam soils are suitable for agriculture, drainage line treatment sketch map for the
yet productivity is hampered by limited irrigation Makkowal watershed is depicted in Fig. 1.
water availability. Despite an average rainfall of

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Fig. 1. Layout map of drainage line treatment of Mokkowal and Takaral Watersheds

The project commenced in 1986 and functioned farmers used only FYM (Farm Yard Manure)
for seven years, aimed at harnessing surface without fertilizers, high-yielding varieties, or
flow from the hill seepage located 3 km from the weedicides. Subsequently, farmers began using
village. Three existing shallow open wells along high-yielding varieties of maize and wheat seeds,
the stream bank were replenished with seepage as well as chemical fertilizers, weedicides, and
water and interconnected using cement concrete pesticides. This transition led to increased
pipes. The village pond underwent deepening, fertilizer usage, crop yields (including wheat,
widening, and renovation, increasing its storage maize, gram, and fodder), and overall returns, as
capacity to 2.4 hectare-meters. A network of depicted in Figs. 2,3.
underground cement concrete pipelines was laid
from the pond to convey water for agricultural 3.4.2 Takarla project-A case study
irrigation. Separate taps for drinking, bathing,
washing, and cattle were installed just before the The Takarla surface flow harnessing project,
village pond, with surplus arrangements made on resembling the Makkowal project with slight
the opposite side. The entire catchment area of modifications, is situated in the foothills of the
choes was treated with various engineering and Indian Shiwaliks, approximately 13 km from
biological conservation measures. The cost and Balachaur in Nawashahar district, Punjab.
effective lifespan of earthen check dams depend Operating for seven years, the area features
on location, proper design, and maintenance. undulating slopes with loamy sand to sandy loam
Construction costs for earthen dams in the area soils, occasionally silt loam, and erodible in
ranged from Rs 2.5 to Rs 27.0 per cubic meter of nature. Being rainfed, the region is prone to
capacity. Prior to the project implementation, torrential rainfall, leading to surface runoff

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Fig. 2. Pre and post-project average yields (qt ha-1)

Fig. 3. Pre and post-project average returns (Rs. ha-1)

caused by seepage from the hillsides. Despite underground pipeline from the stilling basin
the rainy season lasting 3-4 months, seepage delivers water, via gravity flow, to agricultural
continues for an extended period, albeit at fields situated at a lower elevation, providing
reduced rates, remaining in the sub-surface sand supplemental irrigation for approximately 100
bed of choe. The project involved constructing a hectares of farmland in the village. The study
concrete toe wall in the channel at the stream area's major crops, along with their pre- and
bed, along with a weir on the barrier wall to post-project yields and returns, are detailed in
Table 3 and Figs 4,5 illustrating increasing gross
release flow close to the water pool. A stilling returns from adopting new water-saving
basin was created on one side of the stream to techniques. Furthermore, a case study
generate a water head, connected to the inlet via examining water resources in Shaheed Bhagat
a pipe. Additionally, a filter of local stones and Singh Nagar was conducted by R. Agrawal
grits was placed above the weir in the choe bed et al. [8].
to aid water infiltration during lean periods. An

Table 3. Pre and post project average yields of major crops

Name of Crop Pre-project Yield (q ha-1) Post-project Yield (q ha-1)

WHEAT 10.0 25.0
MAIZE 5.0 12.5
GRAM 2.5 7.5
FODDER 40.0 100.0

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Fig. 4. Pre and post-project average yields (q ha-1) of major crops

Fig. 5. Pre and post-project gross returns (Rs. ha-1) of major crops

4. CONCLUSION domestic use to 55% of the area's population.

There is an urgent requirement for flood
The irregular and uneven distribution of rainfall, protection and irrigation on farmlands below the
both spatially and temporally, highlights the hills through the control and utilization of runoff,
significance of rainwater harvesting in enhancing as well as the rehabilitation of upper watersheds
and sustaining agricultural productivity. to reduce runoff and erosion from the hills
Excavated dug-out pond tanks, characterized by through soil conservation measures.
an inverted truncated pyramid shape with 1:1 Strengthening the capacity of project
side slopes and lined with a 200-micron implementing agencies is vital for the successful
polyethylene sheet buried at a depth of 20 cm implementation of traditional and new on-farm
and pitched with bricks, are recognized as the rainwater harvesting techniques, enabling them
most suitable method for storing runoff in to conduct investigations and research on
cultivated lands. The earthen embankments surface hydrology, groundwater, and micro-
designed for rainwater harvesting offer a cost- watershed studies.
benefit ratio of approximately 1.38:1. Utilizing
rainwater collected during the monsoon for DISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE)
irrigation during periods of scarcity has been
shown to increase crop yields by 25-35% during Author(s) hereby declare that NO generative AI
the Rabi season and provide additional water for technologies such as Large Language Models

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(ChatGPT, COPILOT, etc) and text-to-image study from Southern India. International
generators have been used during writing or Journal of Engineering Research and
editing of manuscripts. Development. 2015;11(12):19–29.
6. Hameed TB, Sridhar MKC, Fawole OB. A
COMPETING INTERESTS Low Cost ‘Umbrella Rainwater Harvester’
Author has declared that no competing interests for Open Air Markets in Nigeria: Design,
exist. Fabrication, Yield and Quality Assessment.
International Journal of Scientific and
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