Ministry of Education

Introduction to Inclusive Education

March 2014
Addis Ababa
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1. Definitions of Terminologies and Policy Frameworks

Impairment: refers to any loss or lack of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure
or function. It is an abnormality of body structure, appearance, organ or system functioning.
Examples of impairment include: amputations, mental illness, near-nearsightedness, arthritis
(illness where joints are stiff), dementia (madness) …
Disability: is any restriction or lack of ability resulting from impairment to perform an activity
in the manner or within the range considered normal for a person of the same age, culture, and
education. It is the consequence of impairment in functional performance and activity. Simply
stated, a disability is a performance deficit within the physical and social environments that is the
result of impairment. Examples of disability: reading, seeing (difficulty seeing), inability
moving.

Handicap: a handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or

disability that limits or prevents the fulfillment of the role that is typical (depending on age,
gender, and social or cultural factors) for that individual.
NB. All impairment does not result in a disability. E.g., paralysis of the lower limbs is a
vocational disability for a dancer, but the same impairment is not a disability for a
bookkeeper.

It is the disadvantage which is reflected in interaction with, and adaptation to, the surroundings.
It refers to the societal level, the environmental and societal deficits influenced by social norms
and social policy.
The term “handicap” means the loss of limitation to take part in the life of the community on an
equal level with others. It describes the encounter between the person with a disability and the
environment. The purpose of this term is to emphasize the focus on the shortcomings in the
environment and in many organized activities in society, for example, information,
communication and education, which prevent persons with disabilities from participating on
equal term.

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A handicap is characterized by a difference between what the individual appears able to do and
the expectations of the particular group of which he/she is a member. There are various factors
that reinforce societal expectations that excuse or prohibit a person with disabilities from
performing activities of which the individual is capable: misconceptions (especially
underestimation); refusal to accommodate to an impairment skill level; unwillingness to allow
the person to continue to do those tasks which he still can do.
Factors that prohibit a person with disabilities from functioning in appropriate social roles
include: Lack of job opportunities and unavailable social support systems. The state of being
handicapped is strongly influenced by existing social values and institutions arrangements.
Environments that handicap a person include: inaccessible public buildings, lack of wide-door
bath rooms, lack of accessible public transportation, negative public attitudes towards persons
with disabilities … You can refer to the following example.

When someone is Difficulty seeing If she/he is unable

near sighted is to get spectacles

(Impairment) (Disability) (Handicapped)

There are three factors that are important for teachers to understand regarding needs of students
with disabilities:

 Severity of the impairment suggests the extent of involvement of a condition. For

students with sensory impairments, severity relates closely to communication ability and
experiential background. Students with more severe sensory impairments are likely to use
different methods of communication and assistive techniques for mobility.
 Visibility of a disability brings unwanted attention. Unfortunately, this attention focuses
on the perceived negative features of an individual. For many students, this attention
causes them to feel devalued.
 The age at which students acquire a disability has a profound effect on certain skills and
abilities (e.g., language acquisition or concept development). Age also affects how
students handle their condition and how educational personnel should address the
condition.

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Special Needs Education is a specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of
children with disability, including instruction conducted in the classroom , in the home, in
hospitals and institutions and in other settings ( Smith and Luckasson 1995) .
It also includes the education of gifted, creative or talented students who need additional
educational service to exploit their rich potentials to their optimum possible level.
Students with special needs are individuals who require special education and related special
services in order to achieve their fullest potential. They can be categorized into different groups:
children with Intellectual limitation or mental retardation, Communication and language
difficulties, Learning disabilities, Visual impairments, Hearing impairments, Physical and health
impairments , Gifted and talented Emotional and behavioral disorder ,Learning disability ,
Deprived background i.e extreme Poor ,migrant (war, natural disaster), street children ,child
labor ,drug abused , Minorities and Children at risk
(Smith and Luckasson 1995).

Segregation
• It is an educational placement where children with disabilities are educated in separate
school environment or in a special needs class.
Today it is discouraged for its social and academic discrimination among children with
disabilities and children withoutdisabilities
Integration:
• It refers to the placement of children with disability in educational programs that also
serve children without disability. A similar term is mainstreaming but not necessarily the
identical treatment condition for both.
• ‘Integration’ in its widest usage entails a process of making whole, of combining
different elements into a unit. As used in special education, it refers, to the education of
pupils with special needs in ordinary schools. Integration provides a ‘natural’
environment where these pupils are together with their peers, are free from the isolation
that is characteristics of much special school placement.
Professionals distinguished three main forms of integration in terms of association: location,
social, and functional integration.

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 • Locational integration exists where special units or classes are set up in ordinary
schools or where a special school and ordinary school share the same geographical site.
• Social integration is where children attending a special class or unit, eat, play and
consort with other children and possibly share organized out-of-classroom activities with
them.
• Functional integration is the fullest form of integration and is achieved when location and
social integration lead to participation in educational activities. As the whole, integration
is not necessarily the identical treatment of students with and without disabilities in a
regular setting.
Mainstreaming
• Itrefers tothe return of children with disability previously educated exclusively in
segregated settings to regular classroom, for all or part of the school day.
• Treatment of a child with special needs like students without disability one places the
child in the ‘least restrictive environment’ to meet his/her educational and social needs.
This has resulted in increased emphasis on mainstreaming children with disabilities.
Intervention
• It is an attempt to prevent, improve, or eliminate impairments, disabilities or handicaps. It
is a broad term that includes preventive measures taken before the occurrence of the
problem and/or to change the situation after the occurrence of the problem. Early
intervention plays a significant role in diverting the situation of the child and promoting
his/her educational and psychosocial development
Rehabilitation
It is a goal oriented activity aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to reach maximum
mental, physical, social, and level of functioning. It includes educational, psychological,
medical and vocational services. It often refers to the situation which comes after the
onset of the problem.
Inclusion
Inclusion can be seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of
all children, youth and adults through increasing participation in learning, cultures and
communities, and reducing and eliminating exclusion within and from education.

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 It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with
a common vision that covers all children of the appropriate age range and a conviction
that it is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children (UNESCO, 2009).
Inclusion means a shift in services from simply trying to fit the child into 'normal settings'; it
is a supplemental support for their disabilities on special needs and promoting the child's
overall development in an optimal setting.
Inclusion involves:
restructuring cultures, policies and practices to respond to the diversity of students in
their locality
learning and participation of all students vulnerable to exclusionary pressures (i.e. not
just students with disabilities)
improving schools for staff as well as students overcoming barriers to access and
participation
the right of students to be educated in their local community
seeing diversity as a rich resource, not as a problem
mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities
seeing inclusive education as an aspect of an inclusive society.
All of the above definitions emphasize that inclusion is for all, and not just about a
specific group.
Inclusive Education
• It is a practice of assuring that all students with disabilities participate with other students
in all aspects of school (Smith & Luckasson, 1995).
• It is a process of providing education for all children regardless of their background and
ability differences in the same class.
• Inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to
reach out to all learners (UNESCO, 2009).
• It is an education system that is open to all learners, regardless of economic status,
gender, ethnic backgrounds, language, learning difficulties and impairments.
• It implies a radical reform of the school in terms of educational policy and curricular
frameworks, which includes educational content, assessment, pedagogy and the systemic
grouping of pupils within institutional and curricular structures.

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 • Inclusion also implies that all teachers are responsible for the education of all learners.
• It is an education system that is open to all learners, regardless of economic status,
gender, ethnic backgrounds, language, learning difficulties and impairments.

1.2. Elements and characteristics of inclusive classrooms

1.2.1. Features/characteristics of inclusive schooling

 Students need to be active - not passive learners.

 Children should be encouraged to make choices as often as possible; a good teacher will
allow students some time to flounder as some of the most powerful learning stems from
taking risks and learning from mistakes.
 Parental involvement is crucial.
 Students with disabilities must be free to learn at their own pace and have
accommodations and alternative assessment strategies in place to meet their unique
needs.
 Students need to experience success, learning goals need to be specific, attainable and
measurable and have some challenge to them.

Inclusion in school requires a shift in the paradigm, instead of getting the child ready for the
regular class; the regular class gets ready for the child. It's not a decision of zero or one hundred
percent, but whatever balance that can be achieved to maximize meeting all of a child's needs.
The regular class is not looked at as how it is, but how it "can be".

Adaptations are made to the materials, the curriculum and/or the expectations of the activities for
the individual child, maintaining achievement of all individual and academic goals. The purpose
isn't simply social or academic, but to meet all of a child's needs together where ever possible.

1.2.2.Elements of inclusion
Where Students Learn

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  All students with disabilities are members of their neighborhoodschool

 All students are assigned to age-appropriate grades in heterogeneousclassrooms

 Student grouping and regrouping during the course of the day is based on the individual
interests and skills of all students, and not on disabilitylabels
Support Students Receive:
 Related services (e.g., physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy) are
delivered in regular classroom settings and other school environments
 Supports and services are provided in the classroom and coordinated with ongoing
instruction
 The provision of supports for students (instructional, curricular, behavioral, etc.) is
viewed as a school-wide need
Instructional Planning and Implementation:
 Effective teaching strategies and differentiatedinstruction are used to meet the needs of
every child and accommodate the learning styles of all children in the class
 The general education instruction and curriculum is used as the base for accommodations
and modifications to meet IEP goals
 The instructional materials used for typical students are modified for assignments,
homework, and tests
Social Relationships:
 Planned and structured activities are in place to promote social inclusion and friendship
development
 Students without disabilities are supported in welcoming students who have disabilities
Staff Actions:
 Collaboration among general educators, special educators, and other school personnel
occurs on an ongoing basis
 School administrator(s) provide a vision and leadership and welcome all students into
their school

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1.3. Benefits and challenges of inclusive schooling

The benefits of inclusive education are numerous for both students with and without
disabilities.Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities include -

 Friendships
 Increased social initiations, relationships and networks
 Peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
 Increased achievement of IEP goals
 Greater access to general curriculum
 Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization
 Increased inclusion in future environments
 Greater opportunities for interactions
 Higher expectations
 Increased school staff collaboration
 Increased parent participation
 Families are more integrated into community

The benefits of Inclusion for Students without Disabilities include -

 Meaningful friendships
 Increased appreciation and acceptance of individual differences
 Increased understanding and acceptance of diversity
 Respect for all people
 Prepares all students for adult life in an inclusive society
 Opportunities to master activities by practicing and teaching others
 Greater academic outcomes
 All students needs are better met, greater resources for everyone

There is no any research that shows negative effects from inclusion done appropriately with the
necessary supports and services for students to actively participate and achieve IEP goals (Bunch
& Valeo, 1997).

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The following are some of the additional advantages of inclusive schools:

 It is much cheaper than building a lot of separate schools for children with special needs;
 It encourages the integration of children with special needs which helps to build an
inclusive society;
 It allows other children in the school learn about the abilities of children with disabilities;
 It encourages the involvement of parents and the community;
 It improves teaching.

1.4. Challenges of IE in Schools

The existence of:
 Attitudinal barriers
 Inadequate trained personal
 Rigid curriculum and teaching methods
 Inadequate instructional materials and assistive devices
 Large class size and limited space
 inaccessibility of facilities and services
Opportunities of Inclusive Education
 existence of Legislations and policy frameworks
 existence of Associations that work with people with disabilities and civic societies
 Provision of School-based awareness and in-services training program

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1.5. Policies and strategies regarding education of children with special needs
International and National Legal framework and Policy Issues
 Universal Declaration Of Human Rights (UDHR) This declaration ensures three
important rights;
• Right to education (fundamental human rights; rights that are universal, indivisible,
interconnected and interdependent)
• Right to equalization of opportunities
• Right to participate in society
Convention On The Rights Of The Child
• States the rights of all children to basic quality primary education
• Make primary education compulsory and available free to all (UPE).
• It assures the rights of the child to education based on his or her needs, abilities and pace
of effective learning
Convention against Discrimination In Education
 To combat discriminatory treatment in education
 promote the opportunity of addressing their learning needs,
 children in disadvantaged situations or who experience conditions of risk, disability have
the right to education of the same quality and standard
World Declaration On Education For All (EFA)
• This declaration confirms that every human being including children, youth, adults,
females, street children, immigrants, children with disability,… have right to quality and
equity in education.
The Ethiopian Constitution (National Documents)
Article 41(3,5) stipulates the right of citizens to equal access to publicly funded services and
about the allocation of resources to provide rehabilitation and assistance…
Art. 9(4) of the EFDRE constitution states that all international agreements ratified by Ethiopian
are the integral part of the law of the country.
Article 41(3,5) stipulates the right of citizens to equal access to publicly funded services and
about the allocation of resources to provide rehabilitation and assistance…
Art. 9(4) of the EFDRE constitution states that all international agreements ratified by Ethiopian
are the integral part of the law of the country.

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Educational structure no. 2 2.3 confirms that efforts will be made to enable
People with special needs /both with disability and the Gifted/ learn in accordance with their
potential and needs.
 Higher Education Proclamation No.650/2009,Article 40, item1 states that institutions
shall make, to the extent possible, their facilities and programs are easy to use by
physically challenged students
The special needs education program strategy (2006)
The key elements of the strategy are:
• It states the assurance of favourable policy environment
• Duties & responsibilities are stated for stakeholders in education system at different
administration level
• Using strengthening national expertise
• States about allocation and use of funds,Cooperation and partners
• Indicates responsibilities of School management and Teacher education
• Design establishment and functioning of support systems.
Education Sector Development /ESDP IV/2010-2015
 Expected program outcomes
• Enrollment of children with special educational needs increased at all levels of education
and due attention will be given to girls with special needs
• Number of trained teachers in SNE/ inclusive education increased
• Capacity of schools in addressing the academic and social needs of children with special
educational needs improved
Proclamation and code
• Building code (Article) 624/2009:
Even if the code was declared for the convenient of physical accessibilities in architectural
activities still the problem is not minimized.
• Proclamation on the Rights of Person with disabilities to Employment Proclamation
No. 101/1994 states about the right of PWD to appropriate training, employment
opportunities, salary, selection criteria, grievance procedure…
• The common powers and duties of Ministers (proclamation 691/2003 E.C.)

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 • In Article 10(5) “create within its power, conditions whereby persons with disabilities
and HIV/AIDS victims benefit from equal opportunities and full participation”.

CHAPTER TWO

2. Education of Children with Sensory Impairments in Inclusive Classrooms

Sensory impairments
Up on successful completion of this unit, teacher candidates are able to:

 Identify developmental profile of children with sensory impairments.

 Arrange conducive classroom/ environment to accommodate learners with sensory
impairments in the inclusive settings.
 Improve social and environmental barriers that interfere with education of children with
sensory impairments.
 Recognize educational needs, preferences, and motives of learners with sensory
impairments in the inclusive in the inclusive classroom.
 Appreciate diversity in a classroom.

2.1. Sensory impairments

Sensory impairments are of varied type among which the auditory and visual impairments are the
major ones.

Auditory/ hearing impairment

Pasanella and Cara (1981) defined auditory/ hearing impairment as a generic term indicating a
continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which included the sub classifications of the
hard of hearing and Deaf.
a. Hard-of-hearing- a term to describe persons with enough residual hearing, to use hearing
(usually with a hearing aid) as a primary modality for acquisition of language and in
communication with others. This condition can adversely affect the child's educational
performance to some extent.
b. Deaf- a term used to describe persons whose sense of hearing is nonfunctional for
ordinary use in communication, with or without a hearing aid. It is so severe that the
person is impaired in processing linguistic information which adversely affects the
educational performance.

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Although the degree of hearing loss is important, the age when the hearing loss occurs is also
important. Individuals who become deaf before they learn to speak and understand language are
referred to as pre-lingual deaf. Those whose hearing impairment occurs after they have learned
to speak and understand language are called post-lingual deaf.

2.1.1.1. THE DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN WITH

HEARING IMPAIRMENTS

When dealing with children with hearing impairment, they are presumed as individuals with
different learning styles and abilities. However, they share one common characteristic.
Their ability to hear is limited, and this disability may affect cognitive, academic, physical, and
communication characteristics.
The severity of the hearing loss and the age that the loss occurred determine how well a person
will be able to interact with others, orally.
Language development
Students who cannot hear the communications of others will have more difficult time learning
through traditional instructional methods. Communication problems can seriously interfere with
interpersonal relationship for students with hearing impairments who receive all or part of their
education in regular class rooms. Their inability to communicate with other students can delay
their language development. Moreover, they communicate in ways that are different from those
around them. This condition can inhibit their socialinteraction and development.

The hearing impairment greatest effect on the developing child occurs with regard to language,
both with the receptive and expressive systems. Students with hearing impairments lag
invocabulary skills when compared with normal hearing students of comparable age. Problems
with synonyms, syntax and morphology are found to be more prevalent in hard-of-hearing
children, since the impact of deafness becomes more critical in the second year of life, when
hearing children start to talk.
Cognitive character
The available evidence suggests that the condition of deafness in no way posses no limitation on
the cognitive capabilities of individuals. As a group, deaf people function within the normal
range of intelligence and deaf individuals exhibit the same wide variety as the hearing

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population. But the stigma and discrimination from social activities affect the cognitive
development of deaf children.

Lack of meaningful language development in the early years may contribute to the low school
achievement of deaf students. This is mainly because that early years are critical periods for
language learning and cognitive development. Schlesinger and Meadow (1972) suggested that
deaf infants are 'more quite' and slightly more passive, due to this reality, they may not seek out
the environment and their parents may permit them to rest more quietly without providing them
with the variety of stimuli that are necessary for ongoing cognitive development.
Social character
Recent evidences suggest that those who are deaf prefer to be with others who are deaf, and tend
to cluster in groups, socialize and marry. This is because many people who are deaf see the
experiences and sign language of deaf communities as the most important factors in their lives.
Hence, the obvious barrier to hearing-impaired relationships is communication.
It is argued that the effects of hearing loss are pervasive and can create psychological stress.
Children who are deaf are often passive participants in communication, as their parents or
caregivers tend to deprive them from any type of interpersonal relationships. The more severe
the deafness, the greater is the effect on verbal language development; but even mild degrees
conductive deafness is thought in some cases to have a significant effect. The result of studies
indicated that the performance of deaf students in the areas of reading and writing indicate that
they have a great deal of difficulty in processing the language compared with hearing children,
where deaf children have notable delays and substantial differences in the development of
reading and writing skills.

2.1.1.2. Educational identification and assessment of learners with sensory

impairments

There are three factors that are important for teachers to understand regarding identifying needs
of students with disabilities:

 Severity of the impairment suggests the extent of involvement of a condition. For

students with sensory impairments, severity relates closely to communication ability and

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 experiential background. Students with more severe sensory impairments are likely to use
different methods of communication and assistive techniques for mobility.
 Visibility of a disability brings unwanted attention. Unfortunately, this attention focuses
on the perceived negative features of an individual. For many students, this attention
causes them to feel devalued.
 The age at which students acquire a disability has a profound effect on certain skills and
abilities (e.g., language acquisition or concept development). Age also affects how
students handle their condition and how educational personnel should address the
condition.

Gearhart and Gearhart (1988), Webster and Wood (1989), mentioned some behavioral
indications and warning signs of a possible hearing impairment, which teachers and parents
should be alert in their every day encounters as basic source in identification of children with
hearing impairments are:
 Inattention, restlessness, distraction of others, more responsiveness in quiet conditions.
 Complaints of earache, full or 'popping ears', or a visible discharge from the ear.
 Giving in appropriate answers to questions; watching and following what other children
do.
 Louder or softer voice than is usual.
 Slowness in responding to simple verbal instructions, with frequent requests for
repetition.
 Searching visually to locate a sound source or turning head to the direction sound comes
from.
 Needing to sit nearer a sound source than is usual or asking for volume, on TV, Tape etc.
 Some irritability or atypical aggressive out bursts; more frequent behavioral upsets in
school.
 Reluctances to participate in oral activity and little interest in following a story.
 Failure to turn immediately when called by name unless other visible signals are given.
 Tiring easily, poor motivation, listlessness, lack of energy, some stress signs such as
nail-biting.

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  Particularly difficulties in verbally related skills such as reading, 'phonic' work; sound
blending and discrimination, and writing with better skills in practical areas.
 Speech limited in vocabulary or structure and use of gesture.
 Best work in small group
Conducting sound assessments is a necessary part of exemplary teaching. Assessments do not
only evaluate student learning, but they serve to guide subsequent instruction. However,
observations are said to be a key in assessment. Knowing what to look for is critical. Does the
child give up easily? Does the child persevere? Is the child able to show how he got the task
right? The teacher targets few learning goals per day and few students per day to observe for
goal attainment. Formal/informal interviews will help the assessment process. How closely does
the individual remain on task? Why or why not? How does the student feel about the activity?
What are their thinking processes?
Across the nation, most hard-of-hearing students attend regular education classes, while their
deaf counter parts are more likely to attend separate classes or even separate schools. In recent
years, educators, parents and the deaf community have not been able to agree on the placement
options that should be available to students who are deaf. It should be stressed that the
appropriate teaching environment for teaching the hard-of-hearing is different from that of the
deaf. It is suggested that the conditions of teaching environment for hard-of-hearing should be
more or less similar with that of the hearing pupil. It is always important to remember that
placement in regular school (less restrictive programs) is a function of the degree of hearing loss.

Educational support of children with hearing impairment in inclusive classes

Like all children who have disabilities, children with hearing impairments need to receive an
intensive educational experience as early as possible. Professionals in this field may debate
about where education should be delivered or how much speech and language development
should be stressed in the curriculum. Nevertheless, they all agree on two points:

 Education should begin at birth, or

 At the time the hearing impairment was discovered for the individual, and the entire
family needs to be involved.

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Deaf pupils are students with impaired hearing who require education by methods suitable for
pupils with little or no naturally acquired speech or language. On the other hand, partial hearing
pupils are students with impaired hearing, whose development of speech and language, even if
retarded, is following a normal pattern, and who require for their education, special arrangement
or hearing aids, though not necessary to use all the educational methods used for deaf pupils.
The severity of the hearing loss, the age of its onset, the hearing status of the students' parents are
related to the academic success experienced by students with hearing impairments. According to
Heward and Orlanksy (1988), the following characteristics were among those considered most
critical to the effective teaching of hearing-impaired students:

 Providing language instruction

 Developing and adopting instructional materials and enhancing positive self-concept,
 Using information from various assessment procedures to develop individualized
educational programs (IEP), and
 Dealing with crises calmly and effectively.
In practical instructional process the teachers for hearing impaired should pay attention to the
following ten tips as described by Ysseldyke and Algozine, 1995:
 Reduced distance between student and speaker as much as possible.
 Speak slowly and stress clear articulation.
 Reduce back ground noise as much as possible.
 Sit the student near the center of desk arrangements and away from distracting
sounds.
 Use face-to-face contact as much as possible
 Use complete sentences to provide additional context during conversation or
instructional presentations.
 Use visual cues when referring to objects in the classroom and during
instructional presentations.
 Have classmates who take notes during oral presentations for students to
transcribe after the lessons.
 Encouraged independent activities, cooperative learning and social skills.
 Be sure that the hearing aid functions properly.

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An effective communication system that permits those using it to exchange information with a
high degree of ease, flexibility, speed and accuracy in a wide variety of circumstances is very
essential in the process of intervention and rehabilitation process of hearing impaired children.
According to Schulze, Carpenter and Turnbull (1991), for people with a considerable hearing
loss, the basic approach to communication are Oral, manual and total communications.
 Oral method (Speech communication): Oral languages are transmitted and received
through oral and auditory modalities, respectively. The philosophy of oral education is
that, hearing impaired children should be given the opportunity to learn to speak and
understand speech, learn through spoken language in school and later function as
independent adults.
Auditorytraining is meant the maximum utilization of residual hearing. It involves the effective
use of hearing aids through the child's waking hours. Training to listen should be given
from early childhood to develop natural language and speech. Speech reading is the visual
interpretation of spoken communication. Lip reading is unreliable and imprecise.
Cuedspeech is using hand shape and position while speaking. In combination with certain
sound, these hand signals make it possible to better distinguish those speech sounds that are
easily confused because they look the same on the lip.
 Sign language is a formal, socially agreed on; rule-governed symbol system that is
generative in nature. Sign language is a language in its own, with its own linguistic rules
and patterns. It is suggested that after deaf students acquire grammatical and
communicative proficiency, teachers can use sign language to teach and discuss the
content of various academic subjects that are introduced in typical early elementary
grades. Sign language is a visual gesture language which consists of shape and position
of specific body parts such as hands, arms, eyes, face and hand. Signs tend to
communicate content words, where as finger spelling is useful for functional words such
as articles, prepositions. Thus finger spelling plays a complementary role to signs, when
it may significantly increase understanding of the sign language.
 Total communication is a method of communication for hearing impaired that presents
the simultaneous or combined methods of signs, finger spelling, speech (lip) reading,
speech and auditory amplification at the same time. It also includes gestures, reading,
writing and any modal that will result in clarity and ease of communication.

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2.2. Education of children with visual impairment in inclusive classes

Visual impairment as of many health professionals divides persons with visual loss into two:
Low vision and blindness.
a. Low vision/partially sighted/ is legally defined as a condition in which one's vision is seriously
impaired, defined usually as having between 20/200 and 20/70 central visual acuity in the
better eye, with correction.
b. Blind - it is a descriptive term referring to a lack of sufficient vision for the daily activities of
life.
When educationally defined, these two sub categories of visual impairments are seen as:
a. Partially sighted /low vision/ pupils- these are pupils who by reason of impaired vision
cannot follow the normal regime of ordinary schools without adaptation to their sight or
to their educational development, but can be educated by special methods involving the
use of sight. Such pupils use print materials but may need modifications such as enlarged
print or use of low vision aids (magnification).

b. Blind pupils- those are pupils who are totally without sight or have little vision, and who
must be educated through channels other than sight (for example using Braille or audio-
tapes).
Visual impairments may be congenital (present at birth) or acquired (occurred after birth).
Almost half of the children who are blind are disabled because of prenatal factors, mostly
hereditary. In general, most of the causes for visual impairment are hereditary or environmental
factors. Thus, familiarity with the child's visual impairment can be an asset to a teacher and/or a
parent.

2.2.1. The developmental characteristics of children with visual impairments

The developmental effects of visual impairment largely depends up on the interaction of various
factors such as degree of impairment, onset of impairment as well as the abilities of children and
the nature of their environment. Not being able to see can in one way or the other have an

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adverse effect on physical, motor, cognitive, academic and social and communication
characteristics.

Physical character
The visual impairment itself does not retard physical growth and development. In fact the motor
development of the child with a visual impairment during the first few months of life is not
markedly different from that of the non-handicapped child. But, the age of onset of visual
impairment plays an important role in motor development. Lack of vision from birth has a
detrimental effect on motor development and delays the acquisition of early motor skills. Some
congenitally blind children prefer to lie down in the prone position. Longer periods in the prone
position, however, may delay walking. The older the child when the onset of visual impairment
occurs, the more likely he is to have acquired basic psychomotor skills through visual channels
and thus may evidence less retardation in motor skill development.
Cognitive character
Cognition is largely a matter of developing concepts. Since many concepts are learned through
visual means, students with visual impairment have difficulty learning some concepts. Think for
a minute about the difficulty of learning concepts like orange, circle, bigger, perpendicular,
bright and foggy with limited vision. Here, students who have visual impairments perform
poorly in most standard intelligence tests. However, the reason is mainly attributed to the nature
of those tests that didn’t consider such children.

Blind babies tend to be more passive and less inclined to go in search of new experiences.
Therefore, severely visually impaired children tend to have fewer learning experiences in the
same time period than the sighted children do. This may slow down their rate of intellectual
growth, but not their capacity for it. Hence, visual impairment places a child at a disadvantage in
cognitive development particularly in the area of sensory stimulation, concept development,
and communication.
Social character
Blindness affects acquisition of social skills not only because the child cannot see, but also
because the person who interacts with the child may not respond in the same way that they
respond to sighted children. Many children with visual impairments are rejected by their sighted

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classmates, possibly because they have not learned what is expected in normal social
interactions. For example, youngsters with severe visual impairment tend to lack play skills, ask
too many irrelevant questions, and engage in inappropriate acts of affection (Kekelis, 1992).
Possibly because of their in appropriate or immature social behavior, they tend to interact with
and make friends with the least popular peers in their regular education classes. Here the attitude
of parents is more crucial than their child's visual competence. As months of life, they should be
cuddled, enjoyed and placed at the center of family activities. Many parents of blind children
tend to over-protect them and that may lead to maladjustment when they grow.

2.2.2. EDUCATIONAL SUPPORTS FOR STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

Teachers of visually impaired children are often thought of in conjunction with specialized
equipment and materials, such as Braille, canes, tape recorders and magnifying devices. Media
and materials do play an important role in the education of children with impaired vision.

Ysseldyke and Algozzine, (1995) listed ten top hints for teachers of students with visual
impairments:

 Reduce distance between student and speaker as much as possible.

 Reduce distracting glare and visual distractions as much as possible.
 Reduce clutter on classroom floor and provide unobstructed access to door and key
classroom spaces
 Seat students near chalk board or over head projections, or give them the freedom to
move close to areas of instructions.
 Avoid partially opening cabinets, storage areas and classroom doors, ascertain that fully
opened or closes doors are safer.
 Use auditory cues when referring to objects in the classroom and during instructional
presentations.
 When presenting visually dependent material, verbalize written information, described
pictures and narrate non-variable sequences in videotapes or movies. Use complete
sentences to provide additional content.
 Reduce unnecessary noise to help focus content of instructional presentations.
 Keep instructional materials in the same place so students can find them easily.

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  Make sure glasses and other visual aids are functioning properly.

The primary nature of educational programming for the visually impaired involves the
modification and adaptation of educational materials.

The following are a brief description of the most commonly used materials and equipment
(Gearheat, Weishahn and Gearheart, 1988)

o Braille writer, slate and stylus

o Cassette tape recorders may be used to take notes, formulate compositions, listen to
record texts, or record assignments.
o Talking calculator, it is an electronic calculator that presents results visually and auditory.
o Closed- circuit television - it is a system that enlarges printed material on a television
screen and can be adjusted to either black on white or white on black.

The following list of additional visual aids represents the types available from various sources;

A. Geography aids
 Braille atlases
 Molded plastic, dissected and un dissected relief maps
 Relief globs
 Land form model

B. Mathematical aids
 Abacus
 Raised clock faces
 Geometric area and volume aids
 Write forms for matched planes and volumes
 Braille rulers

C. Writing aids
 Raised-line check books
 Signature guide
 Longhand-writing kit
 Script letter-sheets and boards

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To assist all students gain more information, the teacher can use both written and oral forms of
communication more precisely. The following suggestions can easily be incorporated into
classroom situations:
 Repeat orally information written on a board.
 Prepare handouts, using enlarged print, that summarize the important information
presented in lectures.
 Address students using their names first to get their attention.
 Audiotape lecture so as students can use tapes as study aids at home.
Regardless of those accommodations, teachers should not lower their expectations for students
with visual disabilities. These students should be encouraged to be full class members who share
their work and thoughts with others in inclusive classrooms.
Additional and basic visual aids to be employed by teachers of inclusive classrooms are
Geography aids, Mathematical aids and writing aids. Above all, the following are of paramount
importance in avoiding environmental barriers and designing for effective learning atmosphere
in assisting leading independent life.
 Orientation and mobility training: orientation and mobility training helps those with
sever visual impairments to move around independently. Orientation can be described as
the mental map people have about their surroundings. Mobility is the ability to travel
safely and efficiently form one place to another.
 Listening skill training: all students can benefit from improving their listening skills;
however, for students with visual impairment, good listening skills are imperative many
of these individuals must rely heavily on their hearing.
 Braille training: students with very severe visual impairments may need to learn to read
and writing using different methods. Braille uses a coded system of dots embossed on
paper so that individuals can feel a page of text.
 Enhanced Image Devices: many students with vision impairments learn to read using
traditional methods with enlarged print. Close-circuit television systems with a small
camera, and 200m lens, over head projectors, micro-computers, telescopic aids and other
specialized equipment are used to enlarge text so that it is easier for people with low
vision to read.

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  Audio Aids: audio aids allow persons with visual impairments to hear what others can
read Talking books, talking calculators and devices that compress speech are audio aids
that help people with vision impairments to make up for their limited sight.
 Optical character recognition (OCR) devices: some students with vision impairments
use a computer based scanning devices that convert printed words into synthetic speech.
Recent advances now include small sensors that can be attached to micro computers to
help people who are blind or those with low vision learn from printed text.
For those with visual impairments preschool education is vital. The educational needs of
students with low vision differ from those of students who are blind students. Children with low
vision might require some extra tutorial assistance to learn the same number of phonetic rules as
their classmates or additional time to read their assignment. Students who are blind might
require the inclusion of entirely different curriculum topics. For example, they might need to
learn independent life skills so that they can manage an apartment, shop for food, and cook their
meals without assistance from others. Below we discuss some methods of teaching and specific
curriculum suggestions for students with low vision and those who are blind. Keep in mind that
these two groups are not truly distinct since suggestions for students with low vision might well
apply to many students who are blind.
Teaching children with low vision:some minor modification in teaching style can help students
with visual impairments gain more from the learning environment. One modification is the
careful use of oral language. For example, many of us, when speaking, use words that do not
refer to other words (referents); we say ‘this,’ ‘that’ and ‘there’ without naming the topic we are
discussing. Often, teachers write terms on the blackboard without stating them aloud or
explaining their meanings. Research has shown that people learn more efficiently when they
have been given previews of the lesson about what is to be taught. Unfortunately, few teachers,
particularly at middle and secondary schools, provide students with these previews or advance
organizers. Advance organizers are especially useful for students with visual impairments.
Regardless of those accommodations, teachers should not lower their expectations for students
with visual disabilities. These students should be encouraged to be full class members who share
their work and thoughts with others.

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Teaching children who are blind: many professionals who work with those with visual
impairments recommend that teachers use a consistent daily and weekly schedule so that
students will know what is expected at various times of the day and across the week. Also, a
teacher can hand out a weekly schedule to help students plan their time and study schedule.
Other modifications to the classroom can help students who are blind. Many students with visual
impairments need intensive education in addition to the instruction they receive in the regular
classroom.

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 CHAPTER THREE
3. Education of Children with Intellectual Differences and the Emotionally
and Behaviorally Disturbed in an Inclusive Classroom

Unit learning outcomes

Towards successful completion of this unit, the teacher candidates will be able to:

 Determine developmental characteristics of children with intellectual differences, the

behaviorally and emotionally disturbed children.
 Identify and assess the educational needs, interests and academic potentialities of children
with intellectual difference, the emotionally and behaviorally disturbed children.
 Value the social and environmental adjustment strategies used to assist these children in
an inclusive schooling.
 Develop an Individualized Education Program valuable to accommodate learning
preferences of all children in inclusive classrooms.

3.1. Children with Intellectual Differences

Intellectual difference includes those who are intellectually superior and those who are slow to
learn. It consists of the gifted and creative, the slow learner, educable mentally retarded and the
severally mentally retarded. Students with superior intelligence are by far different in academic
performance to the slow learners or the mentally retarded.

3.1.2. Mental retardation

The most common definition that was devised and regularly adjusted by American Association
on Mental Retardation (AAMR) referred to significantly sub average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during
developmental period.
As of this definition, three main components are helpful in describing the developmental stages
of children with mental retardation. These are:
a. Significantly sub average general Intellectual functioning – Intellectual functioning is the
ability or intelligence used to answer certain questions and to solve problems. Intellectual
functioning of individual is determined through standardized intelligence test. That is
through measuring intellectual Quotient (IQ) of the individual by administering IQ tests.

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 The IQ is obtained by dividing the individual's Mental Age (MA) by his chronological Age
(CA) of individual and then multiplying by 100 to get rid of the decimal. Hence,
significantly sub average general intellectual functioning is a score on standardized
intelligence test lower than that obtained by 97 to 98% of persons of the same age.
b. Deficit in adaptive behavior or skill refers to failure to meet standards of independence and
social responsibility expected of the individual's age and cultural groups. Adaptive skill
areas currently considered as appropriate in diagnosing mental retardation are:
Communication, Self-care, Home living, Social Skills, Community use, Self-direction,
Health and safety, Functional academic, Leisure
c. Developmental period is consistent with AAMR definition. This definition states that
mental retardation must manifest before the age of 18.

3.1.2.1. The Developmental Characteristics of Children with Intellectual Delay/mental

retardation
Individuals classified as mentally retarded have a wide range of ability and they need different
emotional services. In order to meet these different needs more effectively mental retardation
has been classified in to three educational levels:
1. Mildly retarded (educable mentally retarded)
2. Moderately retarded (trainable mentally retarded).
3. Severely retarded (supportable/life-support mentally retarded).
Table 1 Classification of mental retardation based on DSM- III-R(Diagnostics and Statistics
Manual)

Level IQ- Range

Mild 50-70
Moderate 25-49
Severe 20-34
Profound <20

Generally, a child who is mildly retarded because of delayed development has the capacity to
develop in three areas:

 Academic subjects - at elementary and advanced grade levels:

 Social adjustment - to the point at which the child can eventually adapt independently in
the community.

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  Occupational potential - to be partially or totally self-supporting as an adult.
The adaptive capacity of children who are classified under moderate retardation is more
seriously impaired. Physically, they have some problems in motor development. With regard to
their communication, they can learn to talk, or to communication during the preschool years.
However, they are only minimally aware of social conventions. They can carry on single
conversations. They have some problems in listening, and speaking. They can interact with
others and create friendships. They can master self-help skills and can typically live in supported
settings.

3.1.2.2. Educational Program, Identification and Assessment of Learners with

Intellectual Delay
The adaptive behavior criterion is critical for identifying students with mental retardation. People
who function adequately outside the school are not considered mentally retarded, even if they
perform poorly on intelligence tests. The adaptive behavior criterion is also central to planning
interventions for students with mental retardation. Instruction is directed at areas crucial to
successful adaptation in schools, homes, and communities, not just typical academic areas (for
example, reading, writing, and arithmetic).
Consistent with AAMR (American Association for Mental Retardation) definition, the
developmental period, states that mental retardation must manifest before the age of 18. Thus,
the disability must have arisen sometime between conception and adulthood- officially, the
person's eighteenth birthday. For individuals who acquire their disability after their eighteenth
birthday- in an automobile accident, for example- label mental retardation is not applied. Such
individuals are usually referred to as having a brain injury, detention, or sometimes, a
developmental disability.
Education programs for mildly retarded students usually stress the basic academic subjects like
reading, writing, and arithmetic-during the elementary school. The emphasis shifts to vocational
training and work study programs in junior and high schools. Most mildly retarded children
master academic skills, to higher elementary grade level and are likely to be able to handle semi-
skilled jobs, well enough to support themselves independently or semi-independently. This level
of education extends to tertiary education in developed countries as different research outputs
imply depending on the country’s economic advance.

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Most of the children with severe retardation usually have multiple handicaps that interfere with
normal instructional procedures. For example in addition to being mentally retarded, the child
may have cerebral palsy and hearing loss. Hence, the goal of the training programs for these
children is to establish some level of social adaptation in a controlled environment.
Students with mental retardation need assistance in learning the content and skills that many of
their peers learn without special educational activities. These tactics are important for teaching
basic academic skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic. These students are also in need of
special assistance relating what they learn to real life experiences that is functional skills and
adjusting their approaches to the learning activities, i.e., school adaptive behavior.
Functional academic skills such as reducing task avoidance, task completion, writing, math skill
and reading can be improved if teachers of mentally retarded students design instruction and
practice activities related to everyday life and given special instruction and extra practice
opportunity for them. In teaching mentally retarded children, whether it is functional academic
skill, school adaptive behavior or others it is advantageous to use task analysis method. Task
analysis is breaking down problems and tasks in to smaller, sequenced components. Each step is
taught in sequence, and individuals move on to the next step only after mastering the previous
one. To see how task analysis work; let us see at examples of communicating an emergency.
Task Analyses: steps in communicating an emergency
1. Locate phone
2. Pick up receiver
3. Dial 9
4. Dial 9 /number/
5. Put receiver to ear
6. Listen for operator
7. Give full name
8. Give full address
9. Explain emergency
10. Hang up after operator does
Many mildly retarded children and even some moderately retarded children now find themselves
in educational mainstreaming with their age mates. Of course placing these children in the
regular classroom without additional help would be a step-back-ward. The regular classroom is

29
supplemented with the special services (remedial reading, speech and communication therapy,
psychological counseling) available in the school system.
Resource Room -For mildly retarded children the resource room provides an opportunity to
work with special education teachers and to focus on particular learning problems that are
interfering with their performance in the regular classroom. These children leave the classroom
for about an hour a day to take part in special reasons. The number of children in resource room
at any one time is usually much less than the number in the regular classroom giving the resource
room teacher an opportunity for work individually or in small groups with children who are
retarded.
Social skills, self-direction, self-care and health and safety are among the schools adaptive
behaviors that are seen as the preeminent intervention targets for students with retardation.
Improving the social repertoire of any student is not easy, and it is especially difficult for
students experiencing adaptive behavior deficits. Here are some ways to address this area in
classroom.

 Reducing Social Isolation - to reduce social isolation, provide opportunities for sharing
experiences. You first identify special interests and experiences for each of your students
and plan group activities to share this information and allow students to get in to know
each other.
 Improving Self-Direction and Self-Management
To do this:
o Provide signals for students. Some students with mental retardation have not learned
ways to let others know they need help. Some teachers create signal system to replace
unacceptable alternatives such as blurting out, wild hand waving, and not asking.
For example raising hand –need help

HELP – sign is a useful way for students to get a teachers attention without distracting others.

o Have students practice and discuses alternative skill /the best way to react/. Select
program situations and discuss on the best way to react when faced with them; have
students generate, discuss and practice as many alternatives as possible.

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 o Help students keep track of good behavior. Place an index card on the corners of the
students’ desks to keep track of appropriate behaviors such as completing assignments
and asking for help. Periodically check the cards to be sure the students are monitoring
appropriate behavior. Besides, have students with mental retardation share their self-
reports with classmates and parents as a means of promoting positive self-concepts and
pride in independent behavior.
 Improving Self-Care, Health and Safety Skills - to do this, have students practice and
discuss appropriate behaviors. Create mock situations and have students generate,
discuss and practice appropriate solutions.
 Improving Leisure and Work-Skills - being successful at work and knowing how to
use free time are important adaptive behavior skills that are the focus of interventions for
students with retardation (mild). Work skills include:
 Following directions
 Being punctual
 Beginning assignment promptly
 Staying on task and
 Completing assignment (these are sometimes addressed with functional academic
interventions).
Effective teachers of students with mental retardation set high expectations for what they can
achieve and focus their instruction on functional activities designed to promote success with real
life problems. A summary of general instructional strategies that should be used by teachers of
students with mental retardation is presented in the following.
1. Provide alternative instructional presentations using varied examples and focus on
functional skills.
2. Provide opportunities for students to demonstrate understanding.
3. Provide more opportunities for practice than appropriate or necessary for classmates.
4. Use concrete examples when teaching new skills.
5. Provide supportive and corrective feedback more often than necessary for class-mates.
6. Modify tests and evaluation measures to compensate for learning problems.
7. Evaluate student’s performance and progress more frequently than appropriate or
necessary for class-mates.
8. Adapt instruction to the environments where what is being learned will be used.
9. Break lessons in to smaller parts when teaching complex skills.
10. Be prepared to repeat teaching more frequently than necessary to peers.

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3.2. Children with Emotionally and Behaviorally Disturbed

Students demonstrate many different behavior and they are said to demonstrate many different
kinds of behavior disorders in school and community settings. The magnitude of exhibited
behaviors differs from simple deviation to severe disturbances. Terms associated with behavior
disorder include aggressive, aloof, annoying, anxious, attention seeking, avoidant, compulsive,
daydreams, depressed, delinquent, destructive, disruptive, distractible, disturbing, erratic,
frustrated, short attention span, hostile, hyperactive, immature, impulsive inattentive, / with
mental retaliation.
Emotional or behavioral problems and disorders fall into two very broad classifications:

1. Externalizing behavior also called under controlled conduct disorder or acting out; and
2. Internalizing behavior sometimes called over controlled anxiety, withdrawal, or acting in.

Externalizing Behaviors – these are aggressive behaviors expressed outwardly toward other
persons. This includes disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, destructiveness, temper tantrums,
irresponsibility, impertinence, Jealous, anger, bossiness, profanity, attention seeking, and
boisterousness, socialized aggression which includes association with bad companions or gangs,
truancy, stealing, and delinquency, defiance of authority, irritability and troublesomeness, hostile
aggression and hyperactivity…

Internalizing behaviors - These are those expressed in a more socially withdrawal operates.
These includes social withdrawal, anxiety, feeling of inadequacy (or inferiority), guilt, shyness,
depression, hypersensitivity, chewing finger nails, reclusive, infrequent smiling, chronic sadness,
immaturity which includes a short attention span, preoccupation, clumsiness, passivity, day
dreaming, sluggishness, drowsiness, giggling, preference for younger play master, and a feeling
of being ‘picked on’ by others. The child worries a great deal and is timid. Anorexia a tense fear
of gaining weight, disturbed body image, chronic absence or refusal of appetite for food, causing
severe weight loss; and bulimia a commercially causing oneself to vomit, limiting weight gain
are two special internalizing behavior disorders.

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It is important to remember that a given individual can exhibit both externalizing and
internalizing behavior that some individuals vacillate between the two extremes. Since the
externalizing behavioral disorders are so obviously disruptive to other people in the environment,
they are often identified more quickly in schools than behaviors that are internalizing. Because,
the problem of children with internalizing behaviors are not easily identified, and therefore don’t
receive appropriate special educational services. Learning problems, attention problem,
hyperactivity, and aggression, for example, are important dimensions of difficulty in schools.
Although these dimensions do not tell a teacher why a student behaves in a certain way or what
should be done about it, they at least communicate clearly how a student behaves. The
dimensions, which are commonly affected by behavior difficulties, are highlighted below which
assumed to be helpful for teachers:

Characteristics of children with EBD

Cognitive - Many cognitive deficiencies are attributed to students with serious emotional
disturbance. These students are said to have poor memory and short attention spans, and to be
preoccupied overly active, and anxious, among other things. In general, students with behavior
disorder score slightly below average intelligence tests, although the scores of individual
students’ are over the entire range.

Academic - most students with behavior disorders do not do as well academically as one would
expect from their scores on intelligence tests. Students with behavior disorder exhibit
characteristics, which affect educational performance. This means, they perform poorly on
measures of school achievement. It is also found that students with specific learning disabilities
also perform poorly in at least one area of school achievement.

Generally speaking, emotional problems can lead to academic problems, and academic problems
can lead to emotional problems. Students who demonstrate behavioral and emotional problems
in school may be subjected to disciplinary actions (suspension and expulsion), which intern
limits their time in school and exposure to academics. When students so not perform well
academically, their perceptions of this own self-worth suffer. Usually, the behavior disordered
child is an acting out in the classroom, constantly defying the teachers’ instructional and
classroom rules and procedures.

33
Physical - most students with behavior disorder are physically normal. The exceptions are those
with psychosomatic complaints (in which the physical illness actually is brought on by or
associated with, the individual’s emotional state). Students who have serious physical problems
can develop behavior disorders, especially when a physical disorder leads others to act
negatively toward a student and the student develops low self worth that are reflected in
behavioral characteristics.

Behavioral - this is the primary area in which students with behavior disorder are said to differ
from others. The brood behavioral characteristics of these students are specified in the definition
of behavioral disorder: an inability to learn, an inability to build or maintain satisfactory
interpersonal relationships, in appropriate types of behavior of feelings, a general pervasive
mood of unhappiness or depression, and a tendency to develop physical symptoms of fear.
Although it is impossible to list all the specific behavioral characteristics of disturbed children, it
is possible to describe some general types of behavior that tend that, if not corrected, are likely to
handicap the child seriously like; hyperactivity and related problems of aggression, with drawl,
and inadequacy or immaturity.

a. Aggressive behavior - the most common characteristics of behavior-disordered children are

aggression and acting out. Even though all children sometimes cry, hit others, and refuse to
comply with the requests of their parents and teachers, disturbed children do so frequently. The
aggressive behavior of children with behavior disorder often occurs with little or no provocation.
Aggression takes many forms of verbal abuse toward adults and other children, destructiveness
and vandalism, physical attacks on others it considered to be behavior intended to cause injury or
pain (psychological or physical) or to destroy property. These children’s own aggressive out
bursts often cause others to strike back in attempts to punish them. It is no wonder that others do
not like these children or that they establish few friendships. As many behavior disordered
children grow older, their aggressive behavior causes conflict in the community, leading to
confrontation with low enforcement officials and arrests for criminal offenses.

Many believe that most children who exhibit deviant behavior patterns will grow out of them
with time and become normally functioning adults. Although this popular wisdom may hold true
for many children with emotional problems such as withdrawal, fears, and speech impairments,

34
research indicates that it it’s not so for children who display consistent patterns of aggressive,
coercive, antisocial, and /or delinquent behavior.

b. Hyperactivity - what behavior does a hyperactive child exhibit? And how does it affect the
development of a child? Disabled and mentally retarded children, as well as many emotionally
disturbed children characterized by abnormally excessive activity or movement. This high
activity level may interfere with a child’s learning and cause considerable problems in managing
behavior. The term refers to a high rate of socially in appropriate activity, not simply to over
activity or a high rate of movement. The behavior of hyper active children include failure to
follow instructions, failure to complete tacks, tantrums, clumsiness, fighting, and recklessness,
for example, makes then not only an object of concert for adults but unpopular with their peers.
Hyperactive children usually do not get along well with other children. Hyperactive children
often are also impulsive. They frequently respond quickly and without considering alternatives
in social situations and on academic tasks. Typically, their impulses lead them to the wrong
response and they make socially unacceptable or academically incorrect responses causing them
to become pariahs in their neighborhoods and schools.

c. Withdrawn Behavior - withdrawn children keep others at a distance both physically and
emotionally. They may lack social approach responses, responsiveness to others’ social
initiations, or both. Although children who consistently act immaturely and withdrawn do not
present threats to others as aggressive children do, their behavior still creates a serious
impediment to their development. These children seldom play with other children of their own
age. They do not engage in social reciprocity, the mutually satisfying exchange of social
reinforcement by pairs of individuals, that characterizes normal social development. They
usually do not have the social skills necessary to make friends and have fun and often retreat into
their own daydreams and fantasies. Some are fearful of things without reason, frequently
complaining of being sick or hurt, and falling into deep bouts of depression. Obviously, these
behavior patterns limit the child’s chances to take part in and learn from the school and leisure
activities that normal children participate in.

d. Inadequacy /immaturity - immature children may behave in ways that are characteristics of
much younger moral children, or they may fail to meet reasonable demands of performance. For
example, they may unexpectedly cry or have temperaments, act helpless, regress to primitive

35
behavior become extremely negative, or show irrational fears. Some disturbed children use their
negativism and tantrums to become little tyrants, manipulating their parents into complying with
their very impulse. Others display a picture of helplessness and demand constant adult
attendance just to get them through the activities of daily living. Still others are prisoners of their
own extreme, irrational fear (e.g. of school, of animals) and lead lives of seeming desperation in
which avoidance of the feared object or situation is a constant concern.

Communication - although many students with behavior disorder or emotional problems have
language problems, these are not characteristics of communication that are universal or specific
to most of these students. Students who are considered schizophrenic sometimes do demonstrate
abnormal language and communication skills. Many never speak, while others develop language
and speech disorders like echolalia, illogical or disorganized speech and inadequate
comprehension of verbal instructions. These students represent a very small percentage of those
classified as having serious emotional disturbances.

3.2.1. Educational Program, Identification and Assessment of Learners with

Intellectual Difference, Emotional and Behavior Disorders

Children with emotional and behavior disorders often are serious with others and themselves or
they are so shy and withdrawn that they seem to be in their own worlds. In either case playing
with others, making friends, and learning all the things a child must learn and are extremely
difficult for these children sometimes to learn properly. Their behavior relates and sometimes
unrelated to expectations for what is accepted and causes concern for parents, teachers or other
children.

These children are referred to by a variety of terms such as emotionally disturbed, socially
maladjusted, psychologically disordered, emotionally handicapped or even psychotic if their
behavior is extremely abnormal or bizarre. Such children are seldom really liked by any one
worst still, they do not even like themselves. They are difficult to be around and attempts to be
friend that may only lead to rejection, verbal abuse, or even physical attack. We will further treat
their education and interrelationship in the later subsection.

Often, the first signs of serious emotional disturbance are seen as difficulties with basic
biological functions or social responses (e.g. eating, sleeping, eliminating, responding to parents’

36
attempts to comfort, or ‘muddying’ the parent’s body when being held). At the toddler stage,
slowness in learning to walk or talk is a sign of potential emotional difficulty. In short, failure to
pass ordinary developmental milestones with in a normal age range is a danger signal in the case
of emotional development, just as in cognitive development. In fact, cognitive and emotional
development tends to be closely linked, and neither aspect of a young child’s life can be
considered in isolation from the other.

Teachers can identify and help children with emotional disorders by the following behaviors as
stated by Kough et al, 1955:

a. Aggressive maladjustment
- Doesn’t go along gracefully with the decisions of the teachers or the group;
- Is quarrelsome; fights often; gets mad easily;
- Is bullying; picks on others;
- Occasionally is disruptive of property.
b. Withdrawn maladjustment
- Is noticed by other children,
- Is neither actively liked nor disliked just left out;
- Is one or more of the following; shy, timid, fearful, anxious, excessively quiet,
tense;
- Is easily upset; feelings are readily hurt; is easily discouraged.

c. General maladjustment
- Needs an unusual amount of prodding to get work completed;
- Is inattentive and indifferent, or apparently lazy;
- Exhibit nervous mannerisms such as nail biting, sucking thumb or fingers,
suffering, extreme restlessness, muscle twitching, hair twisting, picking and
scratching, deep and frequent signing;
- Is actively excluded by most of the children whenever they get a chance;
- Show failure in school for no apparent reason;
- Is absent from school frequently or dislikes school intensely;
- Seems to be more unhappy than most of the children;
- Achieves much less in school than his ability indicated he should; and

37
 - Is jealous or over competitive.

Assessment of emotional or behavioral problems: Like assessment of problems in various

academic areas that should help us identify these students who need special help, planning or
having programs to address their problems, and monitor progress toward reaching their goal is
fundamental. An adequate assessment does not focus exclusively on student’s behavior. Rather,
it includes consideration of the student’s social and physical environments and the student’s and
feelings about their circumstances. Assessment should not merely be descriptive of what is but
also should be a process that leads to suggested interventions.

Suffice to say that behavioral assessment may employ rating scales and interviews but relies
most heavily on direct observation for measurement of the particular behaviors that are
problematic. Behavior rating scales may be used to obtain adults’ (teachers’ and parents’)
reports of the frequency with which students exhibit specific characteristics The result of these
ratings can then be compared to national or lock norms to see the extent to which the students’
exhibit specific characteristics The result of these ratings can then be compared to national or
local norms to see the extent to which the students’ behavior differs from that of other students.
Interviews with parents, teachers and students themselves may be used to assess the perceptions
individuals have of the student’s behavior and its context. Their explanations for the students
conduct and motivational factors may be important in designing an intervention programs.
Direct observation of behavior is most useful in assessing exactly what the student and others do
and do not do in specific settings or circumstances. The information obtained from direct
observation provides another basis for planning and monitoring intervention.

Causes of EBD
A youngster's misbehavior may be partly biological in origin, partly attributed to the family's
childrearing practice and/or partly due to mismanagement at school, and partly a function of
cultural influences.

1. Personal factors

For the vast majority of behavior disordered children, there is no evidence of organic injury or
disease i.e. they appear to be biologically healthy and sound. Brain injury or dysfunction has

38
played a critical role in the definition of learning disabilities or behavior disorders, particularly in
disorders of cognition and attention.
Emotional or behavioral disorders may arise in part from variety of biological processes,
including complex genetic factors (and the temperament they foster) like: malnutrition,
traumatic brain injury, and physical illness. Typically, however, the biological processes work in
combination with environmental factors and are not the direct causes of specific problematic
behaviors.
When all the facts have been sifted, it must be concluded that there is little, if any, consistent
suffocative evidence, much with empirical proof, of a biological cause for the vast majority of
children's disordered behavior. The types of childhood disorders most frequently linked with
suspected biological causes are hyperactivity and childhood psychoses (autism and childhood
schizophrenia). Diet and toxins in the environment are also put toward as possible causative
factors of particularly, hyperactivity.
2. Family factors
Children undoubtedly learn many of their attitudes and values from their parents and siblings.
For example, a child's family unwittingly teaches him/her undesirable attitudes toward school
and academic learning or toward authority. For decades, it was known that a home environment
lacking educational stimulation is likely to produce children who have learning difficulties.
Moreover, decades of research indicates that parental discipline and other aspects of child rearing
can contribute to children's emotional and behavioral problems. Discipline that is too lax or too
restrictive, especially if the parent is generally hostile toward the child and inconsistent
management of the child at home are likely to foster emotional or behavioral difficulties.
Although family facts may play a major role in children's emotional or behavioral problem, one
can not exactly identify the family interactions that are at fault in the individual case. This is
partly because the child's behavior can be a cause of parental behavior as well as be caused by it.
Certainly, families can contribute to children's emotional or behavioral problems that are mild or
severe, through abuse, mismanagement, neglect, disorganization and bad example. However,
teachers and others must be careful not to assume that because a child is exhibiting inappropriate
behavior, the family is always the cause. It is possible for parents with extremely poor child
rearing skills to have children who behave well. It is also possible for parents who are extremely
competent in child rearing to have children who behave miserably. Teachers must be aware of

39
the way families can foster children's undesirable behavior but be cautious of blaming parents for
children’s problems. Teachers must be ready to work with parents for the benefit of the child,
and not should sit in judgment on parent's conduct.

There is little doubt that behavior is largely shaped by social context. Self and stow (1989),
identified some family factors which seemed to be correlated with emotional and behavioral
difficulties in children. These include:
 Basic needs being unmet (physical abuse and neglect) over crowding or large family size;
unsets factory housing conditions and poverty can induce psychological stress and health
problems.
 Marital disorder or broken home;
 Maternal depression /neuroticism;
 Child "in care";
 Father- any offence against the law;
 Lack of routines that may lead to the child’s overtiredness or restlessness
 Prolonged separation from father may slow down development and can lead to acute
distress followed by apathy.
 Domestic crises and parental disharmony can affect children's emotional well-being;
 Parental illness can adversely affect children if through ill health, parents are erratic or
moody or children are anxious about them; and
 Unsatisfactory parental attitudes and practices.
3. Immediate socializing factors
Children’s behavioral development is obviously affected by a wide range of experiences,
including interaction with peers and schooling. These are some of the immediate socializing
factors to a child.
a) Peer Groups- opportunities to interact with peers are known to be important for moral
behavioral development but relatively, little is known about how much and what kind of
interaction is necessary or how young children’s peer relations may be a cause of
disordered behavior. It might be expected that children learn inappropriate behavior from
their peers; but peer relations also hold great potential for behavior therapy. For example,
peers may effectively improve disturbed children’s behavior thorough play, tutoring,

40
 modeling (providing examples that the disturbed child may imitate), or by giving prompts
or reinforces for desirable behavior as directed by an adult therapist.

b) School factors – certain characteristics of schooling appear in some cases to be causal

factors in troublesome behavior and teachers must be aware of and ready to change those
school experiences that may instigate trouble. That is, before looking to other causal
explanations, teachers ought first to make certain that a student-school experience is not
contributing to emotional problems.
The direct daily measurement of behavior is useful in assessing the extent of the problem and in
judging the success of the methods used to modify it. In the intervention program, the most
important consideration in dealing with students’ difficult behavior in school is balancing
concern for behavioral control with concern for academic and social learning.

Although inattentive and disruptive behavior must be controlled in order to teach, the objective
of controlling misbehavior there must be balance with a well-designed and implemented
instructional program to teach academic and social skills. There are several different approaches
to educate children with emotional disturbance, each with its own definitions, purposes of
treatment, and types of intervention. Based on the work of Rhodes and Head, (1974), Rhodes
and Tracy, (1972), and Kaufman (1985); there are six categories of educational models
suggested. These are:

1. Biogenetic - this model suggests that deviant behavior is a physical disorder with
genetic or medical cause. It implies that these causes must be aroused to treat the
emotional disturbance. Treatment may be medical or nutritional.
2. Psychodynamics - based on the idea that a disordered personality develops out of the
interaction of experience and internal mental processes that are out of balance, this
model relies on psychotherapy and creative projects for the child and often relies on
the parents rather than academic remediation.
3. Psycho educational - this model is concerned with unconscious motivations and
underlying conflicts yet stresses the realistic demands of everyday functioning in
school and home. It puts an emphasis on the students’ emotional development and
growth as on academic growth. Intervention focuses on therapeutic discussions to
allow the children to understand their behavior rationally and plan to change it.

41
 4. Humanistic - this model suggests that the disturbed child is not in touch with his/her
own feelings and cannot find self-fulfillment in traditional educational settings.
Treatment takes place in an open, personalized setting where the teacher acts as a
non-directive, non-authoritarian ‘resource and catalyst’ for the child’s learning.
5. Ecological - this model stresses on the interaction of the child with the people around
him/her and with social institutions. This approach considers children’s problem as
largely emanating from social or cultural forces exerting influence on the individual.
Treatment involves teaching the child to function within the family, school,
neighborhood, and the large community.
6. Behavioral - this model assumes that the child has learned disordered behavior and
has not learned appropriate responses. To treat the behavior disorder, a teacher uses
applied behavior analysis techniques to teach the child appropriate responses and
eliminate inappropriate ones.
Few programs or teachers use the techniques suggested by one of these models. Most programs
employ electrical methods. And the models themselves are not entirely discrete; they overlap
certain areas. Sometimes the difference is primarily a matter of wording.

In the following paragraphs a review of specific tips to be employed in the learning teaching
process are made available for teachers so that they can make use of the program relevant to
learners with emotional and behavior disorders.

I. Make the curriculum meaningful

 Build new learning from the previous knowledge and experience of students by holding
brainstorming sessions with the students on a specific topic and letting them relate what
they know. Giving students a problem and encouraging them to use whatever they
already know to get in to the problem is encouraged. The teacher can then introduce new
concepts and skills required to solve the problem.
 Use a student’s daily experience to clarify new concepts.
 Make learning more functional by giving the students a chance to apply it to everyday life.
 Use stories to raise interest in lesson content.
 Plan field trips and projects
 Introduce games and simulations.

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 II. Create conducive learning environment

 Emphasize on the importance of meaning and purpose in learning activities;

 Set tasks that are both realistic and challenging;
 Ensure that there is progression in children’s work;
 Provide a variety of learning experiences;
 Give pupils opportunities to choose;
 Have a high expectations of success;
 Create a positive atmosphere for learning;
 Provide a consistent approach;
 Recognize and reward the efforts and achievement of pupils;
 Organize resources to facilitate learning;
 Encourage pupils to work co-operatively;
 Monitor progress and provide regular feedback;
 Help pupils to develop negotiating skills such as listening, managing conflict,
assertiveness training, taking risks, accepting responsibility and dealing with feelings;
 Support the development of a positive self concept as well as an internal locus of control.

Teachers can ask six questions about their behavior, the classroom, or the school to assess
whether the educational environment might be contributing to students misbehavior;

a) Is my instructional program sound?

Sound instructional program is the first defense against emotional or behavioral problems in
school. Instruction offered at the student’s feelings of threat, failure resentment, and defeat is
not successful. We should not expect students to be ever successful if they are not being
thought well.

b) Are my expectations of the students appropriate?

Expectations that is too high for a student’s ability lead to constant feelings of failure.
Expectations that are too low lead to boredom and lack of progress. A good teacher adjusts
expectations to meet the student’s level of ability so that improvement is always both possible
and challenging.

c) Am I sufficiently sensitive to the student as an individual?

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A school environment that is conducive to appropriate behavior must allow students sufficient
freedom to demonstrate their individuality. Teachers who demand strict uniformity and who
are unable to tolerate and encourage appropriate differences among their students are likely to
increase the tendency of some to exhibit troublesome behavior. Finding balance between
conformity to necessary rules and tolerance for difference is a key to building a school and
classroom environment conducive to appropriate behavior.
d) Do I offer reinforcement expertly?
In many cases students with emotional and behavior problems are ignored when they are behaving
well and given lots of attention (usually in the form of criticism and reminder threats) when
they misbehave. This arrangement is certain to perpetuate the students’ emotional or
behavioral difficulties. Expert enforcement is typically given frequently, immediately,
interestingly, and contingent on desired behavior.
e) Am I consistent in managing behavior?
In consistent management is one factor that is almost certain to increase the tendency of any
student to behave.
f) Are desirable models being demonstrated and used?
If the teachers’ behavior is desirable model for students, then appropriate conduct may be
encouraged that students also imitate their classmates.
III. Cultural factors
Families and schools have profound influences in behavioral development of a child. But the
behavior of children and youths is also shaped by the standards, values and expectations of the
larger culture in which they live. The mass media, the neighborhood, one’s social group,
religion, and social class all affect emotional and behavioral characteristics. In some cases, these
cultural influences may contribute to emotional or behavioral problems, particularly of there is
conflict between cultures or if a given culture gives youngsters mixed message.

Gifted and Talented Children

Physically, gifted children do not differ substantially from other children of their age. Rather,
giftedness is a complex concept covering a wide range of abilities and traits. Some students have
special talents. They may not be outstanding in academic, but they may have special abilities in
music, literature, or leadership. A child may have intellectual abilities that could be found in one
of thousand or more. In general, although gifted children share some common characteristics

44
with other children of their own age, there are observable characteristics displayed by gifted and
talented children with cognitive, affective, and societal domains. The following table/diagram
shows some characteristics.

Table 2Teacher Ratings for Behavioral Characteristics of Superior Students

Behavioral Teacher ratings (explanations)

characteristics
1 Learning - Has unusually advanced vocabulary for age or grade level, uses
characteristics terms in a meaningful way; has verbal behavior characterized by
‘richness’ of expression, elaboration, and fluency.
- Is a keen and alert observer; usually sees more or gets more out of a
story, film, poem, etc., than others
2 Motivational - Strives toward perfection, is self-critical; is not easily satisfied
characteristics with own speed or products.
- Is quite concerned with right and wrong, good and bad, often
evaluates and passes judgment on events, people, and things.

3 Creativity - Displays a great deal of curiosity about many things; is constantly

characteristics asking questions about anything and everything;
- Displays a keen sense of humor and sees humor in situations that
may not appear to be humorous to others
4 Leadership - Is self-confident with children of his own age as well as adults;
characteristics seems comfortable when asked to show work to the class.
- Tends to dominate others when they are around; generally directs
the activity in which s/he is involved
5 Visual and arts - Incorporates a large number of elements into art performing work;
characteristics varies the subject and content of art work.
- Is adept at role playing, improvising acting out situations, ‘on the
sport’, (Dramatics)
- Perceives fine differences in musical tone (pitch, loudness, timbre,
duration).

Education of the gifted and talented children in the inclusive schooling

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The intellectually superior children are the gifted and talented ones whose academic performance
is higher when compared with classmates. Most of these children are unrecognized and lack
attention from teachers and school community for a long in our country.
Giftedness can be defined as the possession of unusually high intellectual potential or other
special talents. The term describes individuals with high levels of intelligence, outstanding
abilities, and capacity for high performance. Creativity also represents giftedness. Creativity
correspond to an ability to generate novel ideas and innovative solutions - products that are not
merely new and unusual but are also appropriate in context and valued by others. Thus,
creativity, as a form of intelligence, is characterized by:
 Advanced, divergent thought and thinking that requires variety of ideas or solutions
to a problem when there is no one correct answer;
 production of many original ideas
 Ability to develop flexible and detailed responses and ideas.
Talented children generally refer to a specific dimension of skill (e.g. musical, artistic) that may
not be matched by a child's more general abilities. It is a term that describes individuals who
show natural aptitude or superior ability in a specific area without necessarily implying a high or
superior degree of intelligence.
Gifted children could be identified and information is secured through the participation of
teachers, peer groups, and school record officers. Therefore, classroom teachers should be
involved in any program that is designed to identify the problems of the gifted and in other
intervention strategies.
Giftedness can be labeled as a ‘mixed blessing’, because the psychosocial behaviors and
characteristics of the gifted and talented children could be both positive and negative. For
example, despite their good behaviors or characteristics, gifted children may present problem for
themselves, parents, teachers or for the community as a whole.
The reasons for going through the process of identifying gifted children are complex.
Identification is the first step to a differentiated program. And, well-planned program could help
the following things that gifted children might face:

 Restricted learning opportunities

 Poor parent-child relationships

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  Lack of interpersonal relationships
Other negative factors Above all, tightly intelligent and talented children are potentially the most
valuable resources of our society, their talents and potentialities must be identified, cultivated
and developed to the full.

Like all exceptional children gifted and talented children need special help so that they can
realize their ‘blessings’. So, they have to be identified as early as possible. And that is not an
easy task. In Ethiopia, in every generation, many gifted children pass through schools
unidentified, and their talents uncultivated.

 Many may come from low economic backgrounds;

 Others may come from some cultures that place little stress on verbal ability;
 Others could dropped out of school for economic reasons;
 Some may face emotional problems that disguise their intellectual ability.

The identification of the gifted children

Two major procedures are mainly used in the identification of the gifted children: Observation
methods and psychological tests.

A. Observation -Gifted children could be identified and information is secured through the
participation of teachers, peer groups, and school record officers. Nevertheless, the
limitation of their involvement created the inherent weaknesses of observation, certain
procedures should be realized.

Classroom teachers: Classroom teachers are good sources of information on the identification
of the behaviors and characteristics of gifted children. Therefore, classroom teachers should be
involved in any program that is designed to identify the problems of the gifted and in other
intervention strategies; and, in basic training of exceptional children, in general, and gifted and
talented children, in particular. In identification and assessment procedures teachers mostly
employ the child’s social, academic, motivational and leadership characteristics.
School record officers: The academic achievement results and other recordings obtained
through both internal and external testing services are carefully recorded and stored in the
schools record offices. Therefore, sufficient records and other information could be secured

47
from the record center. Teachers and other school personnel's can easily refer to such available
records in order to identify the problems and other characteristics of gifted students.

Peer groups: Sometimes and informally information could be secured through peer groups. The
information could serve as additional way of obtaining more facts about the gifted in the psycho
socio-metric analysis of the data obtained. Peer groups could simply supply information both
positively and negatively on their gifted and talented friends.

B. Psychological Tests : There had been different psychological tests developed by different
personalities for the purpose of good decisions on selection and classification of students for
academic, vocational, and other benefits. In order to identify the gifted and talented, intelligence
tests is one of the different psychological tests most professionals have been used.

Before you see the nature of intelligence tests, you have to be clear about the meaning of
‘intelligence.’ What is intelligence? The psychometric (or testing) approach defines intelligence
as a trait (or set of traits) that allows some people to think and solve problems more effectively
than others. Intelligence is technically defined as the capacity to think abstractly to learn and to
integrate new experiences, to adapt new situations and solve problems.
Both heredity and environment contributes heavily to intellectual performance. The evidences
from twin studies and studies of adopted children indicate that about half the variation among
individuals in IQ is attributable to hereditary factors. But regardless of one's genetic
predispositions, barren intellectual environments clearly inhibit cognitive growth whereas
environmental enrichments can clearly promote it.
The cursory look of these educational objectives implies that special programs are essential to
achieve all of them. In short, gifted and talented children need individual programs tailored to
their unique needs.
Relatively speaking, important practical steps have been taken in our country to accommodate
disabled children so that they may succeed in schools, and communities. Important sensitizations
are caring out through the various media and by their respective associations (e.g., blind
association, deaf association). But little or no effort is made to accommodate the needs of gifted
and talented children. Our schools, curriculum and methodologies had not been urging
creativity. Our schools neglect children who are divergent thinkers, creative and gifted or

48
talented. These things have to be changed and we have to promote school systems, curriculum,
and an environment which would accommodate the gifted and talented students.

Like all exceptional children, gifted and talented children need special help to reach their
potential, to fully succeed in schools and in life, in general. Although no one special program
could meet the individual needs of all the children, the diversity we find among gifted youngsters
is reflected in the number and type of adaptations the schools are making to meet their special
needs. Gifted and talented children need special instructional techniques, teaching materials,
classroom arrangement and teachers.

Most educators would agree on three general educational objectives for programs of gifted and
talented students:

 Gifted children should master important conceptual systems that are at the level of
their abilities in various content/fields.
 Gifted children should develop skills and strategies that enable them to become more
independent, creative and self-sufficient.
 Gifted children should develop a pleasure in and excitement about learning that will
carry them through the hard work and routine that is an inevitable part of the process.
In the broadest terms, the goals of education for the gifted are not different from the goal of
education for all other children. The general important objectives of education of all children
(including the gifted) focus on:
 Feelings of self worth, self-confidence
 Feelings of self-sufficiency
 Civic responsibility
 Career competence
 Intellectual abilities

Educational supports of the gifted children

Yet, there are some specific educational outcomes that are desirable for the gifted and talented in
schools. So, they have to be helped to acquire or master these skills. Although professionals do

49
not agree on the best educational approach for gifted and/or creative students, currently gaining
popularity is the concept of a differential curriculum.It is the flexible application of curriculum
targets that ensure content mastery, in depth and independent learning, and exploration of issues
and themes and allows for acceleration when needed. Let's see the two main approaches: the
acceleration and enrichment of differential curriculum.

Enrichment Approach experiences are those that add topics or skills to the traditional
curriculum or presenting a particular topic in more depth. Such experiences would let gifted
children investigate topics of interest in greater detail than those required in ordinary school
curriculum. There are different mechanisms of promoting enrichment:

 A group of students might spend a small portion of time each week working with
instructional materials that enhance creativity or critical thinking skills.
 Gifted children could be allowed to pursue and study a particular academic subject, or a
topic in depth on an individual basis.
 Gifted students could be paired with adults who guide them in applying knowledge to
real-life situations
 Students all exposed to planned activities that seek to develop thinking skills, problem
solving, and creativity can enhance their learning.

Although the enrichment approach is mostly used in the regular classroom settings, some topics
of investigation may stem from ongoing activities outside the classrooms or schools. For
example, during summer vacation, gifted children could be sent to special programs where they
could benefit from the proposed experiences.

Acceleration Approach means moving students through a curriculum or years of schooling in

shorter periods of time than usual. It is speeding up the movement at which the gifted child
encounters a given content, class, or grade levels.
Acceleration comes in many different forms:
1. Early school admission – the child once shown to be intellectually and socially mature is
allowed to enter kindergarten at a younger-than-normal age.

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2. Skipping grades – the child is accelerated by completely eliminating one semester or one
grade in school. Skipping grade is, of course, unpopular strategy because of its potential
for creating temporary adjustment problems for the gifted students.
3. Telescoping grades – the child covers the standard material, but in less time. For
example, a three-year junior high program would be taught over two years.
4. Advanced placement – the student takes courses for college credit while still in high
school, shortening of the college program. This can be done easily for those students
placed or grouped according to their ability.
5. Early college admission – an extraordinarily advanced student may enter college at 13,
14, or 15 years of age.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4. Education of Children with Communication Disorder and Learning
Difficulties in Inclusive Classrooms
Unit learning outcomes
Up on successful completion of this unit, teacher candidates are able to:

 Define terms related to communication disorders and learning difficulties.

 Modify classroom to meaningfully accommodate students with communication and
learning difficulties.
 Value individual learning differences in inclusive classroom.
 Recognize personal, social and environmental barriers that interfere with education of
children with communication disorders and learning disabilities.

Communication disorders
Communication is the transfer of knowledge, ideas, opinions and feelings which is usually
accomplished through the use of language. In some other cases, it is transfer of information
through glance of an eye, a gesture, or of some other nonverbal behavior. Language is the
formalized method of communication by which ideas are transmitted to others.
Speech is the vocal production of language and vocal systems are parts of the respiratory system
used to create voice.
Any deviation from using language and speech in the formal system of communication leads an
individual to language or speech disorder which is known as communication disorder. Speech is
abnormal when it is unintelligible, unpleasant or interferes with communication. Speech
problems mostly occur because of vocal system impairments.

4.1.1. Causes Communication disorder

Some causes of communication disorders include hearing loss, neurological disorders, brain
injury, mental retardation, drug abuse, physical impairments such as cleft lip or palate, emotional
or psychiatric disorders, and developmental disorders. Frequently, however, the cause is
unknown. It is however, that communication disorders include problems related to speech,
language and auditory processing. Communication disorders may range from simple sound
repetitions such as stuttering to occasional mis-articulation of words to complete inability to use
speech and language for communications (aphasia).

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4.1.2. Types of communication disorder

Communication disorders fundamentally include disorders of speech and language. Too many
people, the terms communication, speech, and language mean essentially the same thing, but to
special educators and speech-language therapists these are significantly different concepts that
require different approaches to instruction.

Speech disorders

Disordered speech is significantly different from the usual speech of others, and it detracts from
the communicative abilities of the speaker. It is important to point out that difference in speech
such as dialects or accents are not disorders. Only when a child’s speech is significantly different
from normal speech in his or her developmental context should the child be sent for a speech and
language evaluation.

There are three types of speech disorders:

1. Articulation disorders account for the majority of speech disorders. The child is unable
to produce sounds appropriate for his or her age. Articulation disorders also include
substitution or omission of sounds: for instance, saying “th” for “s,” or leaving out the “l”
sound in words like clue (saying “coo” instead).
Articulation difficulties constitute the most numerous of all speech disorders. The term refers to
difficulties with the way sounds are formed and strung together ("wabbit" for "rabbit"), omitting
a sound ("han" for "hand"), or distorting a sound ("sip for ship")

2. Fluency disorders are interruptions in the flow of speech. These can include difficulties
with the rate, rhythm, or repetition of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Examples of
fluency disorders include stuttering and “cluttering,” in which the forward pace of
speech is confused or full of extra sounds.

Stuttering is, perhaps, the most serious dysfluency (fluency disorder). Stuttering is characterized
by a disruption in the flow of speech. It includes repetitions of speech sounds, hesitations before
and during speaking and, or, prolongations of speech sounds. There are over 15 million
individuals who stutter in the world. Most stutterers first exhibit dysfluency at an early age, and

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stuttering occurs most frequently in children between the ages of 2 and 6, during language
development. One child in 30 goes through a period of stuttering that can last six months or
longer.

3. Voice disorders are impairment of the voice itself, and they affect the quality, pitch, or
intensity of the person’s speech. For example, students with voice disorders may sound
hoarse all the time or speak too loudly.

Voice is generated by air flow from the lungs as the vocal folds are brought close together. The
vocal folds vibrate when air is pushed past them with sufficient pressure. Without normal
vibration of the vocal folds in the larynx (voice box), the sound of speech is absent. To
produce a whisper, the vocal folds need to be partially separated. Many people who have
acquired normal speaking skills become communicatively impaired when their vocal
apparatus fails. This can occur if the nerves controlling the functions of the larynx are
impaired as a result of an accident, a surgical procedure or a viral infection.

4.1.2.1. Language disorders

Language is the expression of human communication through which knowledge, beliefs and
behavior can be experienced, explained and shared. A language disorder is the impairment or
deviant development of expression and, or, comprehension of words in context. The disorder
may involve the form of language, the content of language and, or, the function of language as a
communication tool. Disorders of language affect children and adults differently. For children
who do not use language normally from birth, or who acquire the impairment in childhood, the
disorder occurs in the context of a language system that is not fully developed or acquired. Many
adults acquire disorders of language because of stroke, head injury, dementia or brain tumors.
Language disorders are also found in adults who failed to develop normal language because of
childhood autism, hearing impairment or other congenital or acquired disorders of brain
development.

The term language disorder indicates a difficulty in understanding and using speech, the written
word, or another symbol system. According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association (ASHA), a language disorder is ‘the impairment or deviant development of

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comprehension and/or use of a spoken, written, and/or other symbol system’ (Bernthal and
Bankson, 1993 as cited in US Department of Education, 2000).

1. Language form includes phonology, morphology and syntax application.

 Phonology: the sound system of a language and the rules that cover sound
combinations: in English, for instance, a short a sounds like “ahhh”; an x usually
sounds like “ks”; a ph sounds like “f.”
 Morphology: the structural system for words and word construction in a language.
For example, the verb run can become the participle running. One way to remember
the meaning of morphology is to think about how words “morph” used into other
words when the meaning changes.

 Syntax: the system in a given language for combining words to form sentences. English
sentences typically put the subject first, then the verb, then the direct object, and so on.

2. Language content focuses on the meaning

 Semantics: the meaning of words and sentences in a language. Skill in semantics includes
the ability to visualize or interpret what someone has said or what you have read and to
understand it.

Language function

Pragmatics: the ability to combine form and content to communicate functionally and in socially
acceptable ways—for example, knowing when to say what to whom.
A student with a language disorder may be unable to understand spoken language or to produce
sentences and share ideas in an age-appropriate way. The roots of these comprehension and
production difficulties may reside in any of the areas of language just named.

Some communication problems cannot be categorized strictly as speech or language disorders.

Rather, they are broadly classified as auditory processing disorders. This term describes a
general deficit in processing sensory information from the ears. A child with a learning disability
who has such a disorder may take longer to “process” a question or direction and can appear to
be ignoring you, not attending to the class activity, or acting disobedient. Because auditory

55
information processing takes longer for such a child, the information may never reach short- or
long-term memory. A child with an auditory processing disorder needs specific techniques to
attend to the important parts of language and speech.

4.1.3. Identification and assessment of learners with communication disorder

Under this subsection, students are acquainted with the causal factors, identification techniques
and assessment strategies to be employed in the school systems. We perceive that the mostly
mindful agents are the teachers who get in contact with the students in the classroom in the
identification and assessments to be made.
As indicated earlier, most children with communication disorders work in the regular classroom
and receive special instruction in speech and language, usually with a speech-language therapist.
As the classroom teacher, you can help identify the child with a communication disorder by
listening to how the child speaks and what he or she says. The key is to look for consistent
differences in language use, articulation, and comprehension. When a child consistently
misspeaks (saying “th” for “s,” for example), you should recommend to the parents that the child
be evaluated for speech-language therapy. You must have parental permission before you have a
student tested or evaluated in any way.

When you invite a speech-language therapist (or any other specialist) into your classroom, it is
important to prepare your students for the visit. Letting the students know that a visitor will be
observing the class can reduce their fears and curiosity. Talk with the student you are concerned
about, and let him or her know that you’ve asked someone to come to help you understand what
is going on in the classroom. Try to make the student comfortable. Avoid giving a special lesson
on that day or treating the student differently than you normally would. Allowing the specialist to
observe the normal classroom routine will ensure that both you and your students receive the
help you’ve asked for.
Prior to the classroom observation the specialist may ask you to fill out a checklist like the one
shown in Figure 3. This checklist can help you organize your concerns and focus your own
observation of the child. Again, it is absolutely necessary that you obtain parental permission
before you have a student tested or observed.

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 Education of children with speech disorder in inclusive classroom

This subsection gives attention to the basic speech areas that were affected in the developmental
period from the early conception. Areas of speech that may interfere with education of these
children get specific consideration

Once a child has been identified as having a communication disorder, he or she will receive
special instruction, most likely outside the regular classroom. This instruction will include
techniques to help the child with specific needs: for instance, practice in understanding language
rules or exercises to teach the child how to position his tongue while he says a sound. The child
will spend only a small portion of total school time in speech-language therapy, so it is
important to ask the specialist for techniques you can use in the classroom to reinforce what the
child is learning. Be sure to share with the parents what the speech therapist is doing so they can
complement this work at home.
A child must learn how to effectively communicate with a variety of conversational partners on
the playground, in the classroom, and at home. Therefore, Speech Language Pathologists (SLP)
should use techniques which provide the child the opportunity to learn appropriate forms of
behavior and communication, as well as how to use them in various social situations. SLPs often
observe children in multiple settings throughout the day to determine in which settings the child
needs more practice generalizing what he or she learned in therapy. It can also be helpful for the
SLP to occasionally work with the child in the classroom or at home so that the child learns to
use new information in those venues.

Education of children with language disorder in the inclusive schooling

This subsection reviews on the educational support and helping strategies on both speech-
language problems. Hence, teacher candidates are advised to see parts of speech at the beginning
and language following it. Treatment of communication disorder will vary depending on the
nature and severity of the problem, the age of the individual, and the individual's awareness of
the problem. Speech-language pathologists select intervention approaches based on the highest
quality of scientific evidence available in order to:

 Help individuals with articulation disorders to learn how to say speech sounds correctly

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  Assist individuals with voice disorders to develop proper control of the vocal and
respiratory systems for correct voice production
 Assist individuals who stutter to increase their fluency
 Help children with language disorders to improve language comprehension and
production (e.g., grammar, vocabulary, and conversation, and story-telling skills)
 Assist individuals with aphasia to improve comprehension of speech and reading and
production of spoken and written language
 Assist individuals with severe communication disorders with the use of augmentative and
alternative communication (AAC) systems, including speech-generating devices (SGDs)
 Help individuals with speech and language disorders and their communication partners
understand the disorders to achieve more effective communication in educational, social,
and vocational settings

Advise individuals and the community on how to prevent speech and language disorders.

4.1.4. Assessment and elimination of social and environmental barriers in the

inclusive schooling to facilitate learning

Biological and socio-cultural factors combine to influence a child’s language socialization.

Language socialization is how children acquire communicative competency to be successful
social members of their cultures. The biological factors are the individual’s inherited capacities
and interests. The socio-cultural aspects include influence from parents, siblings, peers, and
society on a child’s language-socialization and experiences with social interactions (Greenwood
et al., 2002). Language socialization occurs through social interactions in which a child learns
appropriate behaviors, thought processes, and norms that fit a specific culture (Kayser, 1995). A
child’s language socialization and acquisition are greatly influenced by what the relevant culture
defines as appropriate communicative partners, body language, and times to communicate.
Children learn these differences in a variety of social interactions beginning early in life. Early
parent-child interactions teach a child cultural norms and can influence how a child interacts with
other members of society.
The wide variation of cultural communication styles and lack of recognition of and
understanding of the varying styles makes it difficult to rate the appropriateness of social-
communication styles or skills of different behaviors (Kaczmarek, 2002). Therefore, it is

58
important that during clinician-child interactions the clinician acknowledges the cultural
influences on the child’s communicative style (Kayser, 1995). An incorrect understanding of
cultural differences in communicative style and content can lead a clinician to false conclusions
about the child’s competency, potential, and intervention progress. The varying cultural
meanings of body language, eye gaze, gestures, and posture often can lead a person who is
unfamiliar with a culture to make incorrect conclusions about a child’s communication ability or
intents.
Clinicians must also be sensitive to bilingual children who are attempting to learn or perfect a
second language. When providing therapy for bilingual children with a communication disorder
it is extremely important to be culturally sensitive to childrearing practices, beliefs, and
communication styles (Thordardottir, 2010). The general goal for treating communication
disorders is to achieve normal life participation in multiple social realms. The goal of therapy for
bilingual children is for them to participate normally in the socio-cultural contexts of both their
first and their second languages.
Communication is not only important for making friends, but also for academic achievement
(Windsor, 1995). A child’s social-communicative skills and academic development are
influenced by experiences at home as well as at school. A supportive home environment with
frequent verbal interaction with parents, parental participation at school, and encouragement
from parents in social and intellectual skills contributes to a child’s ability to develop appropriate
skills (Greenwood et al., 2002). The school environment, characterized by the frequency of
positive and negative interactions with peers and teachers and by the child’s academic
performance, has a strong influence on social-communicative development and academic
achievement.
An unhealthy school environment or inadequate support from parents will likely constrain a
child’s social-communicative and cognitive competency by not providing optimal opportunities
for success. Not only are group situations difficult, but children with disorders face difficulties
with academic success due to their interpretations of their own abilities. Students with social-
communication impairments are likely to have low self-concepts and less motivation to achieve
because of past failure (Windsor, 1995). They demonstrate poor self-concepts by attributing
success to the ease of a task, help from others, or luck, and by attributing failure to their own
inabilities. These issues combine to produce low academic achievement, which can often be a

59
precursor of problems in other areas, such as dropping out of school and failure in career pursuits
(Windsor, 1995). The resulting failure can also be an indicator of future delinquency. It is
important to master social-communication skills early in life and to use them to gain
communicative, emotional, cognitive, and social competence in order to feel successful and
increase the likelihood of becoming capable and responsible adults.
Here are some recommendations to keep in mind with regard to language and speech
development for any child (with or without an identified communication disorder):

 Modeling - When a child mispronounces a word or is not clear, restate what the child has
said. That is, instead of saying “What?” or “I don’t understand you,” say, “Did you just
ask me to ___?” Think of a one-year-old child you know. When he or she says, “Baa,”
you might say “Ball” or “Bottle,” but you would never say “What?” to a child so young.
Help the child by modeling what you think she is trying to say. It is frustrating for her to
repeat herself with no feedback about what you did or did not understand.

 Making speech clear and easy to understand - Organize your classroom and student
seating so that all students can easily see and hear you. Reduce background noises as
much as possible, and eliminate distractions like an open door into a noisy hallway. Make
sure a student knows that you are addressing him or her before you start speaking. Be
sure to speak loudly enough for your students to hear, and if you know you tend to be a
fast talker, slow down!
 Promoting language exchange - Show students you are interested in them by listening.
This may sound simple, but in a typical classroom of twenty-five students we all ignore
what someone is saying from time to time. Let your students know you are interested by
making time every day to talk to each of them - when they arrive at school in the
morning, at lunch, recess, or during a small-group activity. Be sure to encourage students
to talk to you and each other and elaborate on their comments and responses. By creating
an environment where all students regularly talk, you will encourage language
development in all children.
 Read to your students - At every level, students can increase their language skills by
hearing text read aloud. Read a news story to your high school students, make time after

60
 lunch to read to your first graders, or read a student’s paper to the class. Although some
students will be reluctant to read aloud during a lesson, all students appreciate a good
story, and reading to them is a great way to model interacting with text. It also helps by
differentiating between conversational speech and reading, increasing vocabulary, and
providing a quiet break for everyone in the classroom.

4.2. Learning difficulties/disabilities

Learning difficulties - consider one of the definitions of learning difficulties - Learning
difficulty/disability is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested
by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning and mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual presumed to
be due to the central nervous system dysfunction and may occur across the life span. Problems
in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception and social interaction may exist with learning
disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Learning disabilities may
occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment,
mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) or with extrinsic influences such as cultural
differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction.
In general, it has been found out that individuals with learning disabilities show significant
variation between their actual performance and the level at which professionals and parents think
they should achieve. Individual's problem may focus on one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in using or understanding language.
Any kind of problem exerted in the brain will undoubtedly disturb the whole system thereby
causing a problem in mental and other learning processes. Due to the effect made in the brain, a
child may develop language disorder or (dyslexia – reading disability) as one of the major
learning disability group. Severe malnutrition at an early age can also affect the central nervous
system and hence the learning and development of the child. Moreover, what a child experienced
in the home, community, school, etc can affect attention and other psychological processes
related to learning.
The definition of learning disabilities encompasses the following concern.

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 o It has been found out that individuals with learning disabilities show significant variation
between their actual performance and the level at which professionals and parents think
they should achieve.
o There are areas (tasks) that learning disabled individuals cannot do unlike their normal
peers. They do not learn in the same way or as efficiently as their non-disabled peers.
o Individual's problem may focus on one or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in using or understanding language.
o Learning disabilities are not the direct results of poor vision or hearing disadvantages or
cognitive disabilities but these students are not learning.
The major contributing factors for learning difficulties are:
1. Brain dysfunction – mind controls every process in an individual. And, any kind of
problem in this area will undoubtedly disturb the whole system thereby causing a
problem in mental and other learning processes.
2. Genetics- research revealed that identical twins showed highest frequency of dyslexia
than fraternal twins.
3. Environmental Deprivation and Malnutrition - severe malnutrition at an early age can
affect the central nervous system and hence the learning and development of the child.
What a child experienced in the home, community, school, etc can affect attention and
other psychological processes related to learning.
4. Motivational and affective factors - a child who has failed to learn for one reason or
another tends to have low expectation of success, does not persist on tasks and develops
low self-esteem. These attitudes reduce motivation and create negative feelings about
school work.
5. Physical conditions - visual and hearing defects, confused laterality and spatial
orientation, poor body image, etc can inhibit individual's ability to learn.
6. Psychological Conditions - attention disorders, auditory and visual memory disorders,
perception disorders, cognitive disabilities and language delay, etc can be contributing
factors to academic disabilities.
Scholars in the area classify learning disability/difficulty into two. The first category is
developmental learning disabilities in which individuals manifest problems in attention,

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memory, perceptual-motor, thinking, language, etc. The second group is academic learning
disabilities that include problems in reading, spelling and writing, arithmetic, etc.
Learning disabled children have very poor task approach. They get easily overwhelmed which
puts them in a difficult situation to solve certain problems. Therefore, teachers should serve as
models for students as to how they can do certain problem. Children with learning disabilities
have a problem in attention so we have to try to focus their attention on relevant materials.
Individual children, specifically the learning disabled, require different amounts of drill, practice,
etc. Those who don't receive enough repetition to master the skills being taught will be left
behind. Therefore, giving materials which facilitate rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative) is
advisable.

4.2.1. INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATIONAL PLAN (IEP) AND CURRICULUM

MODIFICATION TO ACCOMMODATE LEARNING PREFERENCE OF
CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DIFFICULTIES IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM

SPECIFIC LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

Dyscalculia - Children with dyscalculia have difficulties learning the most basic aspectof
arithmetic skills. The difficulty lies in the reception, comprehension, or production of
quantitative and spatial information (the physical location of objects and the metric relationships
between objects). Children with dyscalculia may therefore have difficulty in understanding
simple number concepts, lack an intuitive grasp of numbers and have problems learning number
facts and procedures. Dyscalculia is in some ways like ‘dyslexia for numbers.’ Very little is
known about the prevalence of dyscalculia, causes or treatment. Most children with dyscalculia
have cognitive and language abilities that are well within what is considered the ‘normal’ range.
They may excel in non mathematical subjects.
Dysgraphia - is a learning disability resulting from the difficulty in expressing thoughts in
writing and graphing. It generally refers to extremely poor handwriting. Dysgraphia is a
neurological disorder characterized by writing disabilities. Specifically, the disorder causes a
person's writing to be distorted or incorrect. In children, the disorder generally emerges when
they are first introduced to writing. They make inappropriately sized and spaced letters, or write
wrong or misspelled words, despite thorough instruction. Children with the disorder may have
other learning disabilities; however, they usually have no social or other academic problems.

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Cases of dysgraphia in adults generally occur after some trauma. In addition to poor handwriting,
dysgraphia is characterized by wrong or odd spelling, and production of words that are not
correct (i.e., using ”boy” for” child”). The cause of the disorder is unknown.
Treatment for dysgraphia varies and may include treatment for motor disorders to help control
writing movements. Other treatments may address impaired memory or other neurological
problems. Some physicians recommend that individuals with dysgraphia use computers to avoid
the problems of handwriting. Some individuals with dysgraphia improve their writing ability, but
for others, the disorder persists.
Dyslexia - Children with dyslexia experience difficulties affecting the learning process in aspects
of literacy and, sometimes, numeracy. A persistent weakness may also be identified in short-term
and working memory, speed of processing, sequencing skills, auditory and/or visual perception,
spoken language and motor skills. Many children with dyslexia do not only experience barriers,
but they will also have special abilities, which include: good visuo-spatial skills, creative
thinking and intuitive understanding. These abilities help to reduce some of the barriers to
learning that they face.
Decoding Activity - represented by letters of the alphabet, they are the component sounds of
spoken words. Most people automatically hear, for example, that the word «goat» is made up of
three sounds:”guh,” ”oh,” and “tuh.” Reading requires the ability to map the phonemes (small
sounds that form words) we hear to letters on a page, and vice versa. But what happens when this
basic skill, called “decoding,” does not come automatically? Imagine struggling to sound out
every word because you cannot distinguish among phonemes.

Hence, the teacher should make sure that all the children in the class feel valued and important
including those children who experience barriers to learning, development and participation:
 Encourage and motivate all the children in the class to do the best they can.
 Have high expectations for intellectual stimulation (do not underestimate the children
concerned), but reasonable expectations for written responses and reading skills.
 Explain things many times and in many different ways – sometimes to the whole class,
to a smaller group of children (as many will benefit from this), as well as individually to
the child with dyslexia. When you give instructions, be deliberate and use few and
accurate words, and make simple sentences.

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  Allow time for the meaning of the words to ‘sink in.’ Make sure that all the children
have understood by asking them to explain it back to you or to another child.
 Guide the children about how to tackle tasks systematically.
Children with dyslexia will often need to be taught things that other children learn automatically
without your help (this will benefit many other children experiencing barriers to learning, as
well). This might include: how to clean up their desk; put away their books after they have
finished with them; get dressed properly; remind them to look for something they have
misplaced; pack their school bag; and tie their shoelaces. It is important that you (as a teacher)
and their parents recognize the importance of taking time to teach these skills in calm, systematic
and repeated regular routine. Try to evaluate written assignments together with the child. If
possible, focus on what the child has done right (content, spelling, grammar, sentence structure).
Select some of the main errors and concentrate on those, instead of overwhelming the child with
corrections. The movements, of these children often appear clumsy. Gross and fine motor skills
(related to balance and co-ordination) and fine motor skills (relating to manipulation of objects)
are hard to learn and difficult to retain and generalize. Writing is therefore particularly difficult
and time consuming. Computer keyboard skills are also difficult to acquire, as well as playing
the flute and many other musical instruments.
The following techniques emphasize on each of the problems with which learning disabled
students have difficulty with.
1. Language Areas - It includes the following skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing.
Learning disabled students may have a problem in one, two or more of these skills.
A. Listening- this skill involves attending, processing information and having enough knowledge
of vocabulary and content to put a speaker’s speech into a meaningful form. The following
techniques help to improve problems in Attention:
 Making tasks interesting
 Decreasing the length of the task
 Using varied instructional materials
 Reducing verbal destructions
 Helping learners to maintain an eye contact with either the teacher or peer or both to
facilitate non-verbal communication.
 Scheduling difficult task when the student is most alert

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  Giving short assignments, tests and providing immediate feedback.
Techniques to improve processing of Information:
 Facing the learning disabled student by saving the words distinctly and slowly. This can
solve the problem of auditory discrimination.
 Repeating words, listening words on a tape, presenting a pair of words to the learning
disabled student can help in alleviating transposing problem.
Techniques to improve vocabulary and content problem
 Teaching by materials in which children are quite familiar with (experiential
approaches). In other words, the context should be natural.
B. Speaking - In improving problems in the area of speaking, we use the following strategies.
 Modeling (saving the correct one) and reinforcing (the correct way or repeating by
the student)
 Giving different contexts so that students with learning disability can practice
language.
 Allowing students to summarize orients/passages, etc read by the teacher
C. Reading - The problem in this area revolves around the following basic elements:
I. Decoding- individuals with learning difficulty have a problem in matching sounds with their
respective letters in order to read. To minimize the difficulty, teaching sounds by combining
consonants with vowels till they become automatic can be taken as a solution.
II. Comprehension- To improve students with learning difficulty problems in comprehension, a
number of specific arrangements can be made. To mention a few:
 Presenting familiar materials/ giving daily experience materials.
 Making them responsible for their own learning by requiring then to summarize, use self-
questioning, clarity, etc what they are reading.
III. Speed- students with learning difficulty are slow readers. To solve this problem, allowing
them to read aloud for some amounts of time per day can be taken as a remedy.
D. Writing - It consist two aspects: technical and narrative aspects. The technical aspect focuses
on punctuation, hand writing, grammar, style of writing, spelling, etc and the narrative aspect
refers to writing to describe something by using technical aspects. Learning disabled individuals
have problems in both dimensions and the difficulty can be overcome by allowing students to
practice on the two aspects.

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E. Mathematics - problems in this area include: knowledge of basic skills, conceptual
understanding and speed. Students may have problems in one or more of these. To help
them learn we can use:
o Rehearsal, repetition, over learning, etc.
o Games, concrete and abstract materials and multi-sensory material.
o Flash cards with symbols (+,-,x,()) prominently drawn and requiring students to identify.
o Simple and less complicated language (grammar, sentence).

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 Chapter five
5. EDUCATION OF CHILDREN WITH PHYSICAL AND HEALTH RELATED
PROBLEMS IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS

Unit learning outcomes

After completion of this unit, student candidates develop skills and competencies in:
 Identify behavioral characteristics of children with physical/health related problems
and children at risk
 Worth educational modifications to make classroom effective learning settings for
children with physical/motor related problems and at risk
 Understand environmental and social barriers to the education of these children;
 Explore personal factors that may interfere with learners educational needs.

5.1. Physical related problems

Physical/motor related difficulties include children with neurological defects, orthopedic
conditions, birth defects, developmental disabilities, and conditions that are the result of
infection and diseases. It can be categorized as of the following:
 Neurological based disorders – are those entailed with lesion of central nervous system.
They are of varied type among which seizure disorder, cerebral palsy, spina-bifida and
traumatic brain injury are the most prevalent ones among our community.
 Musculoskeletal related problems – are those difficulties arising in the muscle, joints,
joinery fluids and skeleton. One of the best examples is Hanson’s syndrome, commonly
known as leprosy. Arthritis and different inflammations around joints are the others
common around rural Ethiopia.
 Accident based physical/ motor disabilities – are problems occurring on an individual
anytime in life that hampers development and daily living of an individual at any
moment. Most of these types occur by nature or due to some forms of damage to the body
parts. E.g., amputation
The causes of physical disabilities and health impairments can be recognized as: biological
causes, infections and toxins, injury, socioeconomic and environmental factors. Even though
these factors cannot be totally prevented, the disabling effects can be lessened to a great extent.

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The developmental characteristics of children with physical and health related problems
Neurological impairments are problems with the structure or functioning of the central nervous
system, including the brain and the spinal cord. The most common neurological disorders
include:
 Seizure disorders,
 Cerebral palsy,
 Spina bifida and spinal cord defects, and
 Traumatic brain injury.
A. Convulsive Disorders - The word "convulsion" refers to a general seizure involving
rapid spasmodic contraction and relaxation of the musculature. And, epilepsy or
convulsive disorder is the most common neurological impairments encountered in the
school. It is a disorder in which the individual has a tendency to have recurrent seizures-
sudden, excessive, spontaneous, and abnormal discharge of neurons in the brain
accompanied by alteration in motor function, and/or sensory function, and/or
consciousness. The frequency of seizures may vary from a single isolated incident to
hundreds in a day.
Seizures may be caused by many conditions and circumstances and are divided into two:
 Primary epilepsies- They usually appear at a young age; occur in families where there is
some history of epilepsy.
Secondary epilepsies- They may appear at any age and result from accidents or child abuse,
brain injury, meningitis, etc
B. Cerebral Palsy - is a disorder of movement and posture caused by a defect in the
developing brain. It is frequently encountered in schoolchildren. The child with cerebral
palsy is unable to fully control his/her movements or motor functions.
Since cerebral palsy is the result of damage to certain areas of the brain to, it is not a disease.
Rather, cerebral palsy is a condition that is non progressive and non infections. Once it is
acquired, it can't be cured. Damage may occur before (prenatally), during (peri-natally), or
immediately after (post-natally) the child birth. Occasionally, an individual will acquire cerebral
palsy later in childhood. Acquired cerebral palsy is usually the result of brain damage resulting
from accidents, brain infections, or child abuse.

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Many individuals with cerebral palsy have trouble with verbal and non verbal communications.
The disability makes it difficult for the child to control the muscles required for spoken language,
often making speech both very difficult to produce and difficult or impossible to understand.
Non verbal communication that depends on facial expressions and body language may be
difficult for other to "read" in an individual whose body is subject to uncontrolled movements.
C. Spina Bifida and Spinal cord Defects - Spina bifida is a developmental defect where the
spinal column fails to close properly. The defect's seriousness depends on how high the
defect is along the spinal column (the closer to the neck, the more serious the
impairment) and how much of the spinal cord material is involved in the damage. The
causes of spinal canal defects are not yet clear, although the presence of a virus or an
unknown environmental toxin during early fetal development and genetic factors have
been suggested. The defect occurs very early in the development of a fetus, between the
20th and 30th day of fetal development, before a woman even knows she is pregnant.
D. Traumatic Brain Injury. Traumatic brain injury is severe trauma to the head that results
in lingering physical and cognitive impairments. Individuals who have traumatic brain
injury can require many years of work to relearn simple tasks. Fortunately, advances in
medical technology are making recovery possible in some cases.
The term 'traumatic brain injury' does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or
degenerative, or brain injuries induced by birth trauma. Rather, it is acquired injury to the brain
caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or
psychological impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.
Thus, the term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more
areas of these: cognition, abstract thinking, language, problem-solving, memory, sensory,
attention (reasoning, speech, judgment), perceptual and motor abilities (psychosocial behavior,
physical functions, information processing).
Children with neuromuscular diseases
Polio- Polio is a muscular disease in which poliomyelitis, viral infection, attacks the nerve cells
in the spinal cord that controls muscle function. The effects of polio infection range from
symptoms resembling those of a cold and fever to mild to severe paralysis. In addition to the
paralysis which ranges from mild to severe the child may be subjected to upper respiratory
infections due to improper muscle tones.

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Muscular Dystrophy- It is a progressive muscle weakness that comes from problems in the
muscles themselves. The muscle cells degenerate and are replaced by fat and fibrous cells. The
cause of muscular dystrophy is unknown, but it appears to run in families, usually transmitted by
the mother's genes. It mainly affects boys.

5.2. Health related impairments

Health related impairments – are those problems which occur on the individual frequently or
progressively and always interfere with the individual’s development, education and daily
activities. The most common ones are: Asthma, HIV/AIDS, TB, heart failure, nausea, kidney
problem, etc.

Although there are a number of conditions caused by diseases, the main conditions which forces
children to face special problems within the category of health impairments include the
following:
 HIV Infection
 Asthma
 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
HIV Infection - Human immuno deficiency virus (HIV) is responsible for the deadly acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and can be communicated to a child by an infected
mother. The effects of the infection in children include:
 Central nervous system (CNS) damage,
 Additional infections,
 Developmental delay,
 Motor problems,
 psychosocial stresses, and
 Death
To this effect, there must be a long lasting treatment for children with HIV infection. The
treatment includes medical care, education, and developmental services, or a combination of
these things.
Asthma - It difficulty in breathing, with wheezing sounds from the chest caused by air rushing
through narrowed air passages. It is one common type of severe difficulty in breathing. A child

71
with asthma usually has labored; whet breathing that is sometimes accompanied by shortness of
breath and a cough.
A combination of three events causes the wheezing:
 tightening of the muscles around the bronchial tubes,
 swelling of the tissues in the bronchial tubes, and
 An increase of secretions in bronchial tubes.
Nonetheless, the basic causes of asthma are unknown, it is believed to be most frequently caused
by an allergic reaction to certain substances in individuals who have a physical predisposition to
asthma. When we see its prevalence, asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases of
children and the leading cause of school absences among all the chronic diseases.
Approximately, 6 percent of all children believed to have asthma.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) - It is a herpes virus infecting one percent of new born each year. If a
fetus contracts this virus, the infection may lead to brain damage, blindness and hearing loss.
CMV can be transmitted through bodily fluids. A vaccine is not yet available. It appears that
pregnant women who work in child care settings may have an increased risk of infection.
Prevention strategies include:
 Washing hands frequently
 Disposing of papers properly
 Keeping toys and play areas clean

5.3. Identification and assessment of learners with physical and health

related problems
This section gives emphasis to identification and assessment procedures and techniques to be
employed by teachers and other relevant professionals in the education of children with
physical/motor and health related problems.

The primary system affected and the factors that give rise to the condition could be ways of
classifying children with physical disabilities and health impairments. These children, in
general, show one or more of the following signs or characteristics: limited vitality or energy,
many school absences, the need for physical accommodation to participate in school activities,
poor motor coordination, frequent falls and speech difficulty to understand, etc. In a broad
sense, all physical disabilities and health impairments may fall into three main categories or four:

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(1) Impairment of health and disease, (2) neurological impairments, and (3) musculoskeletal
problems, (4) accident based impairments.
Many children with physical impairment are excluded from school. Most schools remain
physically inaccessible for children who depend on wheelchair, calipers and crutches for
mobility. Children who experience difficulties with verbal or written communication due to their
physical impairment are also often excluded from schooling, or marginalized in school. It is
therefore essential that we start making schools more accessible for children with motor/
physical impairment. According to numerous international conventions and agreements, all
children have the right to access quality education in an inclusive (or integrated) setting in their
home communities.

Education of children with motor/physical problem in inclusive classroom

Teachers should spend much time with a child during the working hours and should provide
important information to the child's' physician on the characteristics of a child's seizure disorder.
They can help the child and the child's physician by monitoring the effects and dosage of seizure
medication. Teachers should also be prepared to respond effectively to a child's seizure and to
show other students and school personnel's how to help a child experiencing a seizure.
The use of appropriate teaching and testing techniques really matters for children with physical
disabilities and health impairments. For children who cannot write as fast and efficiently as
others, the teacher must anticipate accommodations. Example: The child may need extra time for
completing written assignments. The teacher may encourage classmates to take notes for
students who cannot write and she or he may arrange other facilities or adjustments.
Students with uncontrollable jerky movements and other conditions may face difficulties in
paper and pencil tests. Thus, sometimes a teacher may use oral tests in order to obtain accurate
reading of the student's skill level.
Teachers of paralyzed children with spinal cord defects need special training. For example,
some children with severe cerebral palsy may need the teacher to physically move them from
place to place or position them. The physical therapist can instruct the teacher on the safest and
most appropriate manner to transfer a particular child.
Teachers of students with physical disabilities and health impairments must be prepared to work
cooperatively with the other professionals, such as speech language pathologists, physical

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therapists, counselors, and physicians participating in the child's education. They must also be
able to adapt the child's schedule, since a child who needs to work with other professionals may
have additional absence from school.

Education of children with health related problems in the inclusive schooling

Under this subsection, you are going to deal with the education opportunities of children with
variety of health related problems in the regular classroom settings. All other situations related to
impairments and individual preferences get attention as well.
Each child with physical disability or health impairment has individualized needs. Teachers can
help students with physical disabilities and health impairment by adapting the learning
environment to their needs. They also have a responsibility to such exceptional children to
create a supportive atmosphere, one that foster the child's acceptance, by providing classmates
with information about the student’s condition.
Thus, so as to help students with physical disabilities and health impairments, teachers need to
learn many important things:
 How to assist a child with health care needs;
 How to deal with frequent absences;
 How to assist a child who is having a seizure;
 How to make scheduling accommodations;
 How to address special issues relating to paralysis;
 How to adapt the class activities;
 How to adapt teaching techniques;
 How to promote social integration.
Some of the above critical topics are discussed below briefly.
Absences - children with physical disabilities and health impairments may often be absence from
school because they need medical care or because they are too weak to come to school on certain
days. For example, asthma is one of the major causes of school absences. To help these children
keep up with their classmates, schools should devise different techniques, such as providing
home teachers, making videotapes of special classroom activities, and allowing classmates to
take turns a citing as peer tutors after school. In doing these, it is possible not only to help the

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Childs with his/her academic progress but also maintain a social connection to the teacher and
the other students so that the child feels more comfortable about returning to the classroom later.
Treatment of the asthma can at least be done from two parties:
The student himself/herself and the teacher. The student may require special precautions
concerning the air in the classroom (frequent vacuuming, air filtration, and daily wiping of
surfaces) and restrictions on playing outdoors during bad weather, playing with classroom pets,
eating certain foods, and handing certain teaching materials. Teachers also must know what to
do for the child during an asthma attack. Consultation with the student, the family, and the
physician is necessary to monitor medications, to administer breathing treatment and to plan
procedures for assisting the child during an attack.

5.4. Assessment and elimination of social and environmental barriers

in the inclusive schooling to facilitate learning
Under this section, teacher candidates get concept of environmental barriers that hinder
education of children with physical and health related impairments and the likelihoods of
elimination of such challenges in the regular classroom settings.
Socio-Emotional Adjustment: Children with physical disabilities and health impairments
sometimes feel powerless, for reasons we can easily understood. Withdrawal and aggression
could also be part of the atmosphere. For these and other socio-emotional adjustment problems,
these children need support and help in order to accept and adjust to their handicapping
conditions. It is evidenced in many lines of researches that people are more likely to accept their
physical disabilities when the environment is supportive, when they achieve some sense of
control over the handicapping conditions, and when they begin to demonstrate new competence.

Teacher can enhance the socio-emotional adjustment of children with physical disabilities and
health impairments in the following ways:
 Increasing the understanding of the handicapping conditions- In cooperation with the
child's parents, the teachers should help the child and other students understand relevant
aspects of the condition- its cause, treatments, prognosis and educational implications.
Teachers should help students understand that a physical disability is merely an
individual difference, not something to fear or ridicule or cause shame. They must be
advised to respect the way they feel about handicapping conditions without condoning

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 maladaptive behaviors such as teasing and name- calling. School children have also be
informed that incidents (e.g. epilepsy) can occur at school.
 Emphasizing the quality of life. Teachers can help students adjust to physical
handicaps by helping them to see their disabilities as just one aspect of their lives.
Although children with physical disabilities must be allowed to talk about their
limitations, they should also be encouraged to inventory their abilities, including the
ability to help others.
 Increasing Positive aspects of control. Although children with physical disabilities
cannot control their physical handicaps, they can control many other aspects their lives.
So, these children should be helped in controlling some antisocial behaviors such as
temper tantrums, frustrations, etc.

5.5. Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) and curriculum

modification to accommodate learning preference of children with
physical and health related problems

The unit focuses on the usefulness of curriculum modification and preparation of IEP to assist
education of children with physical and health related problems in the inclusive settings.
Additionally, the concept of making inclusive classrooms appropriate to accommodate all
learners gets attention.

The use of appropriate teaching and testing techniques really matters for children with
physical/motor and health related impairments. For children who cannot write as fast and
efficiently as others, the teacher must anticipate accommodations. Students with uncontrollable
jerky movements and other conditions may face difficulties in paper and pencil tests. Thus,
sometimes a teacher may use oral tests in order to obtain accurate reading of the student's skill
level.
Teachers can help students with physical/motor and health related impairments by adapting the
learning environment to their needs. They also have a responsibility to any exceptional child to
create a supportive atmosphere, one that fosters the child's acceptance, by providing classmates
with information about the students' condition. Thus, if there are children with physical/motor
and health related impairments in your classroom, take the following tips for good:
 Be alert to signs of fatigue in the child.

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  Find teaching materials that can be adapted to the physical needs of the student.
 Make sure that all areas of the room and school are accessible.
 Make sure that materials, leisure activities are within the reach of the students.
 Include activities each day that the student can accomplish from a wheelchair.
 Arrange post emergency instructions and telephone numbers.
Classrooms and school facilities (libraries, toilets, sport grounds and play areas) should be made
physically accessible for all children. Children who use wheelchairs, calipers or crutches for
mobility, may find it difficult moving around within a traditional classroom blocked by rows of
chairs and desks. It is therefore important that we “set up” the classroom in such a way that all
the children can move about freely. Children must not just have physical access to their own
desk, but also to other parts of the classroom for group activities or just to fetch something from
a shelf or cupboard, or to paste a drawing on the wall. Children who get easily tired, and need
much rest, may find it difficult to come to school on time or to stay in school the whole day. We
should therefore repeat important information once or twice to make sure that all the children
have heard it at least once. This will also benefit children with ADHD and children who may
have had difficulties understanding the information the first time around.

Children with physical impairments may sometimes wish/need to use their own furniture, such as
ergonomic chairs and sloped writing tables. This should be accommodated without being
obtrusive for the other children. Specially-designed furniture should, if possible, be made
available for those who need chairs and tables that differ from standard classroom furniture. This
does not have to be expensive. Chairs can be designed based on local models. Some children
would be more comfortable standing rather than sitting down – especially children with back
injuries. This should be accommodated in the classroom.

Settings that stage for inclusive schools

o Teachers -- teachers' attitudes toward students are a major force in determining the
nature of the interaction between teacher and students, and in turn, affect students'
achievement. Teachers' attitudes also influence the attitudes of students without
disabilities toward students with disabilities. Thus, teacher’s attitudes should be the first
area dealt with as preparations are made to place students with disabilities in regular

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 classrooms. In service should include: (a) getting to know individuals with disabilities;
(b) obtaining knowledge about specific disabilities and learning capabilities; (c)
identifying the roles of professional team members and planning for the use of available
resources; and, (d) adapting materials and instructional methodologies to the needs of
students with disabilities.
o Special support personnel -- Special support personnel and regular teachers of students
with disabilities need to be brought together to study and practice teamwork and the skills
of collaboration systematically.
o Students without disabilities -- Research indicates that attitudes toward students with
disabilities, at both the elementary and secondary school levels, are conflicting. However,
the bulk of evidence indicates that students without disabilities tend to reject students
with disabilities. This may be due to historical practices of segregation, fear of the
unknown and negative attitudes and behaviors displayed by school personnel toward
students with disabilities. The importance of good role models with positive attitudes
cannot be overstated.
o Planned interactive activities involving students with disabilities and their peers without
disabilities are widely recognized as important factors in successful social integration
within the mainstream environment. Preparation of students without disabilities includes
increasing their knowledge and information about disabilities such as: 1. understanding
the nature of the disabilities; 2. instructional units on disabilities; 3. simulation activities;
and, 4. structured interaction strategies.
o Students with disabilities -- Teachers can prepare students with disabilities for the
transition from the special to the regular classroom by identifying the new situations or
environments; listing the activities that will be required in the new environment;
specifying the skills needed to function properly; and, identifying skills already mastered.

5.6. Assessment and education of children with multiple disabilities,

culturally diverse and children at risk in the inclusive classrooms

This section deals with the underlying concepts of cultural diversity, at risk children and the
socially and environmentally deprived children. Since the main intent of this unit focuses on
education of these children, it see details of factors that facilitate for cultural, social and

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environmental deprivations and at risk with the intervention techniques to be employed by
relevant bodies like teachers, family and the community

The Culturally diverse groups and at risk children

Increasingly, school enrollments are made up large numbers of students from different ethnic and
culturally rich backgrounds (language, customs, beliefs, race, ethnicity, geographic location,
income status, gender, and other culture-specific characteristics). Often culturally diverse
students' have special needs that can be met with some modifications in regular education
programs.

Issues for the culturally diverse children include:

a) Achievement of culturally diverse students typically lags behind that of White, mainstream
students;

b) Culturally and linguistically diverse students continue to be both underrepresented and over-
represented in special education;

c) Culturally and linguistically diverse students are dropping out of school at a much higher rate
than White students. Cultural pluralism means all members of society at large mutually respect
cultural differences and that these differences are fostered, encouraged, and celebrated.

The term ‘multiple-impairment’ does not merely refer to ‘any Combination’ of two or more
impairments. It can be determined as a combination of physical, sensory and/or cognitive
impairments that lead to severe interaction, communication and learning difficulties. Deaf-
blindness is also considered to be multiple impairment. Deaf-blindness, as one best example of
multiple impairments, which is also known as dual sensory impairment, is more than just a
combination of visual and hearing impairments. Deaf-blind people may not be totally deaf and
totally blind. Many deaf-blind people have some remaining hearing and vision, while others have
nearly complete loss of both senses. The following are helpful in assisting children with
multiple-impairments.

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 o The first step would be to find out how much residual hearing and/or vision the child has,
if any. If the child has residual vision and/or hearing, we need to try to make use of it to
create communication and encourage learning, development and participation. We should
attempt to invite and develop communication by offering our hands under the child’s
hands, instead of just shaping her/his hands into formal signs. Signs may not yet have any
meaning for her/him.

o Consider the appropriateness of formal tests. For example, a test that evaluates
vocabulary would not be relevant to a child who is just learning how to sign or gesture
simple events. According to the National Consortium on Deaf-Blindness, "Assessment of
children who are deaf-blind must go far beyond the use of assessment instruments.
Standardized tests may be necessary to qualify a child for services but are inappropriate
as tools to guide educational planning.
o Observe the child in their everyday life. Watch their interaction with objects and people,
and use a functionality scale to evaluate their abilities.
o Evaluate the effects of environmental factors, such as being in a strange environment,
being with or without family, physical space and communication methods.
o Meet with guardians and teachers to assess the child's behavior. Question whether certain
behaviors could be triggered by an activity or feeling that the child is struggling with.
Often, adequate support is key to stopping this behavior.
o Consider holding more than one assessment, so you can get a feel for the child's usual
behavior and ability.

Children at risk: Parents, policymakers, business leaders, and the general public increasingly
recognize the importance of the first few years in the life of a child for promoting healthy
physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development. Yet many children face deficiencies in
the years leading up to school entry in terms of emotional support, intellectual stimulation, or
access to resources- due to low income or other factors- that can impede their ability to develop
to their fullest potential.

According to the finding of Labor and Population (2005), a substantial percentage of children are
disadvantaged in terms of resources available for healthy physical and mental development. One-

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fifth of children under age 6 live in poverty, and nearly half of all children face one or more risk
factors associated with gaps in school readiness. These disadvantages translate into shortfalls in
academic achievement, pro-social behavior, educational attainment, and, eventually, greater rates
of unemployment and criminality.

Although most children experience a supportive home and neighborhood environment with
access to sufficient financial and nonfinancial resources to support healthy development, many
other children do not. A few indicators illustrate some of the resource disparities in early
childhood (Elias, 2009):

 Poverty has been shown to be particularly detrimental in early childhood in terms

of children’s subsequent educational and other life course outcomes.
 Research has demonstrated that neighborhoods of concentrated poverty (typically
defined as those with a poverty rate exceeding 20 percent) provide more limited
opportunities for young children in terms of social interaction, positive role
models, and other resources, such as quality child care, health facilities, parks,
and playgrounds, that are important for healthy child development.
 Healthy child development is supported by regular access to health care, such as
well-child visits. These visits can provide opportunities for health care providers
to conduct developmental screenings and to encourage parental behaviors that
promote strong social, emotional, cognitive, and physical child development.
 Early home literacy-building activities that are associated with better school
performance in kindergarten and beyond include reading to a child regularly (3 or
more times a week); teaching children letters, words, and numbers; and telling
stories or teaching songs and music.
Many children from disadvantaged backgrounds fail to meet grade-level expectations on core
subjects. For example, national educational assessments at grades 8 and 12 show that about 50
percent of children from at-risk backgrounds (e.g., low parental education or low family income)
score below the “basic” level of reading and math achievement, indicating that they have less
than partial mastery of the knowledge and skills “fundamental for proficient work” at that grade
level. Other manifestations of problems in school achievement for disadvantaged children

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include higher rates of special education placement, grade repetition, and dropping out of school
(Stanley and Greenspan, 2012).

These adverse outcomes during childhood and adulthood have consequences that extend beyond
the lost potential (near- and long-term) for the affected children. These peoples participation is
poor in social welfare programs, and higher rates of crime and delinquency observed.
The four keys to helping at-risk children
A. Caring, Sustained Relationships - One of the shortcomings of our educational
structure is that relationships with teachers, especially in secondary school, may be
caring, but they are not easy to sustain. Yet at-risk youth need relationships that are both
caring and stable. They need to build a sense of trust and have the time to communicate
the complexity, frustrations, and positive aspects of their lives in and out of school. Only
after creating a strong relational base will an adult have the platform to be a source of
enduring and cherished advice to a student. Students won't confer trust to an adult based
on his or her role as a counselor, psychologist, or social worker. We have to earn it by
building a relationship.

B. Reachable Goals - Students often have unrealistic career and personal goals based on
what they learn from the mass culture. Kids see sensationalistic media portrayals of
exceptionality as normative and, often, desirable and attainable. From the base of a
caring relationship, we can help students form realistic and reachable career, personal,
and educational goals. This does not imply that the goals are not challenging. The most
motivating goals are those that are within our reach if we exercise some effort. Only
someone who knows a student well and cares deeply about his or her well-being will be
able to help that student form reachable goals.
C. Realistic, Hopeful Pathways - Students do not attain reachable goals on their own. Like
any of us, students are more likely to move ahead when they know that there is a path to
get there. Imagine how useless MapQuest or similar services would be if they allowed
you to enter the starting point and the destination but did not give you a road map to
travel from one to the other.

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So it is with students. They need adult help to create realistic pathways, ideally with
guardrails. They also need someone to reassure them that they have what the Character
Education Partnership. We must recognize the difficulty of trying a new path and both
prepare students for obstacles and support them when they run into problems. This can be
highly challenging, as some of the students' erroneous actions will violate school rules or
perhaps even legal boundaries. We must handle such cases individually and with
discerning judgment rather than with the kind of prescribed justice that lead to have the
largest school dropout rates and, proportionately, the greatest prison population.

D. Engaging School and Community Settings - With all the talk about the importance of
engagement, it's possible to lose sight of exactly what leads students to have a feeling of
being engaged. The feeling of being engaged in a setting or group happens when
students have opportunities to receive positive recognition and to make positive
contributions, can spend time in environments in which teamwork is encouraged, and
get help learning new skills that they find valuable and helpful in their lives. Engaging
settings in the school and the community have logos, mottos, missions, and other
tangible things that allow students to experience a sense of belonging and pride.

Particularly for students who are in disadvantaged circumstances, spending time in engaging
settings both in school and after school is important. After-school settings linked to the
school as well as community programs -- such as Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts and
Girl Scouts, Big Brothers Big Sisters, and faith-based youth groups -- provide more
chances for students to build positive relationships with caring adults and, potentially,
supportive peers.

One unique feature of mentors in nonschool settings is that they can often help students learn
the rules of the game for success in school. Mentors in after-school and community
settings are often better positioned to communicate clearly to students about the potential
consequences of their actions and the behaviors that they need to change, and how to
change them. Also, they can give feedback about how students are progressing so they
can operate in a spirit of improvement. Caring adults outside the formal school system

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often have a better understanding of students' lives outside of school and can help them
find safe havens within the school day.

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