Stones

Muhammad Salman
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Bombay
 Stone monuments – World

Gobekli Tepe, Turkey

10000 – 9000 BC

Ggantija, Malta
3600 BC

Macchu Picchu, Peru

1400-1500 AD
Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt
2560 BC
 Stone monuments – India

Masroor Rock Cut Temple, Himachal (Konark Temple, Odhisa- 13th Century)
Pradesh (8th Century)

Qutab minar

Hawa Mahal,Jaipur
Taj Mahal
 Stone monuments – Maharashtra

Ajanta (100 BC) Kailasa, Ellora (5-7 century AD) Elephanta caves (5-8 Century AD)

Karli (2 BC – 2 AD) Mahakali Caves (1 BC – 6 AD) Pandu Leni (3 BC – 2 AD)

Why are stones used in construction?
• Availability (Natural – Not manufactured)
• Strength
• Durable – Stands for more than 1000 of years
• Shape and Size – Can be made into any shape and size
• Relatively Economic (location dependent)
• Sustainable
Stones – Classification
• Composed of minerals (either a single mineral, or a mixture of
minerals).

• Minerals are chemical compounds that

are normally crystalline and form by
geological processes and must also
have a well-defined chemical
composition.
• eg: Quartz, Halite, Gypsum, Feldspar,
Biotite (mica), Hornblende, Kaolinite,
Calcite, Dolomite etc.
Mix of minerals
 Minerals or not…

Synthetic diamond Ice Water Mercury

Refined sugar Iron rust Goethite (FeOOH) Quartz

Minerals
Bulk earth: Crust: Mantle:
• Fe (32.1%) • O (46.0%) • O (45.0%)
• O (30.1%) • Si (28.0%) • Mg (23.0%)
• Si (15.1%) • Al (8.2%) • Si (22.0%)
• Mg (13.9%) • Fe (5.6%) • Fe (5.8%)

Core:
• Fe (88.8%)
• Ni (5.8%)
• S (4.5%)
Minerals
• Anionic Complexes
Common Anionic Complexes in Minerals
Element Complex
silicon (Si) (SiO4)4-
carbon (C) (CO3)2-
nitrogen (N) (NO3)-
sulphur (S) (SO4)2-
phosphorous (P) (PO4)3-

• Silicates (92% of the earth crust, composed of Si and O)

• Non-silicates (8% of the earth crust)

 Dark silicates – Rich in Fe and Mg
Hornblende crystal (dark
green)
Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2

Augite, (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6

Fayalite (Fe2SiO4)

Annite (mica)
K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH,F)2
Light silicates – poor in Fe and Mg
Microcline,
KAlSi3O8
Quarz
SiO2

Muscovite (mica) –
KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2

Plagioclase Feldspar
(Na,Ca)Al, Si)4O10)
Granite
Rock cycle
Stones – Classification
• Geological
• Igneous:
• Formed when magma cools and crystallizes in various parts of the earth
• These are hard, compact and non-layering.
• Classified as a) Intrusive and b) extrusive rocks
• Sedimentary
• Developed due to compaction and cementation of various sediments (sand, pebbles etc.)
• Soft, variable compactness and form well-defined layers. Minerals formed from solution and
precipitates (200-300 ◦C)
• Classified as a) Clastic, b) Chemical and c) Biological rocks
• Metamorphic
• Formed due to the change in pressure, temperature and chemical environment of preexisting
rocks
• These are hard, compact and form layering
• Classified as a) Foliated and b) Non-foliated rocks
Igneous rocks
• Formed by the cooling of magma or lava.

• Intrusive (plutonic) rocks

• Extrusive (volcanic) rocks

Magma and Lava
• Extrusive rocks are formed on the surface of the Earth from lava,
which is magma that has emerged from underground.
• Intrusive rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies
within the crust of the planet.
Extrusive and Intrusive Rock
 Extrusive (volcanic) and Intrusive (plutonic)
Rock

Intrusive rocks:
Crystals larger than 1 mm
Sedimentary rocks
• Formed from the compaction and cementing of sediments

compaction Sedimentary
Rocks weathering Sediments transport deposition
cementation Rocks
Igneous Mechanical Gravel Wind In layers Silica Conglomerate
Metamorphic & Sand Flowing water Calcite Sandstone
Sedimentary Chemical Silt Waves Hematite Mudrock
Clay Glaciers LImestone
Ions
Sorting
& Rounding

• Clastic
• Organic/crystalline
• Bioclastic
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-
existing rocks.

Sandstones

Conglomerates and breccias

Shale
Crystalline Sedimentary rocks
• Evaporates and precipitates
• When the solution evaporates, it leaves behind the crystalline rock. e.g. sea water
evaporates to leave behind rock salt (Halite)
• Crystals precipitated from an over saturated solution

Halite (rock salt, NaCl)

Rock gypsum Dolostone
Organic sedimentary rocks
• Bioclastic rocks – form from organic compacted material/matter.

• e.g.: coal – compacted plant matter,

coquina – a variety of limestone, made of compacted shells
Coquina

Coal
Metamophic rocks
• Rocks undergo metamorphosis/change due to heat and pressure.
• Deep burials in orogenic (mountainous) zones
• Zone of collision of two tectonic plates
• Recrystallisation
• Isochemical process - the bulk chemical composition of a rock body is
more or less unchanged from the protolith
• the minerals may be largely recrystallized into a new mineral assemblage
• slaty cleavage or schistosity
Same chemical composition
High tempt
Protlith Metamorphic Rock
High pressure

Igneous New minerals

Sedimentary New structures
Metmorphic
Shale Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss

Low grade High grade

Fine grained Coarse grained
Fracture cleavage Slaty cleavage Schistocity Gneiss banding
Stones – Classification
• Classification
• Physical – Stratified (Slate, Limestone), Unstratified (Granite, Basalt), Foliated
(Gneiss)
Stones – Classification
• Classification
• Chemical
• Siliceous (consisting of quartz and Sand) – Granite, Quartzite, Sand stone
• Argillaceous (consisting of clay minerals) – Slate
• Calcareous (Consisting of Carbonates of lime) – Marble, Limestone
• Dolomitic – Containing double carbonates of calcium and magnesium
• Ferruginous – Containing iron oxide- Laterite (IS 3620)
Stones – some more info
• 95% of the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust is composed of igneous
and metamorphic rocks

• 75% of the rocks exposed on the surface of the earth are

sedimentary

• Stones used for Construction – hard, durable, free from weathered

materials, cracks and defects
Stones - Applications
• Columns, Beams, Floors slabs, Roofs, Lintels, Shelves ..
• Masonry (Walls, Foundation)
• Pavements (Walkways, Driveways)
• Manufacture of Cement and Lime
• Aggregates in concrete
• Ornamental work (External façade)
• Base material for water and sewage filters
Major rock types in India
• Basalt and trap
• Chalk
• Gneiss
• Granite
• Kankar
• Laterite
• Limestone
• Marble
• Murum
• Quartzite
• Sandstone
• Slate
 Basalt and trap
• Classification: Igneous
• Qualities: Hard and tough; difficult to work. It’s sp. gr. Oblique satellite view of the Deccan Traps
is 3.0 and compressive strength varies from 150 to
190 MPa
• Uses: Road metal. for rubble masonry, foundation
work, etc.
• Localities: Maharashtra, Bihar. Gujarat, Bengal and M.P.
Basalt column in Yavatmal

Giant’s Causeway, Northern Ireland

Deccan Basalt
Gneiss
• Classification: Metamorphic
• Qualities: Splits into thin slabs: easy to work. Its sp.
gr. is 2.69 and compressive strength is 210 MPa
• Uses : Street paving, rough stone masonry work,
etc.
• Localities: Madras, Mysore, Bihar. A.P, Maharashtra,
Bengal, Kerala and Gujarat.
Granite
• Classification: Igneous
• Qualities: Hard, durable and available in
different colours. Highly resistant to natural Granite rock in Hampi
force, can take a nice polish. Its sp. gr. varies
from 2.4 to 2.8 and compressive strength
varies from 75 to 130 MPa.
• Uses: Steps, sills, facing work, walls, bridge
piers, columns, road metal, ballast, etc. It is
unsuitable for carving.
• Localities: Kashmir, Madras, Punjab, Rajasthan,
U.P., M.P., Mysore, Maharashtra. Assam,
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Kerala and Gujarat
Kankar
• Classification: Sedimentary.
• Qualities: Impure limestone.
• Uses: Road metal. manufacture of hydraulic lime,
etc.
• Localities: North and Central India.
Laterite
• Classification: Sedimentary, Igneous, Metamorphic.
• Qualities: Porous and spongy structure, easily
quarried in a block, contain high percentage of oxide
of iron; available in a different colour. Its compressive
strength varies from 2 to 3.2 Mpa.
• Uses: Building stone. road metal, rough stone
masonry work. etc.
• Localities: Bihar, Orissa, Mysore, U.P, Maharashtra.
Kerala, A.P. and Madras.
Murum
• Classification: Metamorphic
• Qualities: Decomposed laterite’, deep brown or red
in colour.
• Uses: Blindage for metal roads, for fancy paths and
garden walls.
• Localities: Same as Laterite.
Limestone
• Classification: Sedimentary.
• Qualities: Consists of carbonate of lime, easy
to work. It’s sp. gr. varies from 2.00 to 2.75 Yana rocks, limestone outcrop

and compressive strength is 55 MPa.

• Uses Floors, steps, walls. road metal,
manufacture of lime in blast furnaces, etc.
• Localities: Maharashtra, Rajasthan. Punjab,
Gujarat, Andaman Islands, Bengal, Bihar, A.P.,
Himachal Pradesh, M.P. and U.P.
Chalk
• Classification: Sedimentary
• Qualities: Pure white limestone, soft and easy to form a powder.
• Uses: In preparing glazier’s putty, as colouring material in manufacture
of portland cement.
• Localities: Same as limestone.
Kota limestone
• Chemical composition :
• Calcium Carbonate 38-40%, Magnesium Oxide-
4-5%, Silica 24-25%.
• Quarried at Kota district, Rajasthan.
• Since it is limestone, it is not resistant to
acid and alkali.
• Susceptible to flaking.
 Marble
• Classification: Metamorphic.
• Qualities: Can take a good polish and is available in different colours. Its sp.
gr. is 2.65 and compressive strength is 70 Mpa.
• Uses: Flooring, facing work, columns, steps, ornamental work, etc. It can
take a nice polish. It can easily be sawn and carved.
• Localities: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, A.P, Mysore, M.P and U.P.
Jabalpur's Bhedaghat Marble Ambaji Marble Mines Makarana Marble Mines
Quartzite
• Classification: Metamorphic
• Qualities: Hard. brittle, crystalline and compact; difficult
to work and dress.
• Uses: Retaining walls, road metal, concrete aggregate,
pitching, rubble masonry, facing of buildings, etc.
• Localities: Bengal, A.P., Himachal Pradesh, Madras, U.P,
Mysore, Gujarat, Punjab and Rajasthan.
• Compressive strength: 85 to 140 MPa
Sandstone
• Classification: Sedimentary
• Qualities: Consists of quartz and other minerals, easy to work and dress
and available in different colours. Its sp. gr. varies from 2.65 to 2.95 and
compressive strength is 65 MPa.
• Uses: Steps, facing work, columns. flooring, walls, road metal, ornamental
carving, etc.
• Localities: A.P., M.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat. Andaman
Islands, Bengal, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir, Madras and U.P.
Badami Rocks Sandstone, Karnataka
Slate
• Classification: Metamorphic
• Qualities: Black colour and
splits, long natural bedding
plane,: non-absorbent. Its sp. gr.
a General view of Khaniyara slate mine. b Close-
is 2.89 and compressive up of one section of the same
strength varies from 80 to 211
MPa.
• Uses: Roofing work, sills.
dampproof courses, etc.
• Localities: U.P, LP., Bihar, Madras,
Rajasthan and Mysore.
Stones – Criteria for selection
Type of application → Properties → Cost
• Appearance, Colour, Texture (IS 1123:1998)
• Strength
• Compressive (IS 1121 – Part 1:1998)
• Transverse (IS 1121 – Part 2:1998)
• Tension (IS 1121 – Part 3:1998)
• Shear (IS 1121 – Part 4:1998)
• Durability (IS 1125:1998, IS 1126:1998)
• Water absorption, Specific gravity, Porosity (IS 1122:1998, 1124:1998)
• Impact resistance (IS 5640:1970)
Stones – Criteria for selection
• Toughness (IS 5218:1969)
• Resistance to Wear/Abrasion (IS 1706:1998)
• Hardness (Dorry`s test)
• Acid resistance (IS 4122:1967)
• Water permeability (IS 4121:1967, IS 4348:1998)
• Easiness of dressing (1129:1972)
• Seasoning
• Fire resistance
• Freezing and Thawing Test
Deterioration & Preservation
• Fatigue - wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, temperature
• Deleterious substances (Chlorides, sulphates) - Seashores, Industrial areas, contaminated soils,
water & air
• Vegetation growth
• Chemicals from Mortar
• Abrasion – Waterfalls, rainfall (with harmful agents – acid rain)

Preservation: Using one of the following preservatives

• Linseed Oil
• Solution of Alum and Soap (40:60) along with water
• Solution of barium hydroxide
• Paraffin
• Paints !?
Laterite

47
Random Rubble masonry
 Stone façade
Other names used to describe Stone façade
• Thin Stone Veneer
• Natural Stone Veneer
• Real Stone Veneer
• Stone Cladding
• Stone Covering
• Stone Dado
• Stone Facing
• Stone Fascia
• Stone Layer
• Stone Lining
• Stone Overlay
• Stone Overlayer
• Stone Paneling
• Stone Panels
• Stone Sheathing
• Stone Sheeting
• Stone Siding
• Stone Stratum
• Stone Veneer
• Stone Wainscot
• Stone Wrap
• Stone Wrapping
• Thinstone
Compressive strength (IS 1121 Part 1)
• Shape – Cubes or Cylinders, Diameter or lateral dimension > 50 mm
• Aspect ratio ≥ 1, Load bearing surfaces – Parallel (nearest 0.2 mm)
• Testing Conditions (3 samples for each condition)
• Saturated Condition : The test pieces shall be immersed in water maintained at 20 to 30°C for 72 h before
testing and shall be tested.
• Dry Condition : The test pieces shall also be tested in a dry condition and shall be dried in an oven at 105 ±
5 °C for 24 h and cooled in a desiccator to room temperature (20 to 30 °C).
• Loading rate - 140 kg/cm2 per minute
• Record Maximum load at failure
• Compressive strength (Average of 3 specimens) = Load (N or kg)/ Area (mm2 or cm2)
• Ratio of height to diameter ratio differs from unity by 25 % or more, then
• Cc =Cp/(0.778 + 0.222 ( b ÷ h ))
• Cc = compressive strength of standard test piece, Cp = compressive strength of the specimen having a height
greater than the diameter or lateral dimension, b = diameter or lateral dimension, and h = height.
Transverse Strength (IS 1211 Part 2)
• Specimen dimension – 200 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm
• Testing Conditions
• Saturated Condition : The test pieces shall be immersed in water
maintained at 20 to 30°C for 72 h before testing and shall be tested
• Dry Condition : The test pieces shall also be tested in a dry condition and
shall be dried in an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 24 h and cooled in a desiccator
to room temperature (20 to 30°C).
• Loading rate - 200 kg per minute
• Record Maximum load (W) at failure
• Transverse strength (Average of 3 specimens) = 3WL/bd2
• L = Span (150 mm), b = d =50 mm
Durability (IS 1126)
• Dimension – 50 mm φ × 50 mm height
• Dry the specimen for 24 hours and weighed (W1)
1. Suspended in Saturated solution of Sodium sulphate decahydrate – 16 to 18 hours at 20-
30 ˚C
2. Air dry for 30 minutes and oven dry (105 ± 5˚C) for 4 hours
3. Cooled to room temperature
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 for 30 cycles
5. Thorough washing to free from sodium sulphates solution
6. Weigh the specimen (W2)
• Weigh the Specimens after every 5 cycles and note it
• Results (3 specimens) – [(W1 - W2)/ W1] × 100
• Check for development of cracks or spalling
Resistance to Wear/ Abrasion (IS 1706)
• Dimension of specimen – 7.06 cm3 , 3 Specimens
• Grinding path – 20 g of abrasive powder
• Dry Specimen at 110˚C for 24 hours-Weigh (W1) and thickness readings
• Load at pressure stamp 30 kg
• Speed – 30 rev/min, revolutions  110 + 110
• Change the abrasive powder every 22 rev.
• Turn around specimen about vertical axis after 110 rev.
• Weigh the specimen (W2).
• Measure the thickness of the specimen.
• Test shall be repeated for 6 faces of each specimen
• Alternate thickness determination t = 10 [(W1-W2)/(W1 × A)] × V1